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GENERAL  HISTORY 


OF 


MODERN    EUROPE 


A  GENERAL  IIISTOM 


OP 


MODERN  EUROPE, 


FEOM   THE 


BEGINNING  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  TO 
THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  VATICAN. 


THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  CORRECTED, 

By  JOHN  G.  SHEA. 


P.  J.  KENEDY,   rUBLISnER, 
5  Barclay  Steeet, 


5^ 


■otervd  accordlnft  to  Act  nf  Confrreiw  to  the  year  IVM^ 

Br  T.  W.  BTKONG, 

I  Um  Clerk's  Offlco  of  ttao  District  G>art  of  tlio  United  States  for  the  Sonthara 
DlBtrlctorNewYwk. 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  SECOND  AMERICAN  EDITIOX. 


In  preparing  a  new  edition  of  this  history  and  con- 
tinuing it  to  the  present  time,  the  editor  has  sought  to 
conform  as  far  as  possible  to  the  plan  and  spirit  of  the 
original  work.  The  alterations  which  he  has  permitted 
himself  to  make,  are  chiefly  to  remove  what  seemed  to 
partake  of  national  bias.  The  work  itself  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  approval  here.  The  first  edition  in 
this  country  was  published  at  the  express  request  of 
one,  who  stands  at  the  height  of  his  profession,  then  and 
now  deeply  interested  in  the  education  of  youth.  The 
author  wrote  from  necessity.  Employed  in  teaching, 
it  was  soon  evident  that  no  safe  work  on  the  period 
could  be  procured.  Histories,  indeed,  are  to  be  met 
with  of  every  size  and  form:  but  prejudice,  passion, 
prevention,  and  party  spirit,  have  given  birth  to  so 
many  of  them,  that  when  we  reflect,  we  must  admit 
the  charge  once  boldly  made  by  an  eminent  modern 
writer:  "History  during  the  last  three  centuries  has 
been  one  vast  conspiracy  against  truth." 


IV  PREFACE   TO    THE    SECOND    AMERICAN    EDITION. 

The  author  has  happily  succeeded  in  supplying  the 
want.  For  advanced  classes  in  schools,  no  better  work 
can  be  adopted :  as  a  book  for  the  library  and  the  gen- 
eral reader,  it  is  perhaps  still  more  valuable.  It  is  not  a 
mere  barren  compendium ;  it  furnishes,  what  many  will 
deem  in  sufficient  detail,  a  clear,  bold  account  of  tho 
period  in  which  all  the  great  questions  of  modern  times 
have  arisen,  affecting  the  governments,  society,  and  lit- 
erature of  the  age  in  which  we  live. 

Hew  Yobk,  Januarj'i  1870. 


HISTOET  OF  MODERN  EUROPE. 


PRELIMINARY  CHAPTER. 

RETROSPECT  OF  THE  STATE  OF  EUROPE. — ITS  STATE  FROM  THE 
BEGINNING  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  TREATY  OP 
BLOIs. 

The  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  forms  the  cora- 
inencement  of  a  new  and  eventful  era  in  the  annals  of  man- 
kind, which  may  properly  be  termed  the  modern  period. 

From  the  time  of  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  the 
«emi-barbarous  nations  which  were  spread  over  the  north  and 
middle  of  Europe  had  been  making  slow  but  steady  progress 
m  civilization  and  the  refinements  of  social  life,  chiefly,  if 
not  altogether,  under  the  influence  of  the  church.  Learning, 
arts  and  sciences  had  been  introduced  by  her  ministers  :  their 
buildings  were  the  first  specimens  of  architecture ;  they  were 
the  literati,  the  repositories  of  all  archives,  and  as  such  often 
made  umpires  and  arbiters  by  the  rude  warriors,  who,  when 
not  called  to  the  field  by  their  liege  lord,  were  almost  con- 
stantly at  variance  with  some  neighbouring  baron.  Among 
them  the  church  soon  assumed  a  feudal  form,  and  the  Pope, 
as  paramount  head  of  the  church,  was  appealed  to  as  the  liege 
lord  of  Christendom,  by  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  feudal  idea.  This  power  was  used  on  the 
whole  for  the  general  good,  and  many  a  war  was  stopped  by 
a  decision  of  the  Holy  See,  which  now  may  excite  surprise. 
But  it  was  not  only  between  prince  and  prince,  or  baron  and 
baron,  that  the  church  exercised  this  authority.  The  cry  of 
the  oppressed  or  of  the  serf  procured  her  interference,  and  it 
was  seldom  ineffectual.  In  her  bosom  rank  was  forgotten :  the 
peasant  might  become  primate  or  even  pope,  and  as  many 
did,  their  natural  efforts  were  to  elevate  the  lower  classes. 


li  HISTORY    OF    MODERN    EUROPE. 

A  great  impulse  to  gradual  advancement  was  given  b^'  the 
Crusades,  themselves  a  proof  of"  the  great  and  general  power 
of  the  church.  Calling  together  large  ho'lies  of  men  of  dif- 
ferent nations,  they  dillused  among  all,  the  aeiiiiironieiits 
separately  made  by  each,  and  above  all,  by  centralizing 
power,  they  put  a  stop  to  those  interminable  wars,  which 
were  constantly  arming  petty  states  against  each  other,  and 
the  vassal  against  his  lord.  Although  they  failed  in  their 
great  object,  the  Crusades  opened  to  the  West  the  science,  re- 
finement  and  arts  of  the  East.  The  energies  they  had  awak- 
ened soon  found  employment  in  other  channels.  A  spirit  of 
commercial  activity  arose,  and  commercial  undertakings  were 
planned  on  a  scale  hitherto  unknown,  yet  constantly  extend- 
ing. In  opposition  to  this  moneyed  spirit,  rose  a  reaction  in 
the  church  in  favor  of  poverty :  every  idea  was  now  in  ac- 
tivity :  palaces,  hospitals,  vast  commercial  houses,  monaste- 
ries, schools,  universities,  and  ever-increasing  fleets  of  well- 
built  ships  showed  the  state  of  general  prosperity,  while 
the  numerous  guilds  and  associations  of  mechanics  proved 
that  they  were  also  rising  in  social  importance  and 
power. 

Amid  this  progress  the  Popes  were  not  idle :  to  the  en- 
couragement which  they  held  out  to  talent  in  all  its  branches, 
may  be  traced  the  rapid  progress  made  in  learning  and  tho 
fine  arts  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  ; 
during  the  first  fifty  years  of  which,  universities  had  been 
founded  in  five  of  the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  then  the  centre 
of  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  to  them  students  re- 
sorted from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Hospitals  and  other  chari- 
table foundations  had  Ixjcn  erected  and  endowed,  and  those 
magnificent  churches,  the  architectural  Ijcauty  of  which  has 
been  an  object  of  admiration  to  succeeding  ages,  raised  their 
pointed  spires  to  heaven. 

Later  still,  the  invention  of  paper,  and  then  of  printing  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  gave  ardent  minds  a  means  of  extend- 
ing the  spirit  of  progress,  speculation,  and  insubonlinalion, 
and  flung  to  the  people  at  large  what  had  }>cen  immured  in 
universities  and  convents.  The  invention  of  the  compiiss 
threw  open  to  Portugal  an  easy  passage  to  the  rich  realms  of 
the  East,  and  disclosed  to  reluctant  S[iain  a  new  world  be- 
yond  the  western  ocean.*       The  voyjiges  t<>  India  and  Anus. 

•  While  tho   Portiif^o8e.  under   tho   nonccfiil   nile   of  iCrniiniifl,  wore 
employed  iu  tnakiDg  aajuiDltiotu  \u  tbv  Euut,  uiid  ii]>|)ru|>rialiiii^  to  Ihuiii- 


HISTORY    OF    MODERN    EUROPE.  iti 

rica  awakened  a  spirit  of  adventure,  and  a  desire  for  novelty, 
which,  with  the  general  laxity  of  manners  and  a  constantly  in- 
creasing spirit  of  uneasiness  of  control,  argued  great  changea 
in  the  state  of  Europe. 

About  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  this  progressive 
movement  produced  its  result.  Europe  had  been,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  kind  of  commonwealth,  of  which,  for  certain  purposes 
the  Pope  was  a  kind  of  president.  His  political  power  hac 
now  ceased  :  the  various  European  states  had  acquired  firm 
ness  and  solidity :  their  governments  were  completely  organ 
ized  and  generally  despotic :'  their  intercourse  with  each  othei 
more  frequent  and  diplomatic  :  their  thrones  were  held,  not 
by  gallant  knights,  but  by  cautious  statesmen.  Their 
interests,  till  then,  individual  and  distinct,  now  became  so 
completely  interwoven,  as  to  render  the  history  of  each,  to 
some  extent  the  history  of  all,  as  no  war  of  importance 
could  take  place  between  two  states  without  the  intervention 
of  others.  No  general  umpire  was  now  acknowledged,  but 
a  system  of  policy  grew  up,  the  fundamental  doctrine  of 
which  is  a  balance  of  power  among  the  leading  states  of 
Europe. 

selves  the  most  lucrative  commerce  of  the  then  known  world,  the  Span- 
iards discovered  a  new  continent  towards  the  West,  of  which  Columbus, 
a  Genoese  navigator,  who  resided  in  Lisbon,  conceived  the  first  idea.  Ilia 
countrymen,  whom  he  proposed  to  put  into  possession  of  another  hemi- 
sphere, treated  him  as  a  visionaiy :  he  unfolded  his  project,  in  1484,  to 
the  King  of  Portugal  without  success :  he  next  applied  to  the  court  of 
Spain,  but  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  then  engaged  in  the  conquest  of 
Granada,  and  the  Spanish  treasury  was  exliausted.  Some  authors  relate 
that  Columbus,  who  united  the  stout  heart  of  a  hero  with  the  enlightened 
mind  and  persevering  spirit  of  a  philosopher,  even  made  offers  to  Henry 
VII.  of  England ;  but  that  prince  was  unwilling,  by  embarking  in  an 
adventurous  enterprise,  to  draw  money  out  of  his  exchequer,  which  it 
was  the  chief  business  of  his  i-eign  to  enrich.  At  length,  Ferdinand 
liaving  completely  subjugated  the  Moorish  Empire  in  Spain,  by  the  con- 

?uest  of  Granada,  its  stately  capital,  the  enterprising  spirit  of  Isabella 
egan  to  sympaihise  with  the  genius  of  Columbus.  By  her  assistance 
he  Was  furnished  with  a  fleet,  and  set  sail  from  the  port  of  Palos,  in 
Andalusia,  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  in  quest  of  a  western  continent, 
with  the  title  of  Admiral  and  Viceroy  of  the  isles  and  lands  which  he 
should  discover.  He  prosecuted  his  hazardous  enterprise  in  four  differ- 
ent voyages,  but  did  not  meet  with  the  grateful  return  justly  due  to  the 
perils  and  difficulties  he  had  happily  surmounted  in  the  ai'duous  under- 
taking. In  1499,  Americus  Vespucius,  a  Florentine,  following  the  track 
of  the  Genoese,  sailed  to  the  West.  He  raised  his  fame  on  the  superior 
merit  of  Columbus,  and  having  powerful  friends,  had  the  address,  or  the 
pride,  to  impose  his  name  on  the  fourth  pait  of  the  terraqueous  globe, 
ts  if  be  had  been  the  first  who  descried  it 


IV  msTORy  OF  modern  europk. 

This  wc  shall  now  see  developing  amid  the  chaos  of  reli- 
gious fouds. 

1500. — At  this  date,  Spain  was  governed  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabellii ;  Portugal  by  Emanuel;  Afaxiinilian  I.  was  Enipi-rur 
of  Germany  ;  Alexander  VI.  sat  in  the  chair  of  St.  Peter ; 
Bajazet  11.  ruled  at  Constantinople,  which  Mahomet  II.,  a 
descendant  of  Othman,  had  taken  with  his  Turks  in  1453.  In 
France,  the  sceptre  was  held  by  Louis  XII.,  and  the  crown 
of  England  was  worn  by  Henry  VII.  By  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  this  monarch  united  the 
conflicting  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  and 
put  an  end  to  those  destructive  wars  of  the  rival  roses,  which 
for  so  long  a  period  had  laid  England  desolate,  and  sent  the 
flower  of  her  nobility  to  perish  in  the  field  or  on  the  .scaffold. 
To  prevent  the  recurrence  of  simihir  scenes  of  bloodshed,  he 
used  every  endeavour  to  establish  the  validity  of  his  claim,  in 
virtue  of  his  descent  from  the  ancient  British  princes  of  the 
island,  and  applied  soon  after  his  accession  to  Pope  Innocent 
Vlll.  to  confirm  his  title.  If  this  monarch's  prudence  degene- 
rated into  avarice,  and  led  him  to  the  commission  of  many 
acts  of  injustice  and  extortion,  it  must  ha  allowed  that  he 
possessed  some  estimaljle  qualities,  and  that  his  wise  policy 
laid  the  foundation  of  England's  future  greatness.  Of  his 
two  daughters,  the  elder,  Margaret,  was  married  to  the  King 
of  Scots  ;  Mary,  the  younger,  to  Louis  XII.,  who  then  occu- 
pied the  throne  of  France.  Desirous  also  to  cement  a  closer 
friendship  with  Ferdinand,  King  of  Arragon  and  Ca.stile,  ho 
afilanced  his  eldest  son,  Arthur,  to  Catherine,  the  fmrth 
daughter  of  that  monarch;  and  the  young  prince,  on  attaining 
the  age  of  twelve  years,  was  married  to  her  in  St.  PauT.s 
church  with  great  .solemnity.  Being  a  sickly  youth,  he  dic<l 
a  few  months  after,  and  Henry,  unwilling  to  forfeit  the  un[>aid 
moiety  of  her  large  dowry,  proposed  to  unite  her  to  his  second 
son:  the  affair,  however,  was  not  brought  to  a  conclusion 
during  his  lifetime.  Henry  VIII.,  at  the  period  of  his  father's 
death,  ni  1501),  was  eighteen  years  of  age,  handsome  in  per- 
son, accomplished,  and  exceedingly  popular.  His  accession 
to  the  throne  was  hailed  by  the  nation  as  the  commencement 
of  a  new  era,  during  which,  it  was  hoped,  this  ollspring  of 
the  blended  roses  would  reign  in  peace  over  a  united  and 
happy  people. 

The  attention  of  Europe,  at  the  early  jiart  of  the  century, 
was  chiefly  engrossed  by  the  affairs  of  Italy.  Louis  XII., 
pursuing  the  ambitious  projects  of  his  predeces.sor,  crrisned 


HISTORlr    OF    MODERN    EUROPE.  ,y 

the  Alps  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  20,000  men,  to  assert 
his  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Milan,  in  right  of  his  grandmother, 
Valentina,  heiress  of  the  house  of  Visconti.  The  reigning  duke 
at  this  period  was  Ludovico  Sfoiza ;  though  the  descendant 
of  a  usurper,  he  had  been  confirmed  in  that  dignity  by  the 
emperor,  who  had  married  his  daughter  Blanche,  and  from 
whom  he  might  naturally  have  expected  protection.  But 
Maximilian  being  then  engaged  in  opposing  the  Swiss,  who  had 
recently  revolted  from  Austria,  was  in  no  condition  to  assist 
him,  and,  therefore,  prudently  concealed  his  real  weakness 
under  an  affected  indifference.  Within  the  space  of  twenty 
days,  the  French  king  made  himself  master  of  the  whole 
territory  of  Milan,  and  subdued  the  republic  of  Genoa ; 
while  the  Venetians,  his  allies,  occupied  Cremona.  Not  satis- 
fied with  these  important  acquisitions,  he  entered  into  a  league 
with  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  against  Frederic,  King  of  Naples, 
who,  unable  to  resist  the  united  forces  of  the  combined  sove- 
reigns, resigned  his  crown.  But  dissensions  arose  between 
the  conquerors  :  from  allies  they  became  enemies,  and  Louis 
was  eventually  constrained,  by  the  arms  of  the  celebrated 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  to  abandon  all  the  possessions  he  had 
acquired  in  the  territory  of  Naples.  Finding  himself  baffled  in 
various  attempts  to  recover  them,  and  being  extremely  desirous 
to  secure  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  he  signed,  in  1505,  a  treaty 
at  Blois,  with  the  emperor,  who,  in  consideration  of  a  large 
sum  of  money,  granted  him  the  investiture  of  that  duchy. 
Ludovico  Sforza  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  France,  where  he 
died. 

To  the  Emperor  Maximilian  the  house  of  Austria  is  prin- 
cipally indebted  for  its  subsequent  aggrandizement.  By  his 
marriage  with  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  he  acquired  for  his 
posterity  a  claim  to  that  wealthy  province  ;  while  the  union 
of  his  son  the  Archduke  Philip  with  Jane  the  daughter  and 
sole  heiress  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  secured  to  his  descend- 
ants the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Archduke  died  in  1506,  leav- 
ing his  son  Charles,  to  the  astonishment  of  all  Europe,  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  King  of  France. 

Pius  III.,  who,  in  1503,  succeeded  Alexander  VI.  in  the  see 
of  Rome,  survived  his  election  but  twenty-six  days.  He  was 
followed  by  Julius  II.,  a  Pontiff  of  warlike  and  enterprising 
character,  who  could  not  with  indifference  see  so  large  a  por- 
tion of  the  Italian  territory  fall  under  the  dominion  of  foreign 
princes.  To  drive  these  beyond  the  Alps  was  the  primary 
object  of  his  policy,  and  in  it  he  so  far  succeeded  as  to  leave 


Vl  HISIORT    OF    MODERN    Bt'ROPB. 

under  the  sway  of  his  successors  all  the  beautiful  country 
from  Piacentiii  to  Terracina.  But  fljc  encroachments  of  the 
Venetians,  who  had  unjustly  soizeil  on  thi'  northern  part  of 
the  province  of  Komagna,  demanded  his  more  iminedittt© 
attentioD. 


GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF    EUROPE,  FROM   THE   SIGNING  OF  THE  TRE  VTY 
OF    BLOIS    TO    THE    DEATH    OF    THE    EMPEROR    MAXIMILIAN,  IN 

1519. 

The  treaty  of  Blois  had  restored  peace  to  Europe,  but  the 
interval  of  tranquillity  was  of  short  duration.  The  enterpris- 
ing spirit  of  Julius  II.  led  him  to  form  the  project  of  driving 
all  foreigners  out  of  Italy,  and  he  determined  in  the  first  place 
to  oblige  the  Venetians  to  restore  the  towns  they  had  seized 
upon  at  the  demise  of  Alexander  VI. 

The  celebrated  republic  of  Venice  took  its  rise  during  the 
inroads  of  the  barbarians  in  the  fifth  century.  The  litde  is- 
lands of  the  Adriatic  gulf  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  neigh- 
bouring inhabitants,  who  originally  lived  by  fishing,  and  after- 
wards grew  rich  by  commerce.  All  the  nations  in  Europe 
depended  on  the  Venetians  not  only  for  the  precious  commo- 
dities of  the  East,  which  they  imported  by  way  of  Egypt, 
but  for  various  manufactures  fabricated  by  them  alone,  or 
finished  with  a  dexterity  unknown  in  other  countries.  At  the 
epoch  of  which  we  treat,  Venice  extended  her  dominion  from 
the  lake  of  Como  to  the  middle  of  Dalraatia,  and  her  wealth 
Was  viewed  with  envy  by  the  greatest  monarchs,  who  could 
scarcely  vie  with  her  private  citizens  in  splendour  and  ele- 
gance. 

The  refusal  of  the  Venetians  to  restore  the  places  which 
they  had  dismembered  from  the  territory  of  the  church,  gave 
occasion  to  the  League  of  Cambray,  formed  to  humble  this 
proud  republic,  in  1508,  The  emperor,  the  Kings  of  France 
and  Spain,  and  the  Pope,  were  principals  in  the  league,  which, 
questionless,  was  one  of  the  most  extensive  confederacies  that 
Europe  had  ever  beheld. 

Julius  II   employed  the  censures  of  the  church  against  the 

3 


2  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [ciIAP. 

Venetians,  wliile  the  impetuous  valour  of  tlie  French  render- 
ed inefToctual  all  thoir  precautions  for  the  safety  of  tlie  repub- 
lic ;  and  the  battle  of  Aignadel,  fought  near  the   river  Adda, 
entirely  ruined  the  army  on  which  they  relied  for  defence. 
Finding  their  affairs  desperate,  the  Venetians  concluded  an 
alliance  with  the  Holy  See  against  France,  and  were  absolved 
from  the  anathema  pronounced  against  them.     Pope  Julius 
declared  war  against  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  the  confederate  of 
Lewis,  and  solicited  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  had  late- 
ly, in  1509,  ascended  the  throne  of  England.     Julius  detached 
Ferdinand  from  the  league,  by  granting  him  tlie  full  investi- 
ture  of  the  kingdom   of  Naples,  and   in   1510   he  formed  a 
treaty  with  the  Swiss,  whom  Lewis  had  offended.     The  con- 
federacy of  Cambray  being  thus  dissolved,  the  face  of  affairs 
soon  changed  in  Italy.     The  Venetians,  recovering  from  the 
consternation  into  which  they  had  I)een  thrown,  were  aiile  to 
make  head  against  the  emperor,  and  to  regain  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory which  they  had   lost.     Lewis,  in  the  mean  time,  was 
doubtful  how  to  act,  and  Ferdinand,  taking  advantage  of  his 
irresolution,  seized  upon  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  in   1511. 
The  method  which  he  took  to  effect  this  conquest  was  singu- 
lar.      Henry    VIII.,    his    son-in-law,    naturally   sanguine    in 
temper,  was    moved  with    a   desire  of  protecting  the   Pope 
from  that  oppression  to  which  he  believed  him  exposed  from 
the  French  monarch.     Impatient  also  of  acquiring  that  dis- 
tinction in  Europe  to  which  his  power  and  opulence  entided 
him,  he  could  not  long  remain  neuter  amid  the  conflicting 
powers.     Ferdinand  saw  his  intemperate  ardour,  and  made 
him  the  instrument  of  his  own  ambition.     He  engaorod  him  not 
to  invade  France  by  the  way  of  Calais,  but  to  send  his  troops 
to  Fontarabia,  that  they  might  act  in  concert  with  his   army; 
and  Henry  found,  to  his  disappointment,  that  his  forces  re- 
turned diminished  by  want    and    sickness,  after  havinjr,  by 
their  presence  at  sea,  shielded  the  Spanish  troops  from  their 
enemies  in  the  reduction  of  Navarre. 

1512. — Though  the  war  which  England  waged  against 
France  brought  no  advantage  to  the  former  kinijdom,  it  was  of 
much  prejudice  to  the  latter;  and  by  obliging  Lewis  to  with- 
draw his  forces  from  Italy,  lost  him  that  superiority  which 
his  arms,  in  the  beginning  of  the  campaign,  had  ac(iuircd  in 
that  country.  The  Swiss,  who  had  now  rendered  themselves 
formidable  by  their  bands  of  disciplined  infantry,  invaded  the 
duchy  of  Milan  with  a  numerous  army,  and  excited  its  incon 
fitant  inhal)itants  to  a  revolt  against  the  dominion  of  Franca 


I.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  9 

Genoa  followed  the  example  of  that  duchy,  and  Lewis,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  weeks,  totally  lost  his  Italian  conquest.  The 
expulsion  of  the  French  gave  much  pleasure  to  Julius  II.,  but, 
worn  out  with  age  and  worldly  solicitude,  he  died  very  soon 
after,  on  the  20th  of  February,  1513.  Julius  was  succeeded 
m  the  pontificate  by  John  of  Medicis,  son  of  the  celebrated 
Laurence,  who  had  governed  Florence  with  so  much  reputa- 
tion, and  obtained  the  appellation  of  Father  of  the  Muses. 
John  took  the  name  of  Leo  X.  In  him  the  literati  found  a 
warm  friend  and  steady  patron,  the  arts  and  sciences  a  mu- 
nificent encourager  and  protector.  From  his  pontificate  the 
republic  of  letters  dates  a  new  era.  Humane,  generous, 
affable,  the  patron  of  every  art,  and  the  friend  of  every  virtue, 
he  had  a  soul  no  less  capable  of  forming  great  designs  than 
his  predecessor,  but  he  was  more  delicate  in  the  choice  of 
means  for  the  execution  of  them.  Yet  Leo  X.  had  the  afflic- 
tion to  witness  the  origin  of  those  heresies  which  have  detach- 
ed a  great  part  of  Europe  from  the  see  of  Rome. 

By  the  negotiations  of  this  Pope,  who  adhered  to  the  politi- 
cal system  of  Julius,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  was  gained 
over  from  the  French  interest,  and  Henry  VIII.,  notwith- 
standing his  disappointment  in  the  former  campaign,  was  still 
encouraged  to  prosecute  his  warlike  measures  against  Lewis. 

1513. — This  projected  invasion  of  France  roused  the  jealousy 
of  the  Scottish  nation.  The  ancient  league  which  subsisted 
between  France  and  Scotland,  was  esteemed  the  most  sacred 
bond  of  connection,  and  universally  believed  by  the  Scots 
essential  to  the  preservation  of  their  independence  against  a 
people  so  much  superior  in  strength  and  number  as  the  English. 
Therefore,  though  James  IV.  made  professions  of  maintain- 
ing a  neutrality,  Henry  sent  the  Earl  of  Surrey  to  put  the  bor- 
ders into  a  posture  of  defence,  while  he  invaded  France  by  the 
way  of  Calais.  But  of  all  the  allies  on  whose  assistance  he 
relied,  the  Swiss  alone  fully  performed  their  engagements. 
Maximilian,  among  others,  failed  to  perform  his,  although 
he  had  received  in  advance  a  subsidy  of  120,000  crowns. 
That  he  might  make  some  atonement,  however,  for  his  breach 
of  faith,  he  appeared  in  person  in  the  Low  Countries,  and 
joined  the  English  army,  with  a  small  body  of  German  and 
Flemish  troops.  He  even  carried  his  condescension  so  far  as 
to  enlist  himself  in  the  service  of  the  English  monarch,  and 
received  a  hundred  ducats  per  day  for  the  use  of  his  table. 
The  first  enterprise  which  the  English  undertook,  was  the 
siege  of  Terouane  on  the  borders  of  Picardy.     During  the 


4  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  ([cHAP. 

attack  of  this  place,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Guine- 
gate,  when  the  cavalry  of  France  fled  at  the  first  onset.  This 
action,  or  rather  rout,  is  called  the  lialtlr  of  Spurs,  l)rrnuse 
in  it  llic  French  made  more  use  of  tiiem  than  of  their  military 
weapons.  The  Swiss,  at  the  same  time,  had  entered  Burgun- 
dy with  a  formidable  army,  and  the  Catholic  king,  though  he 
had  made  a  truce  with  Lewis,  seemed  disposed  to  seize  every 
advantage  which  fortune  should  present  to  him.  Lewis, 
though  fruitful  in  expedients,  was  now  at  a  loss  what  course 
to  follow  ;  his  troops  were  dismayed,  his  people  intimidated, 
and  he  had  no  ally  to  assist  him.  But  France  was  saved  by 
the  blunders  of  her  enemies.  The  Swiss  allowed  themselves 
to  be  wheedled  into  a  negotiation  by  Tremouille,  (Tovernor  of 
Burgundy,  without  inquiring  whether  he  had  any  powc^rs  to 
treat.  Henry  discovered  no  less  ignorance  in  tHe  conduct  of 
war  than  the  Swiss  in  negotiation.  By  the  interested  counsel 
of  Maximilian  he  laid  siege  to  Tournay.  Soon  after  the  reduc- 
tion of  this  place,  he  was  informed  of  the  retreat  of  the  Swiss, 
and  as  the  season  was  now  far  advanced,  he  thought  proper  to 
return  to  England,  and  to  carry  with  him  tlie  greatest  part  of 
his  army.  Such  was  the  issue  of  a  campaign,  much  boasted 
of  by  the  English  monarch,  but  which,  all  circumstances  con- 
sidered, was  unprofitable,  if  not  inglorious. 

The  success  which  during  tiiis  season  attended  the  English 
arms  in  North  Britain,  was  more  decisive.  James  IV.  of 
Scotland  had  assembled  the  whole  force  of  his  tlominions  and 
crossed  the  Tweed,  at  the  head  of  a  brave  though  tumultuous 
army  of  50,000  men.  But  his  troops  became  dissatisfied  ; 
and  the  Earl  of  Surrey  having  collected  an  army  of  26,000 
men,  drew  the  Scots  from  their  station  near  the  Cheviot  Hills, 
and  an  obstinate  battle  was  fought  in  the  field  of  Flodden, 
September  9th,  1.513,  in  which  the  King  of  Scotland  and  the 
flower  of  his  nobility  were  slain.  Though  an  invitintf  oppor- 
tunity was  now  ofl'ered  to  Henry  of  extending  his  dominion 
over  the  whole  island,  compassion  for  the  helpless  condition 
of  his  sister  Margaret  and  her  infant  son  prevailed  with  him 
to  grant  peace  to  Scotland  as  soon  as  it  was  applied  for. 

1.51 1. — A  general  pacification  took  place  shf)rdy  after  be- 
tween the  contending  powers;  and  Lewis  XH.,  rescued  from 
his  numerous  difficulties,  had  the  happiness  of  beholding  once 
more  his  affairs  in  good  order,  and  all  Furo|)e  in  tranquillity. 
But  he  enjoyed  his  happiness  only  a  short  while  ;  dying  about 
three  motilhs  after  his  rnarrinire  with  the  Princess  Mary  of 
England,  sister  of  Henry  VHL    This  event  happened  in  1515 


iS]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    PUROPH  6 

Mfhen  he  was  meditating  anew  the  conquest  of  Milati,  <vhich 
was  left  to  immortalize  the  name  and  swell  the  misfortunes  of 
his  successor.  Few  princes  seem  to  have  been  more  beloved 
by  their  subjects  than  Lewis :  he  obtained  the  surname  of 
Father  of  his  People,  a  title  with  wliich  he  was  particularly 
delighted,  and  which  he  always  studied  to  deserve.  His  very 
misfortunes  endeared  him  to  his  subjects,  because  it  was  well 
known  that  he  might  have  maintained  his  conquests  in  Italy, 
if  he  would  have  levied  more  taxes  on  his  people,  whose  bur- 
dens he  had  diminished  above  one-half. 

Lewis  XIL  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  France  by  his 
son-in-law,  Francis,  Count  of  Angouleme,  first  prince  of  the 
blood.  Young,  brave,  ambitious,  and  enterprising,  he  im- 
mediately turned  his  eyes  towards  Italy,  as  the  scene  of  glory 
and  conquest.  But  before  he  set  out  on  that  expedition,  he 
renewed  the  treaty  which  his  predecessor  had  made  with 
England,  and  having  nothing  to  fear  from  Spain,  where 
Ferdinand  was  on  the  verge  of  the  grave,  he  marched  his  army 
owards  the  Alps,  under  pretence  of  defending  his  kingdom 
against  the  incursions  of  the  Swiss.  Informed  of  his  hostile 
intentions,  that  warlike  people  had  taken  up  arms,  in  order  to 
protect  Maximilian  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  whom  they  had 
restored  to  his  dominions,  and  thought  themselves  bound  in 
honour  to  support.  These  hardy  mountaineers  took  posses- 
sion of  all  those  passes  in  the  Alps,  through  which  they  thought 
the  French  must  enter  Italy,  and  when  informed  that  Francis 
had  made  his  way  into  Piedmont,  by  a  secret  route,  they  de- 
scended undismayed  into  the  plain,  and  gallantly  opposed 
themselves  on  foot  to  the  heavy  armed  cavalry  of  France. 
The  two  armies  met  at  Marignan,  near  Milan,  where,  Sept. 
13th,  1515,  was  fought  one  of  the  most  furious  and  obstinate 
battles  mentioned  in  the  history  of  modern  times.  The  ad- 
vantage was  on  the  side  of  the  French,  but  their  loss  was  very 
considerable :  the  Marechal  Trevulzio,  who  had  been  present 
at  eighteen  pitched  battles,  used  to  declare,  that  in  comparison 
of  the  batde  of  Marignan,  every  other  engagement  he  had  seen 
was  but  the  contention  of  children;  this,  a  combat  of  heroes. 
The  surrender  of  the  city  of  Milan,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  duchy,  were  the  consequences  of  this  victory.  Maxi- 
milian Sforza  resigned  his  claim,  and  accepted  of  a  pension ; 
and  Francis,  having  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Pope  and  with 
the  Swiss,  returned  into  France,  leaving  to  Charles,  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  the  government  of  his  Italian  dominions. 

The  success  of  the  French  monarch  began  to  excite  jea- 

3* 


6  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

lousy  in  the  l)rcast  of  the  old  Emperor  Maximilian,  nor  was  if 
regarded  with  indifference  hy  the  King  of  England.  Maximi- 
liap  invaded  Italy  with  a  considerable  army,  but  being  repulsed 
by  the  Freneli,  he  returned  to  Germany,  made  peace  with 
France  and  V^enice,  ceded  Verona  to  that  republic,  for  a  sum 
of  money,  and  thus  excluded  himself,  in  some  measure,  from 
all  future  access  into  Italy.  This  peace  was  preceded  by  the 
death  of  Ferdinand,  the  Catholic  king,  and  the  succession  of 
his  grandson  Charles  to  his  extensive  dominions ;  an  event 
which  had  been  long  looked  for,  and  from  which  the  most  im- 
portant consequences  were  expected.  Charles,  who  had  hith- 
erto resided  in  the  Low  Countries,  which  he  inherited  as  heir 
of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  was  received  by  the  Spaniards  with 
universal  acclamations  of  joy.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  Archbishop 
of  Toledo,  a  person  of  equal  virtue  and  sagacity,  had  been  ap- 
pointed, by  the  will  of  Ferdinand,  sole  Regent  of  Castile  till  the 
arrival  of  the  young  king,  and  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  au- 
thority, notwithstanding  the  discontents  of  a  turbulent  nobility. 

1517. — While  Charles  was  taking  possession  of  the  throne 
of  Spain,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  one  grandfather, 
another  was  endeavouring  to  obtain  for  him  the  imperial 
crown.  With  this  view  Maximilian  assembl(;d  a  diet  at 
Augsburg,  where  he  strove  to  gain  the  favour  of  the  Electors, 
to  ciiL'^age  them  to  clioose  that  young  prince  as  his  successor. 

151'J. — The  diet  of  Augsburg  was  soon  followed  by  the 
death  of  thr  Emperor  Maximilian,  an  event  in  itself  of  little 
moment,  as  that  prince  had  for  some  years  ceased  to  exercise 
any  influence  in  the  allairs  of  Europe;  but  as  it  left  vacant  the 
first  station  among  Christian  princes,  of  which  two  great 
monarchs  were  equally  ambitious,  it  became  memorable  by  its 
effects;  for  it  awakened  a  jealousy  which  threw  all  Europe 
into  agitation,  and  enkindled  wars  more  general  and  lasting 
than  any  which  had  hitherto  desolated  Christendom.  It  is 
proper  to  remark,  that  during  tlie  reign  of  Maximilian,  Ger- 
many was  divided  into  Circles,  in  each  of  which  a  provincial 
and  particular  jurisdiction  was  established,  to  supply  the  j)lace 
of  a  public  and  common  tribunal.  In  this  reign  also  was  insti- 
tuted the  Imperial  Chambers,  composed  of  judges,  nominated 
pftrily  liy  llie  emperor,  partly  by  tlu;  several  states,  and  vested 
with  authority  to  decide  finally,  concerning  all  differences 
ami)ii<r  the  members  of  llie  Germanic  bodv.  'I'he  Aulic  C'ouncil, 
too,  whicti  takes  cognisance  of  all  feudal  causes,  and  such  as 
belong  to  the  emperor's  immediate  jurisdiction,  received  a 
new  form. 


II.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  THE 
ELECTION  OF  CHARLES  V.,  IN  1519,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF 
CAMBRAY  IN  1529. 

1519. — Though  Maximilian  could  not  prevail  upon  the 
German  electors  to  choose  his  grandson  Charles  King  of  the 
Romans,  he  had  disposed  their  minds  in  favour  of  that  prince  ; 
and  other  circumstances,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor,  con- 
curred to  the  exaltation  of  Charles.  The  imperial  crown  had 
so  long  continued  in  the  Austrian  line,  that  it  began  to  be  con- 
sidered as  hereditary  in  that  family  ;  and  Germany,  torn  by 
religious  disputes,  stood  in  need  of  a  powerful  emperor,  not 
only  to  preserve  its  own  internal  tranquillity,  but  also  to  pro- 
tect it  against  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Turks,  who  under 
Selim  I.  threatened  the  liberties  of  Europe.  This  fierce  and 
rapid  conqueror  had  already  subdued  the  Mamelukes,  a  bar- 
barous militia  that  had  dismembered  the  empire  of  the  Arabs, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  The  power 
of  Charles  appeared  necessary  to  oppose  that  of  Selim.  The 
extensive  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  which  gave  him 
an  interest  in  the  preservation  of  Germany ;  the  rich  sove- 
reignty of  the  Netherlands  and  Tranche  Comte,  the  entire  pos- 
session of  the  great  and  warlike  kingdom  of  Spain,  together 
with  that  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  all  united  to  qualify  him  for 
the  first  dignity  among  Christian  princes ;  and  the  new  world 
seemed  only  to  be  called  into  existence  that  its  treasures  might 
enable  him  to  defend  Christendom  against  the  infidels.* 

Francis  I.,  however,  no  sooner  heard  of  the  death  of  Maxi- 
milian, than  he  declared  himself  a  candidate  for  the  empire, 
and  with  no  less  confidence  of  success  than  Charles.  He 
trusted  to  his  riper  years  and  superior  experience,  with  his 
great  reputation  in  arms,  acquired  by  the  victory  at  Marignan 
and  the  conquest  of  Milan;  but  Charles,  whose  youth  and 
inexperience  gave  less  cause  of  apprehension  than  the  enter- 
prising genius  of  his  adversary,  was  preferred  by  the  electors. 
Francis  could  not  suppress  his  indignation  at  being  defeated  in 
his  favourite  project,  and  rejected  in  the  face  of  all  Europe  for  a 
youth  yet  unknown  to  fame ;  and  hence  arose  that  rivalship 

*  The  conquest  of  Mexico  was  this  year  effected  by  the  Spaniards,  under 
Ferdinand  Cortes.     Peru  was  subdued  in  1532,  by  the  arms  of  Pizarro. 


8  OENF.RAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  (_CHAP. 

between  those  two  great  monarrhs,  which  involved  them  in 
ahnost  perpetual  hostilities,  and  kept  their  whole  age  in  agitation. 
Charles  and  Francis  had  many  interfering  claims  in  Italy: 
the  latter  likewise  thought  himself  bound  to  restore  the  King 
of  Navarre  to  his  dominions,  which  had  been  seized  by  the 
crown  of  Spain.  They  immediately  began  to  negotiate  ;  and 
as  Henry  VIII.  of  England  was  the  third  prince  of  the  age  in 
power  and  in  dignity,  his  friendship  was  courted  by  each  of 
tlie  rivals. 

1520. — Francis  I.  solicited  an  interview  with  the  King  of 
England  near  Calais,  in  hopes  of  attaching  him  to  his  friend- 
ship and  interest.  Politic,  though  young,  Charles  dreaded 
the  effects  of  this  projected  interview  between  two  gallant 
princes  ;  finding  it,  however,  impossible  to  prevent  it,  he  en- 
deavoured to  defeat  its  purpose  and  to  preoccupy  the  favour 
of  the  English  monarch.  Relying  wholly  on  Henry's  gene- 
rosity for  his  safety,  he  landed  at  Dover  in  his  way  from  Spaia 
to  the  Low  Countries.  The  King  of  England,  charmed  with 
such  an  instance  of  confidence,  hastened  to  receive  his  royal 
guest,  and  Charles  had  the  address,  not  only  to  give  Henry 
favourable  impressions  of  his  character  and  int(;ntions,  but  en- 
tirely to  detach  Wolsey,  the  favourite  and  prime  minister  of 
the  English  king,  from  the  interest  of  Francis.  On  the  day 
of  Charles's  departure,  Henry  went  over  to  Calais  with  his 
whole  court,  in  order  to  meet  Francis.  Their  interview  took 
place  in  an  open  plain  between  Guisnes  and  Ardres,  where 
the  two  kings  and  their  attendants  displayed  their  magnifi- 
cence  with  such  emulation  and  profuse  expense,  as  to  procure 
it  the  name  of  the  "Field  of  cloth  of  gold."  Charles  again 
met  Henry  at  Gravelincs,  attended  him  to  Calais,  and  offered 
to  submit  to  his  sole  arbitration  any  dilFerence  that  might  arise 
between  himself  and  Francis.  This  important  point  being 
secured,  Charles  repaired  to  Aix-la-Chap(;lle,  where  he  was 
solemnly  invested  with  the  crown  and  sceptre  of  Charlemagne, 
in  presence  of  a  more  splendid  assembly  than  had  appeared  at 
any  former  inauguration. 

About  the  same  time  Solyman  II.,  surnamed  the  Magnifi- 
cent, one  of  the  most  accomplished,  cntr^rprising,  and  warlike 
of  the  Turkish  princes,  ascended  the  Ottoman  throne,  in  con- 
8C(|uencc  of  the  death  of  Selim. 

The  first  act  of  Charles's  administration  w;is  the  appoint- 
ing of  a  diet  to  be  held  at  Worms,  in  order  to  concert,  wit!  the 
princes  of  the  empire,  proper  measures  for  checking  the  pro- 
gress of  Lulheranism. 


11.]  GENERAL   ftlSTORY   OF    EUROPE.  § 

Martin  Luther  was  an  Angustinian  friar,  doctor,  and  profes- 
sor of  divinity  in  the  new  university  of  Wittenberg  :  his  voca- 
tion to  a  cenobitical  state  of  life  seems  to  have  arisen  from 
mere  fright.  During  the  course  of  his  studies,  as  he  was  one 
day  walking  abroad  with  a  fellow-student,  a  tremendous 
thunder-storm  came  on,  and  a  vivid  flash  of  lightning  struck 
his  companion  dead  at  his  feet.  Trembling  with  fear,  he  that 
instant  vowed  to  dedicate  himself  to  God  in  some  monastic 
order.  His  proficiency  in  learning,  after  a  few  years,  ac- 
quired him  the  reputation  of  an  able  divine,  and  a  strong,  ner- 
vous kind  of  expression  made  him  pass  for  a  good  preacher. 
He  was  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  when  the  publi- 
cation of  the  indulgences  granted  by  Leo  X.  to  such  as  should 
undertake  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  or  contribute  to  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Basilic  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  afforded  him 
the  opportunity  of  openly  avowing  his  erroneous  opinions. 
On  similar  occasions,  when  a  crusade  was  set  on  foot,  the 
Augustins  had  been  usually  appointed  to  announce  it  from  the 
pulpit,  but  they  had  the  mortification  this  time  to  see  the  Do- 
minicans pitched  upon  in  preference  to  themselves.  These 
preachers  were  accused  of  many  irregularities  in  the  execution, 
which,  whether  true  or  false,  Luther  failed  not  to  make  the 
subject  of  the  most  bitter  and  virulent  declamations.  The 
university  of  Wittenberg,  and  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
openly  espoused  his  interest.  Emboldened  by  their  support, 
and  encouraged  by  the  admiration  which  his  discourses  ex- 
cited, he  began  to  inveigh  not  only  against  occasional  abuses, 
but  against  the  very  nature  of  indulgences,  the  doctrine  upon 
original  sin,  the  seven  sacraments,  and  many  practices  of  the 
Catholic  religion. 

Lutheranism  in  1517  was  but  a  spark,  but  not  being  im- 
mediately extinguished,  in  the  following  year  it  kindled  into 
a  mighty  conflagration.  Among  the  many  publications  that 
appeared,  a  treatise  upon  the  seven  sacraments  attracted  uni- 
versal notice,  on  account  of  its  reputed  author.  It  was  attri- 
buted to  Henry  VHL,  though  Dr.  Fisher,  the  renowned  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  is  thought  to  have  had  the  chief  hand  in  its  com- 
position. Pope  Leo  X.,  to  whom  the  work  was  dedicated, 
bestowed  upon  the  reputed  author,  in  1521,  the  honourable 
title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  a  title  retained  by  the  Kings 
of  England  to  the  present  day. 

In  the  diet  held  at  Worms,  Luther  and  his  errors  were  con- 
demned.    The  heresiarch  found  a  secure  retreat  in  the  court 


10  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

of  his  old  friend  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Charlas,  for  a 
time,  had  other  matters  to  engage  his  attention. 

1521. — The  Spaniards,  incensed  at  the  avarice  of  the 
Flemings,  to  whom  the  direction  of  public  affairs  had  been 
committed  since  the  death  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  broke  out 
into  open  rebellion.  This  seemed  to  Francis  a  favourable 
juncture  for  reinstating  the  family  of  John  d'Albret  in  the  king- 
dom of  Navarre.  He  immediately  sent  thitlier  a  French  army 
under  Andrew  de  Foix,  and  Navarre  was  speedily  conquered; 
but  tlic  French  commander,  who  was  young  and  inexperienced, 
dazzled  with  his  success,  ventured  to  enter  Castile.  The 
Spaniards,  though  divided  among  themselves,  united  against 
a  foreign  enemy,  routed  his  forces,  took  him  prisoner,  and  re- 
covered Navarre  in  a  shorter  time  than  Andrew  de  Foix  had 
spent  in  subduing  it. 

Hostilities,  thus  begun  in  one  quarter  between  the  rival 
monarchs,  rapidly  spread  to  another.  The  King  of  France 
encouraged  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  to  make  war  upon  the  em- 
peror and  invade  Luxembourg.  Charles,  after  humbling  the 
duke,  attempted  to  enter  France,  but  was  repelled  and  worst- 
ed before  Mezieres  by  the  famous  Chevalier  de  Bayard, 
distinguished  among  his  contemporaries  by  the  appellation  of 
"  The  knight  without  fear  and  without  reproach." 

In  the  mean  time  Francis  broke  into  the  Low  Countries, 
where  he  disgusted  the  Constable  Bourbon  by  giving  the  com- 
mand of  the  van  to  the  Duke  of  Alen^on. 

During  these  operations  in  the  field,  an  unsuccessful  con- 
gress was  held  at  Calais,  under  the  mediation  of  Henry  VIH., 
and  a  league  was  soon  after  concluded  at  Bruges,  through  the 
intrigues  of  Wolsey,  between  the  Pope,  Henry,  and  Cliarles, 
against  France. 

The  exactions  of  Lautrec,  Governor  of  Milan,  had  alienated 
the  affections  of  the  Milanese  from  Francis.  They  put  tliom- 
selves  under  the  government  of  Francis  Sforza,  l)rolher  of 
Maximilian,  their  late  duke,  and  gave  up  their  capital  to  the 
confederates.  Parma  and  Placentia  were  united  to  tlic  ecclesias- 
tical state,  and  of  their  conquests  in  Lombardy,  the  Frc^ncli  had 
now  only  the  town  of  (!remona  and  a  few  inconsiderable  forts. 

The  death  of  Pope  LeoX.  suspended  awhile  the  operations 

of  the  war  in  Italy.      Cardinal  Adrian,  of  Utrecht,  ('harles's 

preceptor,  who  at  that  time  governed  Si)ain  in  tlic  character 

of  viceroy,  was  raised  to  the  Papacy — he  is  known  by  the 

ame  of  Adrian  VI. 

1522. — The  war  was  renewed,  to  the  still  greater  disad van- 


II  j  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  11 

tage  of  Francis  than  before ;  and  while  the  Christian  princes 
were  thus  wasting  each  other's  strength,  Solyman  the  Magni- 
ficent entered  Hungary  and  made  himself  master  of  Belgrade, 
reckoned  the  chief  barrier  of  that  kingdom  against  the  Turkish 
power.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  turned  his  victorious 
arms  against  the  Isle  of  Rhodes,  then  the  seat  of  the  Knights 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  although  every  prince  in  that 
warlike  age  acknowledged  Rhodes  to  be  the  principal  bulwark 
of  Christendom  in  the  Levant,  so  violent  was  their  animosity 
against  each  other,  that  they  suffered  Solyman  to  carry  on  his 
operations  against  that  city  and  island,  which  yielded  to  his 
arras  after  a  most  gallant  defence  in  a  siege  of  six  months. 
Charles  and  Francis  were  equally  ashamed  of  having  occasioned 
through  their  contests  such  a  loss  to  the  Christian  world  ;  and 
the  emperor,  by  way  of  reparation,  granted  to  the  Knights  of 
St.  John  the  small  island  of  Malta,  where  they  fixed  their 
residence. 

Adrian  VI.,  though  devoted  to  the  emperor,  endeavoured  to 
assume  the  impartiality  which  became  the  common  father  of 
Christendom,  and  laboured,  in  vain,  to  reconcile  the  contending 
princes,  that  they  might  unite  in  a  league  against  Solyman. 

1523. — The  confederacy  against  France  became  more  for- 
midable than  ever.  The  Venetians,  who  had  hitherto  adhered 
to  the  French  interest,  formed  engagements  with  the  emperor; 
and  the  Pope  acceded  to  the  same  alliance.  The  Florentines, 
the  Dukes  of  Ferrara  and  Mantua,  with  all  the  other  Italian 
powers,  followed  this  example.  Francis  was  left  without  a 
single  ally  to  resist  the  efforts  of  a  multitude  of  enemies, 
whose  armies  everywhere  threatened,  and  whose  territories 
encompassed,  his  dominions.  The  emperor,  in  person,  at 
the  head  of  a  Spanish  army,  menaced  France  on  the  side  of 
Guienne,  the  forces  of  England  and  the  Netherlands  hovered 
over  Picardy,  and  a  numerous  body  of  Germans  was  pre- 
paring to  ravage  Burgundy.  Before  his  enemies  were  able  to 
strike  a  blow,  Francis  assembled  a  powerful  army,  which  he 
resolved  to  lead  into  Italy ;  but  the  discovery  of  a  domestic 
conspiracy  obliged  him  to  stop  short  at  Lyons.  Charles, 
Duke  of  Bourbon,  High  Constable  of  France,  being  driven 
to  the  last  extremity  by  repeated  affronts  and  injuries,  entered 
into  a  secret  correspondence  with  the  emperor  and  the  King 
of  England.  Francis  received  information  of  Bourbon's  trea- 
chery, yet  suffered  him  to  escape  ;  and  Bourbon,  entering  the 
emperor's  service,  employed  all  his  genius  and  skill  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  sovereign  and  his  native  country.     Francis, 


lil  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OT    EVnOPE.  [cHAP 

tipon  this  discovery,  gave  the  command  of  his  forces,  consist- 
ing- of  30,000  men,  to  Admiral  Honnivct,  wlio,  not  daring  to 
engage  tlie  imperial  army,  commanded  by  the  two  greatest 
generals  of  thi.s  age,  (the  Duke  of  Bourbon  and  the  Marquis 
Pescara,)  after  losing  much  time  in  frivolous  enterprises,  at- 
tempted to  retreat  into  France.  He  was  pursued  by  the  Impe- 
rial generals  and  routed  at  Biagrassa.  Here  fell  the  Cheva- 
lier Bayard,  after  sustaining  at  the  head  of  the  cavalry  the 
vhole  shock  of  the  Imperial  army,  and  thus  gaining  time  for 
the  body  of  his  countrymen  to  make  good  their  retreat.  Hav- 
ing received  a  mortal  wound,  he  ordered  his  attendants  to 
place  him  under  a  tree,  where  he  waited  the  approach  of  death. 
In  this  situation  he  was  found  by  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  who 
led  the  van  of  the  Imperialists,  and  who  expressed  much  sor 
row  for  his  fate.  "Pity  not  me,"  cried  the  highminded  Che- 
valier ;  "  I  die  as  a  man  of  honour  ought,  in  the  discharge  of 
my  duty,  but  pity  those  who  fight  against  their  king,  their 
country,  and  their  oath." 

Francis  still  aimed  at  the  conquest  of  Milan,  and  he  now 
resolved  to  march  into  Italy.  No  sooner  liad  tiie  French 
army  appeared  in  Piedmont,  than  the  whole  duchy  of  Milan 
was  thrown  into  consternation — the  capital  opened  its  gates — 
the  forces  of  the  emperor  and  Sforza  retired  to  Lodi ;  but 
Francis,  instead  of  pursuing  them,  laid  siege  to  Pavia,  a  town  of 
considerable  strength,  well  garrisoned  and  defended  by  Antonio 
de  Levva,  one  of  the  bravest  officers  in  the  Spanish  service. 

1525. — The  siege  of  Pavia  had  lasted  three  months,  when 
the  Imperial  army,  greatly  strengthened  by  new  levies,  came 
to  relieve  tlie  place.  A  desperate  battle  was  fought  on  the 
24 th  of  February,  in  which  Francis,  after  performing  prodi- 
gies of  valour,  was  obliged  to  surrender  himself  prisoner. 
Yet  he  obstinately  refused  to  deliver  up  his  sword  to  Bourbon, 
liannov  received  it.  This  victory  and  the  captivity  of  Fran- 
cis filled  all  Europe  with  alarm.  Almost  the  whole  French 
army  was  cut  off;  Milan  was  immediately  abandoned,  and  in 
a  few  weeks  not  a  Frenchman  was  left  in  Italy.  The  power 
of  the  emperor  became  the  oliject  of  universal  terror,  and  re- 
solutions were  everywhere  taken  to  set  boimds  to  it.  Henry 
VIII.  had  always  retained  some  imperfect  idea  of  the  balance 
of  power  necessary  to  be  mnintainr-d  between  Charles  and 
Francis,  the  preservation  of  which,  he  boasted,  was  his  pecu- 
liar orti«;e.  He  now  became  sensible  of  the  danger  all  Europe 
was  in,  from  tlie  loss  of  a  proper  counterpoise  to  the  power 
of  (.'harles.     Instead  of  taking  advantage,   therefore,  of  the 


n.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  13 

distressed  condition  of  France,  the  English  monarch  deter- 
mined to  assist  her  in  her  present  calamities.  Another  cause 
conspired  to  enforce  this  resolution.  Wolsey  was  disappoint- 
ed in  his  hopes  of  the  papacy  by  the  elevation  of  Cardinal 
Medicis,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VII. ;  and  the  English 
minister,  attributing  the  cause  of  his  disappointment  to  the 
emperor,  resolved  on  revenge.* 

Meanwhile  Francis,  who  was  rigorously  confined,  desired 
to  be  removed  to  Spain,  where  the  emperor  then  resided. 
The  following  year,  152G,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
Francis  obtained  his  liberty.  The  chief  articles  in  this  treaty 
were,  that  Burgundy  should  be  restored  to  Charles,  as  the 
rightful  inheritance  of  his  ancestors  ;  and  that  the  two  eldest 
sons  of  Francis  should  be  immediately  given  up  as  hostages 
for  the  performance  of  the  conditions  stipulated.  The  ex- 
change of  the  captive  monarch  for  his  children  was  made  on 
the  frontiers  of  France  and  Spain :  but  Francis  never  meant 
to  execute  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  and  when  the  imperial  am- 
bassadors urged  their  claims,  he  answered  that  he  would  per- 
form the  articles  relative  to  himself,  but  in  those  affecting  the 
French  monarchy,  he  must  be  guided  by  the  sense  of  the  na- 
tion; and  that  the  States  of  Burgundy  protested  against  the 
article  relating  to  their  province.  Tlie  emperor  saw  himself 
overreached,  whde  the  Italian  States  observed  with  pleasure 
that  Francis  was  resolved  to  evade  the  execution  of  a  treaty 
which  they  considered  dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  Europe. 
Clement  VII.,  the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  the  Swiss, 
the  Venetians,  the  Florentines,  and  the  Milanese,  entered  into 
an  alliance  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  Holy  Leao-ue, 
because  his  Holiness  was  at  the  head  of  it,  in  order  to  oblige 
the  emperor  to  deliver  up  the  sons  of  Francis  on  the  payment 
of  a  reasonable  ransom,  and  to  re-establish  Sforza  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Mdan. 

In  consequence  of  this  league  the  confederate  army  took  the 
field,  and  Italy  became  once  more  the  scene  of  war.  The 
Duke  of  Bourbon,  who  commanded  the  Imperialists,  overran 
the  whole  duchy  of  Milan,  and  his  troops  beginning  to  mutiny 

*  With  a  view  of  transmitting  his  name  to  posterity,  Wolsey,  about  this 
time,  began  to  erect  two  new  colleges,  one  in  Oxford,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated, and  another  at  Ipswich,  the  place  of  his  birth.  For  the  completion 
of  this  noble  and  expensive  object,  without  diminishing  his  own  treasure, 
he  obtained  a  grant  from  Rome  in  1524,  to  suppress  forty  religious  houses, 
and  to  convert  their  property  to  his  own  uses.  This  fatal  precedent  opened 
ihs  door  to  a  train  of  unforeseen  consequences. 

4 


14  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

for  want  of  pay,  he  boldly  led  them  to  Rome,  in  spite  of  every 
obstacle,  by  offering  to  their  avidity  the  spoils  of  that  ancient 
capital.  Nor  did  he  deceive  them  ;  for  thouiih  |u>  himself  was 
slain  in  the  assault,  his  followers,  chielly  Lutherans,  more 
enraged  than  discouraged  by  that  misfortune,  entered  the  city 
Bword  in  hand,  and  pillaged  it  for  many  days.  Never  did 
Rome  experience  in  any  age  so  many  calamities,  not  even 
from  the  barbarians  by  whom  she  had  l>een  successively  sub- 
dued,— from  the  followers  of  Alaric,  Genseric,  or  Odoacer,  as 
now  from  the  subjects  of  a  Christian  monarch.  Whatever  was 
respectal)le  or  sacred  in  religion,  seemed  only  to  heighten  the 
rage  of  the  soldiery.  Clement  himself,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  castle  of  St.  Angclo,  was  ol)liged  to  surrender  at  discre- 
tion, and  found  tliat  his  sacred  character  could  neither  procure 
him  liberty  or  respect.  lie  was  doomed  to  close  confinement, 
until  he  should  pay  an  enormous  ransom,  imposed  by  the  vic- 
torious army,  and  surrender  to  the  emperor  all  the  places  of 
strength  belonging  to  the  apostolic  see. 

The  emperor  was  seized  with  horror  at  the  news  of  the 
outrages  committed  in  the  taking  of  Rome,  stopped  the  rejoic- 
ings for  the  birth  of  liis  son  Philip,  and  ordered  that  the  Pope 
should  be  immediately  released  from  confinement. 

1527. — The  war  continued  in  Italy,  chieny  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  Francis.  His  army  was  utterly  ruined  before  Naples, 
and  his  misfortunes  forced  him  at  last  to  sue  for  peace.  At 
the  same  time,  Charles,  notwithstanding  the  advantages  he  had 
gained,  had  many  reasons  to  wish  for  an  accommodation. 
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  having  overrun  Hungary,  was  ready 
to  break  in  upon  the  Austrian  territory  with  the  whole  force  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  and  the  progress  of  liUther's  reformation 
in  Germany  threatened  the  tranquillity  oi  that  country.  In 
consequence  of  this  situation  of  affairs,  Margaret  of  Austria, 
aunt  to  Charles,  and  Louisa,  the  mollier  of  Francis,  met  at 
Cambray,  and  settled  the  terms  of  a  pacification  between  the 
French  king  and  the  emperor.     (1529.) 

Francis  agreed  to  pay  two  millions  of  crowns,  as  a  ransom 
for  his  two  sons,  to  resign  the  sovereignty  of  Artoisand  Flan- 
ders, and  forego  -all  his  llalian  claims;  and  Charles  ceased  to 
deujand  the  restitution  of  Burgundy.  The  Florentines  alone, 
now  reduced  under  the  dominion  of  the  family  of  Mcdicis,  had 
reason  to  comi)lain  of  tlie  emperor ;  Sforza  otttained  the 
investiture  of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  every  other  powet 
experienced  the  lenity  of  the  victor. 

1530. — Charles,  who  had  received  the  Imperial  crown  froio 


III.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  10 

the  hands  of  the  Pope,  now  prepared  to  revisit  Geunany, 
where  his  presence  was  become  necessary  :  for  although  the 
conduct  and  valour  of  his  brother  F"'erdinand,  on  whom  he  had 
conferred  the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
and  who  had  been  elected  King  of  Hungary,  had  obliged 
Solyman  to  withdraw  his  forces,  his  return  was  to  be  feared ; 
and  the  disorders  of  religion  were  daily  increasing. 


CHAPTER  m. 

CHANGE    OF    RELIGION    IN    ENGLAND. 

While  the  continent  was  thus  disturbed  with  the  innovations 
of  Luther  and  his  followers  in  religious  matters,  an  unfortunate 
circumstance  occurred,  which  occasioned  a  similar  change  in 
England.  Henry,  who,  by  a  particular  dispensation  from  the 
Pope,  had  married  his  brother's  widow,  Catherine  of  Arragon, 
after  having  lived  seventeen  years  with  her  in  the  closest  union, 
now  pretended  a  scruple  of  conscience,  and  separated  from 
her.  He  had,  unhappily,  fixed  his  affections  on  Anna  BuUen, 
one  of  the  queen's  maids  of  honour,  and  as  nothing  but  a 
divorce  with  Catherine  could  leave  him  at  liberty  to  contract 
a  second  marriage,  he  was  resolved  to  obtain  one.  To  this 
effect,  he  urged  the  nullity  of  a  marriage  with  a  brother's 
widow  ;  and  the  whole  year  of  1527  was  employed  in  prepar- 
ing the  nation  for  this  important  event.  'J'he  bishops  of  the 
realm  were  consulted  upon  the  subject;  they  met  and  delibe- 
rated, but  came  to  no  decision.  It  is  said  that  when  the  king 
first  mentioned  to  Cardinal  Wolsey  his  intention  of  suing  for 
a  divorce  in  the  court  of  Rome,  the  cardinal  flung  himself 
upon  his  knees  and  earnestly  entreated  his  majesty  not  to  think 
of  it ;  but  when  he  perceived  that  the  king  was  positive  and 
expected  his  concurrence,  he  undertook  to  negotiate  the  whole 
business. 

The  Pope  was  at  that  time  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  and  the  application  from  England  afforded  him  a  fair 
opportunity  of  revenging  himself  upon  the  emperor,  by  grant- 
ing a  sentence  of  divorce  against  Catherine,  who  was  aunt  to 
Charles.  But  Clement  would  not  allow  the  base  suggestions 
of  interest  and  revenge  to  prevail  over  justice  and  religion; 
in  proof  of  his  friendly  disposition  towards  Henry,  as  far  as 
equity  would  admit,  he  consented  that  ihe  cause  should  be 


16  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAF 

tried  inEn^lanil  by  a  lc<;atine  court,  in  wliich  he  commissioHcd 
the  two  carilinal?,  Wolsev  and  ('anipe<iio,  both  Enj^lish  sul)- 
jects,*  to  sit  as  jiidgt-s.  Bnl  as  the  queen  appealed  to  lionie, 
liis  Ilohness  sent  positive  orders  to  the  two  cardinals  to  chjse 
their  sessions  in  Eniiland,  and  adjourn  to  the  consistoiial  court 
of  Konie.  Canipegio  (luilled  Enghmd,  and  Wolsey  fell  into 
disjrracc. 

While  the  nation  was  held  in  suspense  how  this  interesting 
cause  would  end,  a  new  personaire  appeared,  who  took  upon 
himself  to  pronounce  decidedly  upon  its  merits.  'J'liis  was 
Thomas  Cranmer,  doctor  of  divinity  and  fellow  of  Jesus  Uol- 
ege,  Cambridije,  who,  on  declarinf^  for  the  king's  divorce, 
was  introduced  at  court.  He  was  immediately  commissioned 
to  despatch  agents  to  the  continent,  in  order  to  procure  a 
favourable  decision  from  the  foreign  universities.  Some  sig- 
natures were  indeed  ol)tained,  hut  it  was  by  the  help  of  "bribe- 
ry and  sinister  working,"  as  the  declaration  of  Parliament 
expressed  it  in  Queen  Mary's  reign.  Cranmer,  though  a 
married  man,  and  a  liUlheran  in  his  heart,  lieiujr  deeply  skilled 
in  the  art  of  dissimulation,  had  no  diniculty  in  concealing 
both  ;  and  being  nominated  by  the  king  to  fill  the  vacant  see 
of  Canterl)ury,  obtained  bis  bulls  of  consecration,  and  was 
consecrated  in  March,  lii:J3. 

The  king,  before  this,  had  taken  a  step  wliicli  proves  that 
his  resolution  was  fixed,  whatever  might  be  the  result  of  die 
pro(-ee(linfjs  at  Rome,  by  privately  marrvin<j  Anna  Bullen. 
In  llie  month  of  May,  Cranmer,  in  virtue  of  the  king's  author- 
ity alone,  pronounced  the  former  marriage  nidi,  and  ratified 
his  sul)se(|uent  connexion,  which  had  been  contracted  the 
November  before.  His  sentenc^e  was  confirmed  by  an  obse- 
quious PaiTiament  in  .January,  153  t.t 

Pope  Clement  had  delayed  pronouncing  definitively  upon 
the  subject  of  the  divorce,  because  it  was  not  in  his  power  to 
decide  in  the  king's  favour,  and  he  wished  to  avoid  exasperat- 
ing him  by  a  sentence  in  opposition  to  his  wishes,  'i'iine, 
he  hoped,  mi;fht  work  a  change,  and  in  the  interim,  he  endea- 
V(nired,  by  expostulations  and  tlircats,  to  insj)ire  his  inajestv  with 
more  ('hristian  sentiments.  IJut  when  he  was  officially  inform- 
ed uf  what  had  passed  in  England,  he  judged  it  incompatible 
with    his   pastoral   duty   to   remain  any  longer  silent:   and    ia 

•   ('ardinal  Camprijio,  on  Italian  by  birth,  hail  reccnily  l/cen  nomiiiate>1 
by  Hi-nry  \'|[I.  to  tlie  spp  of  SiiliHlniry. 

■\  Kcfvu's  Ilialory  of  the  Uhri^liaii  Church,  vol.  3. 


III.]  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  17 

May,  1534,  he  signed  a  bull  which  declared  the  marriage  be- 
tween Henry  and  Catherine  valid,  and  tlie  sentence  of  Cran- 
mer,  pronouncing  the  divorce,  null  and  void.  Clement  died 
the  September  following,  without  having  proceeded  to  farther 
censures  ;  nor  was  it  till  the  year  1538,  that  Paul  III.,  success- 
or to  Clement,  being  compelled  by  King  Henry's  impieties, 
as  Echard  expresses  it,*  pronounced  sentence  of  excommu- 
nication against  him  and  the  whole  English  nation.  The 
Parliament  met  again  in  November,  according  to  appointment, 
and  conferred  upon  the  king  the  title  of  the  only  supreme 
head  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  they  consequently  granted 
to  him  and  his  successors,  or  rather  acknowledged  in  them, 
an  inherent  power  to  exercise  every  act  of  spiritual  authority 
or  jurisdiction.  Thus,  by  that  memorable  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture, the  English  schism  was  formally  established,  and  the 
whole  plenitude  of  spiritual  supremacy  was  declared  solely 
to  belong  to  the  imperial  crown  of  these  realms. 

Uncommon  pains  had  been  taken  to  prepare  the  nation  for 
this  innovation  in  religion.  All  appeals  to  Rome  had  been 
forbidden  by  law  from  the  year  1532.  The  clergy  were  re- 
strained under  severe  penalties  from  meeting  in  convocation 
without  the  king's  leave  :  the  temporizing  bishops  surrendered 
their  sacred  trust,  and  solemnly  promised  never  from  that  time 
to  meet  in  convocation,  but  by  the  king's  command,  nor  to 
decide  in  any  matter,  but  as  he  should  direct.  Dr.  Fisher, 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  was  the  only  one  who  opposed  his  ma- 
jesty's will,  and  was  therefore  attainted  of  high  treason,  and 
beheaded  on  the  22d  of  June,  1535  ;  and  in  the  ensuing  month, 
Sir  Thomas  More,  late  Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  met  with 
a  similar  fate  for  the  same  cause.  Some  laws  against  heretics 
made  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  H.  and  Henry  IV.  were  repealed, 
but  those  persons  who  relapsed  into  errors  or  refused  to  abjure 
them,  were  condemned,  on  conviction,  to  be  burned  alive, 
which  law  the  king  caused  to  be  executed  with  great  se- 
verity. 

Queen  Catherine  died  on-the  8th  of  January,  1536.  She 
had  had  many  children  by  Henry,  of  whom  only  one,  the 
Princess  Mary,  survived  her.  Her  sufferings  never  betrayed 
her  into  any  concessions  contrary  to  her  dignity,  or  prejudi' 
cial  to  her  daughter's  rights,  though  every  method  was  em- 
ployed to  make  her  derogate  from  both.  The  king  did  not 
refuse  the  tribute  of  a  tear  to  the  news  of  her  death,  and  though 

•  Ec hard's  History  of  England. 

4« 


18  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

he  subsequently  persecuted  the  memory  of  her  rival  with 
contempt  and  execration,  he  was  not  so  totally  lost  to  all  sense 
of  luinianily  and  worth,  as  to  deny  his  esteem' to  that  of  Cathe- 
rine of  Arraijon. 

This  year  the  Parliament,  by  the  king's  order,  passed  an 
act  for  the  suppression  of  religious  houses,  by  whioh  about 
400  of  the  lesser  monasteries,  which  maintained  10,000  reli- 
gious persons,  were  suppressed,  and  their  revenues  bestowed 
upon  the  king.  Immoralities  which  had  been  reported,  but 
never  proved  against  them,  are  stated  in  the  preamble  of  the 
act  as  the  cause  of  their  suppression.  But  the  seizure  of  the 
lesser  houses  was  oidy  the  beginning  of  more  extensive  sacri- 
lege. There  were  at  this  time  about  700  monasteries  remain- 
ing in  England  and  Wales,  of  which  twenty-eight  gave  their 
abbots  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Peers.  Their  revenues,  though 
very  large,  did  not  exceed  one-twentieth  of  the  national  in- 
come, a  sum  much  below  what  a  design  to  destroy  them  first 
gave  out,  and  credulity  has  since  retained.  It  was  judged 
expedient  that  the  seizure  of  these  monasteries  should  passlfor 
a  surrender  and  voluntary  cession  on  the  part  of  those  who 
were  despoiled  of  their  possessions.  Various  compulsive 
measures  were  therefore  made  use  of  to  oblige  the  superiors 
of  these  houses  to  comply  with  the  king's  will,  and  large 
pensions  offered  to  those  who  submitted.  By  such  sin-- 
renders  and  by  violent  expulsion,  all  the  monasteries  were 
extirpated  within  two  years,  and  their  revenues  appropri- 
ated by  the  king.  "  England  sat  weeping,"  says  Camden, 
"  to  see  her  wealth  exhausted,  her  coin  embased,  and  her 
abbeys,  which  were  the  monuments  of  her  ancient  piety, 
demolished."  For,  by  the  advice  of  Cromwell,*  whom  he 
had  appointed  his  vicar-general,  Henry  caused  the  very  build- 
ings to  be  destroyed,  lest  the  former  possessors  might  "attempt 
to  re-enter  them.t  The  poor  had  hitherto  been  supplied  with 
food  from  the  monasteries  ;  when  these  were  supprc'ssed,  the 
number  and  distress  of  indigent  families  began  to  multiply, 

•  Cromwell,  the  son  of  a  blacksmith  in  Putney,  had  been  employed  by 
Wolspy,  nft.T  wfioso  lioath  he  ramc  into  favour,  nn.l  was  loail.'d  with  ho- 
nours. (.'Hrdinal  Pole,  in  his  ApoloR.  Keu.  says,  that  Cromwrll  imliilx'd  his 
oi)iiiions  on  kindy  power  in  a  hook,  entitled  "On  the  Art  of  Government," 
(II  prinri[*,)  which  he  earnestly  recommended  to  the  cardinal's  perusal 
On  readiiiR  it,  he  says,  ih;it  he  found  in  it  e\ery  strntacein  l)y  which  reii- 
gion,  justice,  and  good  faith  arc  to  he  dcfciile.l,  and  every  hurri.iri  and  di- 
vine virtue  l-ecome  a  prey  to  selfishncH«,  dissimulation  and  fil-chood.  Ik 
was  written  hy  Machiav.  I,  a  native  of  Florence,  who  died  in  1627. 

f  See  the  Life  of  Cardinal  Pole,  vol.  Isf,  p  57. 


ni.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EDROPE.  19 

and  assessments  upon  the  parishes,  which  were  before  un- 
known, became  necessary  for  their  support.  The  increased 
amount  of  the  poor's  rates  at  this  distant  period,  proves  that 
the  nation  is  now  paying  dearly  for  the  rapine  committed  in  the 
days  of  Henry  VIII.  But  tlie  king,  with  all  his  plunder,  was 
neither  rich  nor  happy :  what  he  acquired  by  injustice,  he  as 
quickly  wasted  by  extiav>agance,  and  even  his  late  marriage 
with  Anna  BuUen  was  now  become  the  source  of  trouble.  She 
who  had  supplanted  the  virtuous  Catherine,  was  now  supplant- 
ed in  her  turn  by  one  of  her  own  attendants,  Lady  Jane  Sey- 
mour. The  lightness  of  her  carriage  raised  suspicions  of  guilt, 
and  upon  these  suspicions  she  was  beheaded,  May  19th,  1536, 
having  been  previously  degraded  from  her  dignity,  and  her 
marriage  annulled  by  Archbishop  Cranmer.  She  left  one 
daughter,  the  Princess  Elizabeth.  The  day  after  the  execu- 
tion of  Anna  BuUen,  the  king  married  Lady  Jane  Seymour, 
who  died  the  following  year,  a  few  days  after  she  had  given 
birth  to  a  son,  who  was  named  Edward. 

After  her  death,  Henry  remained  a  widower  two  years  ;  then, 
to  mortify  the  emperor  and  the  Pope,  he  resolved  to  take  for 
his  fourth  wife  a  daughter  of  some  German  prince,  who  was 
engaged  in  the  Lutheran  confederacy  against  the  house  of 
Austria.  The  choice  of  his  future  consort  he  left  to  his  mi- 
nister, Cromwell,  who  presented  to  him  Anna,  the  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Cleves.  But  the  king  conceiving  a  dislike  to 
her,  as  soon  as  the  marriage  was  solemnized,  the  compliant 
Parliament  granted  a  divorce  between  them,  and  Cromwell  fell 
into  disgrace.  He  was  soon  after  arrested  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  condemned  for  heresy,  and  beheaded.  The  duke's 
niece.  Lady  Catherine  Howard,  became  the  king's  next  wife; 
she  proved  unfaithful,  and  suffered  death  in  February,  1542. 
Henry's  sixth  wife  was  Catherine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord  Lati- 
mer. This  lady  was  infected  with  Lutheranism,  and  on  that 
account  Henry  had  secretly  resolved  on  her  death,  but  she 
had  the  art  to  elude  the  king's  inquiries,  and  indvce  him  to 
alter  his  resolution. 


so  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  ([cHAP. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OENERA.L  VIEW  OF  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  EUROPE  (wiTIl  THE  PRO- 
GRESS OF  LUTHERAXISm)  CONTINUED,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF 
CAM  BRAY  TO  THAT  OF  CRESPY,  IN   1544. 

The  Reformation  had  gained  much  ground  in  Germany, 
during  that  long  interval  of  tranquillity,  which  the  absence  of 
the  emperor,  and  his  attention  to  ihe  war  with  France,  alFord- 
ed  its  promoters.  Almost  one-half  of  llio  Germanic  body  had 
revolted  from  the  see  of  Rome,  and  the  remaining  states  were 
considerably  weakened  by  the  example  of  their  neighbours,  or 
by  the  secret  progress  of  Lutheranism  among  tliem.  The 
rapidity  with  which  heresy  overran  these  countries  was 
boasted  of  by  Luther  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  legation  ;  but 
there  is  nothing  wonderful  in  the  eagerness  of  ignorant  and 
carnal  men  to  embrace  a  doctrine  wliich,  by  rejecting  the 
necessity  of  good  works  for  salvation,  promised  tliem  heaven 
without  requirijig  any  great  endeavours  on  their  side  to  gain 
it.  Luther  wai"  soon  joined  in  his  revolt  against  the  church 
by  a  band  of  au '(diaries  ;  among  whom,  Calvin,  Melancthon, 
Zuinglius,  and  )i*;za,  are  particularly  distinguished.  They 
were  all  united  in  tacir  hostility  towards  the  church  of  Rome, 
wliile  tho^y  ecpially  cufTered  in  their  opinions  respecting  failli, 
and  by  their  disagreements  and  warm  disputes  among  them- 
selves, gave  Luther  n^  less  trouble  than  his  Catholic  oppo- 
nents. 

1529, — The  emperor  saw  that  these  religious  divisions 
tended  equally  to  the  ni"  of  religion  and  of  the  imperial 
authority,  he  accordingly  appointed  a  diet  of  the  empire  to  be 
held  at  Spire;  in  it  Luther  and  hi?  innovations  in  reli<rious  mat- 
ters were  again  condemned.  Aga'nst  tliis  decree,  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Duke  of  Lunenburg,  the 
Prince  of  Anhalt,  together  with  the  deput-'is  of  fourteen  imperial, 
or  free  cities,  entered  a  solemn  protest.  On  that  account  tiie 
name  of  Protestant  was  given  to  them.  !?U'-h  was  tlie  state  of 
religion  when  Ciiarles  returned  to  Germaui  i'>  15."}l).  He  as- 
Bisled  in  person  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  when  the  Protestants 
presented  thf;ir  sy.stem  of  opinions,  known  l)y  tlit  name  of  the 
Confession  of  Auffsburg.  The  ProKfslaut  princes,  nndinglhem 
Belvos  again  condenuied,  assembled   at  Smalkalde,  and  con- 


nr.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  21 

eluded  a  league  of  mutual  defence.  Meanwhile  many  circum- 
stances convinced  Charles  that  this  was  not  the  proper  season 
to  attempt  the  extirpation  of  heresy  hy  the  sword.  He  saw 
Solyman  ready  to  enter  Hungary  with  the  whole  force  of  the 
Turkish  empire  ;  the  peace  with  France  was  precarious  ;  the 
emperor,  therefore,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Nuremburg,  and 
solemnly  ratified  in  a  diet  at  Ratisbon,  granted  the  Protestants 
liberty  of  conscience  until  the  meeting  of  a  general  council, 
and  they  agreed  on  their  part  to  assist  him  powerfully 
against  the  Turks. 

This  treaty  was  no  sooner  signed,  in  1532,  than  Charles 
received  information  that  Solyman  had  entered  Hungary  at 
the  head  of  300,000  men.  The  imperial  army,  consisting  of 
90,000  disciplined  foot  and  30,000  horse,  besides  a  prodi- 
gious swarm  of  irregulars,  immediately  assembled  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  Of  this  vast  body,  the  emperor,  for 
the  first  time,  took  the  command  in  person ;  and  Europe  waited 
in  anxious  suspense  the  issue  of  a  decisive  battle  between  the 
two  greatest  potentates  in  the  universe.  But  each,  dreading  the 
other's  power  and  good  fortune,  conducted  his  operations  with  so 
much  caution,  that  a  campaign  from  which  the  most  important 
consequences  had  been  expected,  closed  without  any  memora- 
ble event.  Solyman,  finding  it  impossible  to  take  advantage  of 
an  enemy  always  on  his  guard,  marched  back  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  Charles,  freed  from  so  dangerous  an  invader,  set  out 
for  Spain.  During  his  absence  new  disturbances  arose  in 
Germany  from  the  Anabaptists. 

In  1535  Charles  undertook  his  first  expedition  against  the 
piratical  states  of  Africa.  Barbary,  or  that  part  of  the  Afri- 
can continent  which  lies  alongr  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  was  then  nearly,  with  the  exception  of  the  recent  French 
conquests,  in  the  same  condition  it  is  at  present.  Morocco, 
Algiers,  and  Tunis  were  its  principal  governments,  and  the 
two  last  were  nests  of  pirates.  Barbarossa,  a  famous  corsair, 
had  succeeded  his  brother  in  the  kingdom  of  Algiers.  He 
carried  on  his  piracies  with  great  vigour,  and  extended  his 
conquests  on  the  continent  of  Africa  ;  but  perceiving  that  the 
natives  submitted  to  his  government  with  impatience,  and  fear- 
ing that  his  continual  depredations  might  draw  upon  him  a 
general  combination  of  the  Christian  powers,  he  put  his  do- 
minions under  the  protection  of  the  Turkish  emperor.  Soly- 
man, flattered  by  such  an  act  of  submission,  and  charmed  with 
the  boldness  of  the  man,  offered  him  the  command  of  the  Ot- 
toman fleet.     Proud  of  this  distinction,  Barbarossa  repaired  to 


22  GEXERAL    HISTORY    OF    ErROPE.  [ciIAP 

Constantinople,  and  made  use  of  his  influence  with  the  Sul« 
tan,  to  extend  liis  own  dniniiiion.  Partly  by  force,  partly  by 
treachery,  he  usurped  the  kiuijdom  of 'I'unis  ;  and  l)eini(  now 
possessed  of  greater  power,  he  carried  on  his  depredations 
against  the  Christian  states  with  more  destructive  violence  than 
ever.  Daily  complaints  of  the  piracies  and  ravages  committed 
by  Barbarossa  were  brought  to  tiie  emperor  from  Spain  and 
Italy,  and  all  Christendom  seemed  to  look  up  to  Charles,  as 
its  greatest  and  most  fortunate  prince,  for  relief  from  this  new 
aud  odious  species  of  oppression. 

At  the  same  time,  Muley  Hassen,  the  exiled  King  of  Tunis, 
applied  to  him  for  assistance  against  the  usurper.  E(iually 
desirous  of  delivering  his  dominions  from  the  dangerous 
neighbourhood  of  Barbarossa,  of  protecting  an  unfortunate 
prince,  and  of  acquiring  the  glory  annexed  to  an  expedition 
against  the  Mohammedans,  the  emperor  readily  concluded  a 
treaty  with  iMuley  Ilassen,  aud  set  sail  for  Tunis  with  a  formi- 
dable armament. 

Tlie  Goletta,  a  strong  fortress  on  an  island  in  the  bay  of 
Tunis,  and  the  key  of  the  capital,  planted  with  300  pieces  of 
cannon,  was  taken  by  storm,  together  widi  the  entire  fleet  of 
Barl)arossa.  He  himself  was  defeated  in  a  pitched  batde  : 
and  10,000  Christian  slaves  iiaving  knocked  olf  their  fetters, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  citadel,  Tunis  surren- 
dered to  the  victor.  But  while  Charles  was  deliberating  on 
the  means  of  preserving  the  lives  of  the  inhabiumts,  his  troops 
broke  suddenly  into  the  town,  and  pillaged  and  massacred 
without  distinction.  30,000  perished  by  the  sword,  and 
10,000  were  made  prisoners.  The  sceptre,  drenched  in  blood, 
was  restored  to  Muley  Ilassen,  on  condition  he  should  ac- 
knowledge himself  a  vassal  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  put  into 
the  emperor's  hands  all  the  fortified  seaports  in  the  kingdom 
of  Tunis,  and  pay  annually  12,000  crowns  for  the  subsistence 
of  a  Spanish  garrison  in  the  (ioletta.  These  points  being 
setUed,  and  20,000  (Christian  slaves  freed  from  bondage, 
(vharles  returned  to  Europe;  while  Barbarossa,  who  had  re- 
tired to  Bona,  recovered  new  strength,  and  again  became  the 
tyrant  of  the  ocean. 

'I'his  same  year  (153.5)  Francis  I.,  thouiih  unsupported  by 
any  ally,  commanded  his  army  to  advance  U)wanl3  tlw'  fron- 
tiers of  Italy,  under  pretence  of  chastising  the  Duke  of  Milan, 
for  a  breach  of  ilie  law  of  nations,  in  putting  to  death  bis 
ambassador.  The  operations  of  the  war,  however,  soon  took 
B   new    turn       Instead  of  marching  to  Milan,  Francis  coni' 


IV.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  23 

menced  hostilities  against  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  on  whom  he 
had  same  claims ;  and  before  the  end  of  the  campaign,  that 
feeble  prince  saw  himself  stripped  of  all  his  dominions,  except 
the  province  of  Piedmont.  To  complete  his  misfortunes,  the 
city  of  Geneva,  the  sovereignty  of  which  he  claimed,  threw 
oft'  his  yoke,  and  its  revolt  drew  along  with  it  the  loss  of  the 
adjacent  territory.  Geneva  was  then  an  imperial  city,  and 
now  became  the  nest  of  heresy,  and  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent republic. 

The  Duke  of  Savoy  sought  the  emperor's  protection,  but 
Charles,  just  returned  from  his  African  expedition,  was  not 
able  to  afford  him  the  necessary  support.  His  treasury  was 
drained,  and  he  was  obliged  to  disband  his  army  until  he 
could  raise  new  supplies. 

Meanwhile  the  death  of  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  totally 
changed  the  nature  of  the  war.  The  French  monarch's  pre- 
text lor  taking  up  arms  was  at  once  cut  ofT:  but  as  the  duke 
had  died  without  issue,  all  Francis's  rights  to  the  duchy  of 
Milan,  wfiich  he  had  yielded  only  to  Sforza  and  his  descend- 
ants, returned  to  him  in  full  force.  He  accordingly  renewed 
his  claim ;  but  while  he  wasted  his  time  in  fruitless  negotia- 
tions, his  more  politic  rival  took  possession  of  the  long  dis- 
puted territory,  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  empire. 

1536. — While  Charles  was  recruiting  his  finances  and  his 
army,  Francis  continued  his  negotiations,  as  if  it  had  still 
been  possible  to  terminate  their  differences  amicably.  The 
emperor  having  now  collected  an  army  of  50,000  men,  pre- 
sumed on  nothing  less  than  the  overthrow  of  the  French  mo- 
narchy. Having  driven  the  forces  of  his  rival  out  of  Piedmont 
and  Savoy,  he  pushed  forward,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his 
generals,  to  invade  the  southern  provinces  of  France,  while 
two  other  armies  were  ordered  to  enter  that  kingdom  ;  the  one 
on  the  side  of  Picardy,  the  other  on  that  of  Champagne. 
The  French  monarch  wisely  determined  to  remain  altogether 
upon  the  defensive,  and  to  deprive  the  enemy  of  subsistence, 
by  laying  waste  the  country  before  him.  The  execution  of 
this  plan  was  committed  to  tlie  Marechal  de  Montmorenci,  its 
author.  He  made  choice  of  a  strong  camp  under  the  walls  of 
Avignon,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rhone  and  Durance,  where 
he  assembled  a  considerable  army;  while  the  king  encamped 
at  Valence,  higher  up  the  Rhone.  Marseilles  and  Aries  were 
th"e  only  towns  lie  thought  it  necessary  to  defend  ;  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  other  towns  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  habi- 
tations :  the  fortifications  thrown  down  :  corn,  forage,  and  all 


34  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAF 

provisions  carried  olT  or  destroyed.  Tliis  devastation  extend- 
ed from  the  Alps  to  Marseilles,  and  from  the  sea  to  the  con- 
fines of  Dauphine  :  so  that  the  emperor,  when  he  arrived  with 
tlic  van  of  his  army  on  the  confines  of  Provence,  beheld  nc- 
thinjT  but  one  vast  and  desert  solitude.  After  unsuccessfullv 
investiui^  Marseilles  and  Aries  ;  after  allemi)tiiitr  in  vain  to 
draw  Montmorcnci  from  his  camp  at  Avignon,  Charles  was 
under  the  necessity  of  retreating  as  fast  as  possible,  having 
spent  two  inglorious  months  in  Provence,  and  lost  half  his 
troops  by  famine  or  disease. 

Tlie  invasion  of  Picardy  was  not  more  effectual,  and 
Charles,  having  conducted  the  remains  of  his  army  back  to 
Milan,  set  out  for  Genoa,  and  embarked  immediately  for 
Spain. 

15.S7. — Francis  now  gave  himself  up  to  vain  resentment. 
The  dauphin  dying  suddenly,  his  dtalii  was  imputed  to  poison. 
MontecucuUi,  his  cup-bearer,  was  put  to  the  rack,  and  that 
unhappy  nobleman,  in  the  agonies  of  torture,  accused  the 
emperor's  generals,  Gonzaga  and  De  Leyva,  of  instigating 
him  to  the  detestable  act.  The  emperor  himself  was  suspect 
ed,  though  it  was  evident  to  all  mankind  that  neither  Charles 
nor  his  generals  could  have  any  inducement  to  perpetrate  sucli 
a  crime,  as  Francis  was  still  in  the  vigour  of  life  himself,  and 
had  two  sons  besides  the  dauphin.  In  the  height  of  his  re- 
sentment, Francis  accused  Charles  of  violatiuL''  the  treaty  of 
Cambray,  and  marci:cd  an  army  into  the  Low  Countries;  but 
a  suspension  of  arms  took  place  through  the  interposition  of 
the  Queens  of  France  and  Hungary;  and  this  cessation  ot 
hostilities  was  followed  by  a  truce,  concluded  at  Nice  in  l.')38, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  reigning  Pontilf,  Paul  III.,  of  the 
family  of  Farnese,  a  man  of  a  venerable  character  and  pacific 
disposition. 

Each  of  these  rival  princes  had  strong  reasons  to  desire 
peace.  The  finances  of  both  were  exhausted,  and  the  emperor 
was  deeply  impressed  with  the  dread  of  the  Turkish  arms, 
whicii  Francis  had  drawn  upon  him  liy  a  league  with  Solyman. 
In  consequence  of  this  league,  Barbarossa,  with  a  great  fleet, 
appeared  on  the  coast  of  Naples,  filled  that  kingdom  with 
consternation,  landed  near  Tarento,  oblisred  ('astro,  a  phice  of 
some  strenirth,  to  surrender,  and  plundered  the  adjacent  coun- 
try;  but  the  unexpected  arrival  of  Doria,  the  famous  Genoese 
admiral,  together  with  the  Pope's  jralleys  and  a  stjuatlron  of 
the  Venetian  fleet,  made  it  prudent  fi)r  him  to  reiirr".  The 
Sultan's    forces    also    invaded  Hungary,  where  the  Turkish 


IV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    Ok'    EUROPE.  26 

general,  after  gaining  several  inferior  advantages,  defeated  the 
Germans,  in  a  great  battle  at  Essek  on  the  Drave.  Francis  op 
the  other  hand,  feared  to  draw  on  his  head  the  indignation  of 
all  Christendom  by  the  league  he  had  made  with  the  infidels : 
still  the  Pope  found  it  impossible  to  bring  about  a  linal  ac- 
commodation between  them,  nor  could  he  prevail  on  tliem  to 
see  one  another,  though  both  came  to  the  place  of  rendezvous. 
Yet,  a  few  days  after  signing  the  truce,  the  emperor,  in  his 
passage  to  Barcelona,  being  driven  on  the  coast  of  Provence 
Francis  invited  him  to  come  on  shore,  and  he  was  received 
and  entertained  with  the  warmest  demonstrations  of  esteem 
and  affection.  The  next  day  the  emperor  paid  the  king  a 
visit  at  Aigues-Mortes,  where  these  two  hostile  rivals,  who 
had  accused  each  other  of  every  kind  of  baseness,  conversed 
together  with  all  the  cordiality  of  brothers.  Such  sudden 
transitions  from  enmity  to  affection,  can  only  be  accounted  for 
by  that  spirit  of  chivalry,  with  which  the  manners  of  both 
princes  were  strongly  tinctured. 

In  the  following  year  (1539)  the  citizens  of  Ghent  revolted 
from  the  emperor,  and  offered  the  King  of  France  to  put  him 
in  possession  of  their  city.  Francis  had  lived  in  friendship 
with  the  emperor  ever  since  their  enterview  at  Aigues-Mortes; 
forgetting  therefore  all  that  had  passed,  the  credulous,  but 
generous  Francis,  not  only  rejected  the  advantageous  offer  of 
the  rebels,  but  communicated  the  whole  affair  to  the  emperor, 
and  allowed  him  a  free  passage  through  Fraoce  to  go  and  quell 
the  rebellion.  The  emperor  was  met  by  the  daupliin  and 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  attended  him  all  the  waj^,  and  was 
entertained  at  Paris  with  the  utmost  magnificence. 

1540. — The  citizens  of  Giient,  alarmed  at  the  approach  of 
the  emperor,  who  was  joined  in  the  Netherlands  by  three 
armies,  submitted  at  discretion,  but  were  punished  by  him 
v/ith  exemplary  severity. 

1541. — The  emperor  this  year  was  obliged  to  turn  his  atten- 
tion towards  the  affairs  of  Germany.  A  diet  was  assembled 
at  Ratisbon ;  here  the  emperor  decreed,  that  till  a  general 
council  could  be  held,  all  parties  should  be  left  at  liberty  ;  that 
no  innovations  should  be  made,  nor  any  means  employed  to 
gain  proselytes.  This  edict  equally  dissatisfiea  all  parties  ; 
and  the  emperor  thought  the  posture  of  his  affairs  required  he 
should  make  greater  concessions  in  favour  of  the  Protestants. 

In  1541,  Solyman  (whose  protection  had  been  implored  for 
the  infant  King  of  Hungary,  against  Ferdinand,  King  of  the 
Romans)  entered  Hungary,  sent  the  queen  and  her  son  into 

5 


J56  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [cHAP 

Transylvania,  which  province  he  allotted  them,  and  added 
Hunirary  to  the  Ottoman  empire.  In  consequence  of  the 
concessions  made  to  the  Protestants,  (Jliarles  ohlained  such 
liberal  supplies  of  men  and  money,  as  left  him  little  anxiety 
about  Germany.  He  therefore  hastened  to  join  his  fleet  and 
army  in  Italy,  in  order  to  execute  his  grand  design  against 
Algiers.  Algiers,  since  the  taking  of  Tunis,  was  become  the 
common  receptacle  of  all  die  Barbary  corsairs.  The  com- 
merce of  the  Mediterranean  was  gready  interrupted  by  their 
galleys,  and  such  frequent  alarms  were  given  to  the  coast  of 
Spain,  diat  there  was  a  necessity  of  erecting  watch-towers,  to 
descry  the  approach  of  the  enemy's  squadrons,  and  to  protect 
the  inhabitants  from  the  depredations  of  the  rapacious  ruffians 
with  which  they  were  manned. 

But  this  enterprise,  on  which  the  emperor  had  built  the 
highest  hopes,  proved  the  most  imfortunalc  of  his  reign.  His 
fleet  was  dispersed  by  a  storm,  as  soon  as  he  had  landed  in 
Barbary,  and  Cliarles  was  glad  to  re-embark,  after  having  lost 
the  greater  part  of  his  army  by  the  inclemency  of  the  weather, 
famine,  or  the  sword  of  the  enemy.  But  if  he  failed  to  acquire 
tliat  glory  which  attends  success,  he  secured  that  whicti  is 
more  essentially  connected  with  merit.  He  never  appeared 
greater  than  amidst  his  misfortunes.  His  firnmess  and  con- 
stancy of  spirit,  his  magnanimity,  fortitude,  humanity,  and 
compassion,  were  eminendy  conspicuous.  He  endured  as 
severe  hardships  as  the  meanest  soldier  ;  he  visited  the  sick 
and  wounded,  and  animated  all  by  his  words  and  example. 
He  paid  dearly  for  his  rash  enterprise,  but  he  made  mankind 
sensible  that  he  possessed  many  valuable  qualities,  which  an 
almost  uninterrupted  flow  of  prosperity  had  hiUierto  afforded 
liim  little  opportunity  of  displaying. 

1542. — Two  ambassadors  of  Francis  I.,  the  one  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  die  other  to  die  republic  of  Venice,  having 
been  murdered  as  they  were  sailing  down  the  Po,  Francis 
demanded  reparation  of  die  emperor,  who  returned  him  only 
an  evasive  answer.  Francis  then  appealed  to  all  the  courts 
of  Europe,  and  renewed  his  treaty  with  Solyman  :  this  step 
drew  upon  him  the  indignation  of  Christendom.  IVut  his  ac- 
tivity supplied  all  die  defects  in  his  negotiation.  Five  armies 
were  soon  ready  to  take  the  field,  and  with  difl'r'rent  destina- 
tions :  nor  was  Charles  wanting  in  his  preparations.  'J'he 
battle  of  Cerisoles  ensued,  gained  by  Count  d'Enghien  over 
the  imperialists,  and  in  which  10,000  of  tlic  em|)fror's  best 
troops  fell.     In  fine,  after  France,  Spain.  Piedmont,  and  the 


v.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  27 

Low  Countries,  had  been  alternately,  or  at  once,  the  scene  of 
war ;  after  the  Turkish  fleet,  under  Barbarossa,  had  ravaged 
the  coasts  of  Italy,  and  the  lilies  of  France  and  the  crescent 
of  Mahomet  had  appeared  in  conjunction  before  Nice,  where 
the  cross  of  Savoy  was  displayed — Francis  and  Charles 
mutually  tired  of  harassing  each  other,  concluded,  at  Crespy 
a  treaty  of  peace,  in  1544. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND,  FROM  1542  TO  1556. 

Henry  VHI.  declared  war  against  his  nephew,  James  V 
of  Scotland,  in  1542,  because  that  prince  had  refused  to 
throw  off'  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope.  James  being  unsuc- 
cessful, was  so  afflicted,  both  for  his  losses  and  the  miseries 
he  saw  hanging  over  his  kingdom,  that  he  died  the  same  year, 
soon  after  tlie  birth  of  his  daughter,  Mary  Stuart. 

Henry  VHI.  continued  till  his  death  the  tyrannic  persecutor 
of  his  subjects.  Catholics  and  Lutherans  he  burned  in  the 
same  pile,  without  distinction  and  without  mercy ;  those  for 
not  acknowledging  his  spiritual  supremacy,  these  for  denying 
the  docti-ine  of  transubstantiation.  Among  the  Catholic  suf- 
ferers, were  Margaret  Plantagenet,  Countess  of  Salisbury  and 
mother  of  Cardinal  Pole,  thirteen  abbots  and  priors,  about 
seventy-seven  religious,  and  many  of  the  laity,  who  were  all 
put  to  death  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy.  The  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  who  had  recently  quelled  a  rebellion  in  the  norlli, 
and  his  son,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  were  the  last  victims  marked 
out  for  destruction.  The  earl  was  executed  January  19th, 
1547,  but  the  duke  escaped  by  the  king's  death,  which  hap- 
pened the  same  month,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  and 
the  thirty-eighth  of  his  reign.  He  had  made  his  will  a  few 
weeks  before  his  demise,  in  which  he  left  his  crown,  first  t« 
Prince  Edward,  then  to  the  Princess  Mary,  and  lastly  to 
Princess  Elizabeth,  his  daughter  by  Anna  Bullen. 

1547. — Edward  VL  being  only  nine  years  old  at  the  time 
of  Lia  father's  death,  the  government  was  committed  to  sixteen 
executors,  among  whom  were  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  all  the  great  officers  of  state.  They  chose  one 
of  their  number,  namely,  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  maternal  uncle 
of  the  king,  instantly  created  Duke  of  Somerset,  to  represent 


18  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  fcHAP. 

the  royal  majesty  under  the  title  of  Protector.  This  noble- 
man soon  rendered  himself  independent  of  his  colleagues. 
He  hat!  been  lonjr  a  secret  friend  to  the  reformation,  and  was 
a  Zuinglian  in  iiis  heart.  Hcing  now  invested  with  sovereign 
power,  and  having  but  litde  opposition  to  fear  from  the  nation 
at  large,  he  openly  avowed  his  principles,  and  resolved  to  act 
up  to  them.  Till  then  no  public  change  in  the  forms  of  divine 
worship,  or  in  tlie  articles  of  religious  belief  iiad  been  enacted. 
But  during  the  protectorship  of  Somerset,  a  new  liturgy  was 
framed,  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  was  overthrown,  and  the 
penal  statutes  which  had  been  enacted  against  heretics  during 
the  last  reign,  were  repealed. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  democratic  principles  of  Calvin, 
wJiich  had  found  their  way  into  Scodand,  roused  the  pcoi)Ie 
to  revolt  against  the  established  jjovernment  bf>th  of  church 
and  state.  One  of  their  party  having  suiTered  at  the  stake  for 
heresy,  some  of  his  disciples  formed  a  conspiracy  asfaiust  the 
primate,  Cardinal  Beaton,  whom  they  cruelly  murdered  in  his 
own  palace. 

Somerset  had  not  lost  sight  of  the  projected  marriage  be- 
tween Edward  and  the  young  Queen  of  Scotland.  To  ol)lige 
the  nation  to  accede  to  this  measure,  he  appeared  on  tiie  fron- 
tiers at  the  head  of  18,000  men;  but  his  proposals  being  re- 
jected, and  an  army  sent  to  oppose  him,  llicy  came  to  an 
engagement  near  the  village  of  Pinkey,  (four  miles  distant 
from  Edinbursrii.)  in  which  the  Scots  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter.  This  victory,  however,  was  of  no  real  utility  to 
England,  as  it  induced  tlie  Scots,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of 
their  young  queen,  to  send  her  to  France,  where  she  was 
soon  after  atPianced  to  the  dauphin. 

Several  disturbances  arose  in  Enffland  at  tliis  time,  excited 
by  the  discontent,  which  the  oppressions  and  rapacious  acts 
of  the  ministry  had  occasioned.  The  rebels,  however,  were 
soon  dispersed  and  their  leader  hanged  ;  but  the  majority  of 
the  pe()i)le  beheld  witli  grief  tiieir  clmrches  i)lund(Ted,  and 
their  ancient  religion  abolished.  The  Scots,  taking  advantage 
of  the  internal  troubles  of  the  kinirdom,  ol)liged  tiu^  Euirlish 
to  evacuate  Iladdiriixton  ;  and  tlie  King  of  France  seized  the 
opportunity  of  recovering,  with  the  exception  of  Boulogne, 
all  the  conquests  which  Henry  had  made  on  the  continent. 
Somerset,  embarrassed  on  every  side,  was  inclined  to  con- 
clude a  peace  with  France  and  Scotland,  but  he  found  that  he 
no  longer  possessed  his  wonted  induence  in  the  couuimI.  A 
powerful  faction  was  formed  against  him,  at  the  head  of  which 


T.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  29 

was  the  Earl  of  Warwick ;  and  the  protector  was  compelleJ 
to  resign  his  office  in  1549.  Warwick  succeeded  to  his  pow- 
er, though  not  to  his  title,  and  immediately  negotiated  a  peace 
with  France  ;  and  as  Henry  II.  refused  to  pay  to  England 
the  arrears  which  were  due  to  her  by  former  stipulations,  but 
offered  a  large  sum  for  the  immediate  restitution  of  Boulogne, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  on  these  terms,  in  1550,  in  which 
Scotland  was  comprehended.  Warwick,  lately  created  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  though  now  raised  to  the  summit  of  his 
ambition,  still  found  in  the  degraded  Somerset  the  disturber 
of  his  repose;  by  various  provocations  he  excited  him  to 
imprudent  schemes,  and  afterwards  accused  him  of  high  trea- 
son for  seeming  to  acquiesce  in  them.  Somerset  was,  in 
consequence,  tried,  condemned,  and  executed  in  1552.  Some 
time  after,  Northumberland  persuaded  the  king,  who  was  now 
in  a  deep  decline,  to  alter  the  succession  in  favour  of  his 
cousin,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  who  had  lately  been  married  to  Lord 
Guilford  Dudley,  the  duke's  fourth  son.  After  this  measure 
Edward's  health  visibly  declined,  and  he  died  on  the  6th  of 
July,  1553,  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age  and  the  seventh 
of  his  reign.  The  traitorous  Northumberland  immediately 
sent  to  secure  the  two  princesses,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  but 
failed  in  his  attempt.  Mary  was  within  half  a  day's  journey 
of  London,  when  she  received  private  intelligence  from  the 
Earl  of  Arundel  of  her  brother's  death,  and  of  the  conspiracy 
formed  against  her.  She  retreated  into  Norfolk,  while  the 
duke  caused  Lady  Jane  to  be  proclaimed  queen.  But  the 
dissatisfaction  with  which  this  proclamation  was  received,  soon 
convinced  him  that  military  force  was  necessary  to  carry  his 
point ;  he  therefore  resolved  on  civil  war,  and  marched  an 
army  into  Suffolk.  Mary,  in  the  mean  time,  had  been  very  ac- 
tive in  rousing  the  loyalty  of  her  subjects  into  action.  The  fol- 
lowers of  her  standard  amounted  to  twice  the  number  of  the 
rebel  forces.  The  duke,  who  had  advanced  as  far  as  Ed- 
mondsbury,  finding  his  cause  hopeless,  laid  down  his  arms, 
proclaimed  Mary  Queen  of  England,  and  resigned  himself  to 
her  royal  clemency.  But  his  guilt  was  of  too  deep  a  dye  to 
be  effaced  by  any  submissions,  and  his  character  made  it  un- 
safe for  any  government  to  pardon  such  an  offender.  Before 
he  was  executed,  he  openly  confessed  his  belief  of  the  Catho- 
lic faith,  to  which  he  exhorted  all  present  to  return,  as  well 
as  to  their  obedience  to  their  lawful  sovereign.  Two  others 
suffered  death  with  him,  and  eight  more  were  condemned. 
Among  these  were  Lady  Jane  and  Lord   Guilford   Dudley, 

6* 


30  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAP, 

wliose  execution  was  put  ofl'  and  probably  never  would  have 
ensued,  had  not  a  subsequent  rci)ellion  made  it  seem  neces- 
sary for  the  queen's  safety  and  the  tranquillity  of  tlie  stale. 
A  ffcneral  pardon  followed  these  acts  of  justice:  the  queen 
remitted  tlie  subsidy,  which  had  been  granted  to  her  brother, 
and  no  sovereign  seems  to  have  ascended  the  throne  with  more 
universal  satisfaction.  She  was  solemnly  crowned  at  West- 
minster on  the  1st  of  October,  and  shordy  after  the  Parlia- 
ment met  by  summons.  They  began  the  session  by  some 
popular  acts  ;  they  next  proceeded  to  declare  the  validity  of 
King  Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Arragon,  stigmatized 
Cranmer's  conduct  for  pronouncing  the  sentence  of  divorce, 
and  annulled  every  public  act  that  had  been  passed  in  conse- 
quence of  it.  All  statutes  made  in  the  last  reign  ajrainst  the 
Catholic  religion  were  repealed,  and  the  form  of  divine  wor- 
ship was  restored  to  the  state  in  which  Henry  left  it.  Bishop 
Bonner  was  reinstated  in  the  see  of  London,  and  orders  were 
issued  to  use  the  Roman  ritual  throughout  the  whole  kins- 
dom.  One  of  the  objects  the  queen  had  in  view  was  to 
strengthen  her  authority  by  a  suitable  marriage,  and  several 
persons  were  proposed  to  her  by  her  ministers.  She  had 
already  consulted  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  on  the  subject, 
who  recomiftended  his  son  Philip.  The  proposition  was  ac- 
cepted, and  the  articles  of  the  marriaffe  which  were  agreed 
upon,  seemed  so  evideiuly  to  favour  the  interests  of  England, 
that  both  houses  of  Parliament  approved  them,  by  every  ex- 
pression that  could  denote  a  sense  of  the  advantages  which 
accrued  to  the  queen  and  the  realm. 

The  re-establishing  of  the  ancient  worship,  though  enacted 
by  the  whole  legislative  authority,  united  to  the  nation's  pre- 
judices against  the  queen's  marriage  with  a  foreigner,  gave 
occasion  to  a  rebellion,  which,  failing  of  success,  only 
strengthened  that  government  it  was  designed  to  over- 
throw. An  insurrection  in  Devon  was  attempted  by  Sir  Pe- 
ter Carew,  in  1554,  but  he  was  arrested  at  Exeter,  whence  he 
escaped  to  France.  Sir  Thomas  VVyatt  collected  a  body  of 
f),Ot)()  men  in  Kent,  with  which  he  marched  to  London  ;  but 
finding  the  citizens  firm  in  tlioir  allegiance  to  the  quren,  he 
took  up  a  position  in  front  of  the  royal  army  which  lay 
entrenched  near  St.  .James's.  F'ager  to  engage,  Wyatt  rashly 
attempted  to  force  their  entrenchments;  but  he  was  rP|)u]sed, 
his  forces  rotitrd,  an'i  liimsflf  taken  prisoner.  Tlie  Duke  of 
Sufl'"olk,  who  commanded  another  party  of  rebels  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  kingdom,  was  defeated  about  the  same  time,  anl 


T.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  31 

conveyed  to  the  Tower.  In  levying  war  against  their  lawful 
sovereign,  the  views  of  these  two  rebels  were  different,  their 
crime  the  same.  The  duke's  ambition  was  to  raise  his 
daughter,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  to  the  throne;  and  his  guilt  caused 
her  to  experience  a  severity,  which  all  the  personal  merit  that 
pleaded  in  her  favour  oonld  not  avert.  She  and  her  husband 
were  beheaded  on  the  12th  of  February,  1554. 

Wyatt  wrote  a  letter  to  the  queen  from  the  Tower,  in  which 
he  revealed  the  whole  plot  of  the  conspirators,  and  frankly 
owned  their  intentions  of  placing  the  Princess  Elizabeth  upon 
the  throne.  He  also  accused  Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devonshire, 
as  being  as  deeply  concerned  in  the  plot  as  himself.  The 
princess  was  aot  ignorant  of  their  plan:  for  the  security 
of  the  public  tPanquillity  she  was  therefore  conveyed  to 
Woodstock,  where  she  was  kept  in  custody  for  some  months, 
while  Courtenay  was  sent  to  Fotheringay  Casde.  Though 
no  overt  act  of  treason  had  been  committed  by  them,  sufficient 
was  proved  against  them  to  justify  their  commitment. 

The  emperor,  thinking  it  beneath  the  dignity  of  Mary  to 
marry  one  below  the  rank  of  king,  resigned  to  his  son  the 
crown  of  Naples,  with  the  duchy  of  Milan.  Philip  arrived  in 
England  on  the  19th  of  July,  and  was  married  to  the  queen 
on  the  25th. 

The  object  which  Mary  had  most  at  heart  since  her  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  was  the  reunion  of  her  subjects  with  the 
see  of  Rome  :  Pope  Julius  III.  had,  at  her  request,  nominated 
Cardinal  Pole  his  apostolic  legate  for  that  purpose.  The 
cardinal  arrived  in  England,  November  20th :  eight  days  after, 
by  the  unanimous  consent  of  both  houses  of  Parliament,  the 
nation,  in  the  person  of  its  representatives,  was  solemnly  ab- 
solved from  spiritual  censures  by  the  legate,  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  reconciled  to  the  church.  The  clergy  received  a 
more  special  absolution  on  the  following  Thursday. 

To  prevent  the  opposition  which  was  expected  from  the 
occupiers  of  church  lands,  the  legate,  by  virtue  of  the  power 
he  had  received  for  this  purpose  from  the  sovereign  Pontiff, 
confirmed  them  to  the  lay  possessors,  with  the  consent  of 
those  who  had  been  dispossessed.  The  legislature  confirmed 
the  same.  But  the  queen  had  the  generosity  to  give  up  all  that 
share  of  the  spoils  which  had  been  annexed  to  the  crown, 
including  the  tenths  and  first-fruits,  amounting  to  ^63,000, 
altogether  about  a  million  and  a  half  of  our  present  money. 
These  last  were  restored  to  the  clergy  of  the  English  church, 
and  not  to  the  Pope,  to  whom  they  were  originally  paid.     Oa 


92  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  (_CHAP. 

tlie  authority  of  Fra  Paolo,*  some  of  our  historians  assert  that 
Paul  IV.,  the  successor  of  Julius,  expressed  his  displeasure  to 
tlie  queen  at  the  church  lands  not  having  been  restored  ;  but  the 
journal  of  the  House  of  Commons,  Cardinal  Pole's  lett(;rs, 
and  the  testimony  of  Dr.  Heylin,  Camden,  &c.,  supply  authen- 
tic information  to  the  contrary. 

The  several  rebellions  we  have  mentioned,  and  many  sub- 
sequent outrages  the  queen  endured  from  her  Protestant  sub- 
jects, out  of  hatred  to  her  religion,  were  deemed  by  her  coun- 
cil a  sufficient  motive  for  reviving  the  penal  statutes  which 
had  been  enacted  against  heretics  during  the  reign  of  Richard 
II.  aiid  the  two  succeeding  Henrys.  In  consequence  of  the 
revival  of  these  statutes,  many  persons  were  taken  up,  some 
for  treason,  and  others  for  heresy.  They  had  a  fair  trial; 
many  were  legally  convicted  and  executed,  as  the  law  direct- 
ed, but  not  in  such  numberst  nor  with  such  aggravating  cir- 
cumstances of  cruelty  as  Mr.  Hume  represents  upon  the  au- 
thority of  John  Fox,  tlie  Protestant  martyrologist.| 

Most  of  these  unhappy  persons  suffered  in  the  diocese  of 
London,  of  which  Bonner  was  bishop,  who  is  represented 
as  the  chief  actor  in  tliat  deplorable  transaction  ;  and  London 
being  the  capital,  was  likewise  the  theatre  where  the  delin- 
quents were  chiefly  to  make  their  appearance.  Tiie  most 
noted  among  the  sufferers  were  tlie  five  Protestant  bishops, 
Cranmer,  Hooper,  Ridley,  Farrar,  and  Latimer.  Archbishop 
Cranmer  had  been  confined  in  the  Tower  since  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  rebellion  in  favour  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  in  wliich 
he  had  taken  an  active  part.  He  was  then  attainted  of  high 
treason,  and   his    revenues  sequestered.       Two  years  after- 

•  Fra  Paolo  was  an  apostate  monk  of  Venice,  in  which  town  he  waf 
born,  in  1552.  His  disohcdience  to  the  Po])e  drew  upon  him  a  sentence 
of  excommunication  in  1606.  After  many  endeavours  to  introduce  into 
hi.s  country  the  errors  of  the  Genevans,  he  died  out  of  the  communion  of 
the  church  in  1623. 

■[  Heylin,  Hist.  Reformation,  p.  226. 

i  J.  Fox  relates  that  227  j)ersons  sulTered  death  by  fire  during  tliis 
reipn  ;  but  the  account  having  been  very  accurately  examined  by  the  learn- 
ed F.  Parsons,  who  lived  very  near  that  time,  was  shown  to  be  much  ex- 
aggerated, with  respect  to  the  number  and  cause  of  the  sufferers,  which 
made  an  eminent  divine  nf  ihe  church  of  Etii;l;nid  observe,  (.Vtji.  Oxun.  v. 
1,  page  2.'J1.)  that  "  where  he  produces  records,  he  m.iy  be  credilrd,  but  as 
to  other  rel:ilii)ns  he  is  of  very  slenfler  authorily."  Afler  minute  inipnry, 
not  more  than  thirteen  arc  found  to  have  sulfered  throughnut  England, 
besides  those  who  were  executed  in  Smithfield.  Sec  Phil.  Life  of  Cardi- 
nal Pole,  vol.  2,  p.  216. 


VI.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  88 

wards,  he  was  tried  by  a  spiritual  court  of  delegates  nomi- 
nated by  the  Pope,  and  being  convicted  of  obstinate  heresy 
was  degraded  and  delivered  over  to  the  civil  power,  which 
condemned  him  to  death  by  fire.  In  the  hope  of  having  his 
life  spared,  he  retracted  his  errors  ;  but  finding  his  death  inevi- 
table, he  repeated  his  former  profession  of  faith  at  the  place 
of  execution.  He  suff'ered  on  the  first  of  March,  1556.  The 
queen  nominated  Cardinal  Pole  to  succeed  him  in  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  and  the  Pope  approved  of  her  majesty's  choice. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  FIRST  MEETING  OF  THE  COUNCIL  OF  TRENT, 
IN   1546,  TO    THE   PEACE    OF    CHATEAU    CAMBRESIS,  IN   1559. 

1546. — In  consequence  of  the  resolution  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  to  humble  the  Protestant  princes,  which  had  been 
his  principal  motive  in  concluding  a  disadvantageous  peace 
with  Francis  I.,  at  Crespy,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  Constanti- 
nople and  concluded  a  dishonourable  truce  with  Solyman.  He 
stipulated  that  his  brother  Ferdinand  should  pay  an  annual 
tribute  to  the  Porte  for  that  part  of  Hungary  whicli  still  ac- 
knowledged his  sway,  and  that  the  sultan  should  retain  the 
undisputed  possession  of  the  other.  Charles,  at  the  same 
time,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Paul  III.,  the  reigning 
Pontiff,  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy.  Meanwhile  a  general 
council  had  been  assembled  at  Trent,  by  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  in  order  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  religion  ;  but  the 
Protestants,  though  they  had  appealed  to  a  general  council, 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  legality  of  this,  or  to  submit  to 
its  decrees. 

In  the  mean  time  the  death  of  Luther  threw  ihe  German 
Protestants  into  much  consternation,  but  did  not  suspend  their 
preparations  for  war.  In  a  few  weeks  they  assembled  an 
army  of  70,000  foot  and  1500  horse  ;  thougli  several  of  the 
Protestant  princes,  overawed  by  the  emperor's  power,  had 
remained  neutral  ;  while  others,  allured  by  the  prospect  of  ad- 
vantage, had  voluntarily  engaged  in  his  service.  Among  the 
latter,  Maurice,  Marquis  of  Thuringia  and  Misnia,  of  the 
house  of  Saxony,  entered  one  part  of  the  territories  of  Fre- 
derick, Elector  of  Saxony,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men,  while 
Ferdinand,  with    an   army  of   Bohemians    and    Ilungaiians 


B4  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CIIAP 

overran  the  otlier.  The  elector,  upon  receiving  the  news  thai 
Maurice  had  made  himself  master  of  all  the  electoral  domi- 
nions, except  WuicnI)or^,  Gotlia,  and  Eisenack,  returned  home 
wilh  liis  troops,  and  tims  divided  the  army  of  the  conlVile- 
rntes.  Ulm,  at  the  same  time,  submitted  to  the  emperor,  and 
the  other  cities  and  princes  followiHl  this  example,  'I'hus  tiiis 
confederacy,  lately  so  powerful,  fell  to  pieces,  scarcely  any  of 
the  associates  now  remaining  in  arms,  except  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse. 

1547. — The  death  of  Francis  I.,  while  he  was  forming  new 
schemes  against  the  emperor,  encouraged  this  prince  to  act 
with  vigour  in  Germany,  more  especially  as  he  thought  he 
had  nothing  to  fear  for  some  time  from  the  negotiations  or 
personal  efibrts  of  the  young  monarch,  Henry  H.  Ciiaihis 
marched  into  Saxony,  at  the  head  of  10,000  veterans,  attack- 
ed the  main  body  of  the  elector's  forces  at  Mulhausen,  near 
ISIulberg,  defeated  them,  and  took  the  elector  prisoner.  He 
then  marched  towards  Wittenberg,  the  capital  in  that  age  of 
the  electoral  branch  of  the  Saxon  family.  Sybilla  of  Cleves, 
the  elector's  wife,  animated  the  citizens  to  a  vigorous  defence  ; 
but  understanding  that  her  husband  was  made  prisoner,  and 
that  his  life  might  probably  pay  for  her  resistance,  she  sub- 
mitted to  the  cnn(jueror's  terms.  The  elector  agreed  to  resign 
his  electoral  dignity  and  put  the  imperial  troops  in  possession 
of  his  capital :  in  return,  the  emperor  promised  not  only  to 
spare  his  life,  but  to  settle  on  hiui  and  his  posterity  tiie  city 
of  Gotha  and  its  territories,  with  a  revenue  of  50,000  florins. 
The  Saxon  electorate  was  inslanUy  bestowed  upon  Maurice. 
The  emperor,  having  humbled  tlie  Germans,  summoned  a  diet 
to  meet  him  at  Augsburg,  in  order  to  compose  finally  the  con- 
troversies witii  regard  to  religion,  wliicli  had  so  long  disturbed 
the  empire. 

1548. — Here  he  publishfulhis  famous  Intp.rim,  which  pleased 
neither  party :  the  Protestants  thought  it  granted  too  litde 
indulgence;  the  Catholics,  too  much.  The  emperor,  how- 
ever, fond  of  his  plan,  adhered  to  his  resolution  of  carry- 
ing it  into  execution,  and  slripptnl  Ulm  and  Augsburg  of  their 
privileges  on  account  of  tiuiir  opposition.  This  example 
made  many  other  cities  feign  compliance.  In  1519  died  Paul 
FH.,  and  in  1550  he  was  succeeded  in  the  papacy  by  the 
Gardiii  il  de  Monti,   who  took  the  name  of  .Inliiis  HI. 

1550. — Charles  continued  to  carry  all  before  him  in  Ger- 
many, till  he  altemplfd  to  transmit  llie  (Mnpirc,  as  W(dl  as  th« 
kingdom  of  Spain  and   his  dominions  in  tlie  Low  Countries 


fl.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  35 

to  his  son  Philip.  He  had  formeily  assisted  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand in  obtaining  the  dignity  of  King  of  the  Romans  :  he  now 
hoped  to  prevail  on  the  electors  to  cancel  that  choice,  or,  at 
least,  to  elect  Philip  a  second  King  of  the  Romans,  substitut- 
ing him  as  next  in  succession  to  his  uncle ;  but  all  the  elect- 
ors concurred  in  expressing  such  strong  disapprobation  of  the 
measure,  that  Charles  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the  design. 
The  war  of  Parma,  where  the  French  took  the  field  as  allies 
of  Octavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma,  and  the  Imperialists,  as 
the  protectors  of  the  Holy  See,  was  distinguished  by  no  me- 
morable event ;  but  the  alarm  which  it  occasioned  in  Italy 
prevented  most  of  the  Italian  prelates  from  repairing  to  Trent, 
at  the  time  appointed  for  the  reassembling  of  the  council. 
The  war  continued  in  Germany  till  the  middle  of  the  follow- 
ing year:  the  Protestants  being  headed  by  Maurice,  wliom 
Charles  had  made  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  receiving  great  suc- 
cours from  Henry  II.  of  France.  In  July,  1552,  the  elector, 
after  great  success,  repaired  to  Passau,  and  concluded  a  peace 
on  these  conditions  :  that  the  confederates  should  lay  down 
their  arms  ;  that  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  should  be  set  at 
liberty ;  that  a  diet  should  be  held  within  six  months  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  religion;  that,  in  the  mean  time,  no  injury  or 
impediment  should  be  offered  to  either  party;  tbat  the  impe- 
rial chamber  should  administer  justice  impartially  to  both  par- 
ties ;  and  Protestants  be  admitted  indiscriminately  with  Catho- 
lics, to  sit  as  judges  in  that  court.  Thus,  by  the  peace  of 
Passau,  was  Protestantism  established  in  Germany.  Henry 
II.  experienced,  in  this  treaty,  what  every  prince,  who  lends 
his  aid  to  the  authors  of  a  civil  war,  may  expect.  His  ser- 
vices were  forgotten,  and  his  associates  made  a  merit  with 
their  sovereign,  of  the  ingratitude  with  which  they  had  aban- 
doned their  protector. 

The  peace  of  Passau  was  no  sooner  signed,  than  Maurice, 
who  was  considered  by  the  Protestants  as  the  deliverer  of 
Germany,  marched  into  Hungary  against  the  Turks,  at  the  head 
of  20,000  men,  in  consequence  of  his  engaj ements  with  Fer- 
dinand, whom  the  hopes  of  such  assistance  had  made  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  confederates.  But  the  vast  superiority  of  the 
Turkish  armies,  together  with  the  dissensions  between  Mau- 
rice and  Castaldo,  the  Austrian  general,  who  was  piqued  at 
being  superseded  in  the  command,  prevented  the  elector  from 
doing  any  thing  of  consequence.  In  the  mean  time,  Charles  V., 
concerned  at  the  loss  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  of  which 
Henry  II.  had  made  himself  master,  and  which,  till  then,  had 


J6  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  QcHAP. 

formed  the  barrier  of  the  empire  on  llie  side  of  France,  deter- 
mined to  recover  the  three  bishoprics.  Henry,  on  his  side, 
resolved  to  defiMid  his  conquests  with  vigour.  Charles  first  laid 
siege  to  Mctz,  which  was  defended  by  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
Duke  of  Guise.  But  after  losing  30,000  men  before  the  place, 
he  was  obliirod  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  This  was  not  the 
only  contradiction  the  emperor  received:  the  inhabitants  of  Si- 
enna revolted  from  him  and  put  themselves  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  French;  after  which  a  Turkish  fleet  appeared  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  after  plundering  and  burning  several 
places  on  the  coast  of  Calabria,  filled  INaples  itself  with  con- 
sternation. 

1553. — An  obstinate  battle  was  fought  at  Siverhausen,  in 
the  duchy  of  Lunenhurg,  between  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  and 
Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony.  After  a  long  and  desperate  fight, 
Albert's  army  fled,  but  Maurice  received  a  wound,  of  which 
he  died  two  days  after.  As  he  left  only  one  daughter,  after- 
wards married  to  the  famous  William,  Prince  of  Orange, 
Frederic,  the  degraded  elector,  claimed  the  electoral  dignity, 
but  the  states  declared  in  favour  of  Augustus,  Maurice's  brother, 
whose  descendants  still  possess  the  electoral  dominions. 

During  these  transactions  in  Germany,  the  war  was  prose- 
cuted in  the  Low  Countries  with  considerable  vigour.  Charles 
laid  siege  to  Terouane,  and  that  important  place  was  carried 
])y  assault.  Hesden  was  also  invested,  and  carried  in  the  same 
manner.  The  imperial  arms  were  less  successful  in  Italy 
The  Viceroy  of  Naples  failed  in  an  attempt  to  recover  Sienna, 
and  the  French  not  only  established  themselves  firndy  in 
Tuscany,  but  conquered  part  of  Corsica;  while  Castaldo,  the 
imperial  general,  was  obliged  to  abandon  Transylvania  to  tlie 
Turks. 

In  the  following  year,  (1554,)  the  war  continued  betwetin 
Charles  and  Henry,  with  various  success  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, and  in  Italy  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  French,  who 
were  deft;ated  in  the  batUe  of  Marciano,  and  lost  Sienna,  after 
a  siege  of  ten  months.  In  the  mean  time,  Germany  was  occu- 
pied with  the  famous  recess  of  Augsburg,  which  established 
Protestantism  on  the  footing  it  has  ever  since  held  :  though 
(Cardinal  Carafl'a,  who  was  now  raised  to  the  papal  throne 
under  the  name  of  Paul  IV.,  protested  loudly  against  the 
indulgence  given  to  the  Protestants. 

1555. — An  event  happened  this  year  which  astonished  all 
Europe.  The  Emperor  Charles,  though  no  more  than  fifty- 
six  years  of  age,  an  age   wluii  ()l)jccts  of  ambition  operate 


Vl,3  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  37 

with  full  force  on  the  mind,  and  are  generally  pursued  with 
the  greatest  ardour,  resolved  to  resign  all  his  hereditary  do- 
minions to  his  son  Philip.  Sated  with  the  vanity  of  human 
greatness,  he  determined  to  seek,  in  the  tranquillity  of  retire- 
ment, that  happiness  which  he  had  in  vain  pursued  amid  the 
tumults  of  war  and  the  intrigues  of  state.  In  consequence  of 
this  resolution,  Charles  assembled  the  states  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries at  Brussels,  and  seating  himself,  for  the  last  time,  in  the 
chair  of  state,  he  explained  to  his  subjects  the  motives  of  his 
resignation,  and  solemnly  devolved  his  authority  upon  Philip. 
He  recounted  with  dignity,  but  without  ostentation,  all  the 
great  things  which  he  had  undertaken  and  performed  since 
the  commencement  of  his  administration ;  and  that  enumera- 
tion gives  us  the  highest  idea  of  his  activity  and  industry. 
"I  have  dedicated,"  said  he,  "from  the  seventeenth  year  of 
my  age,  all  my  thoughts  and  attention  to  public  objects,  re- 
serving no  portion  of  m}-  time  for  the  indulgence  of  ease ; 
and  very  little  for  the  enjoyment  of  private  pleasure.  Either 
in  a  pacific  or  hostile  manner,  I  have  visited  Germany  nine 
times,  Spain  six  times,  France  four  times,  Italy  seven  times, 
the  Low  Countries  ten  times,  England  twice,  Africa  as  often  ; 
and  while  my  health  permitted  me  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
a  sovereign,  and  the  vigour  of  my  constitution  was  equal,  in 
any  degree,  to  the  arduous  task  of  governing  such  extensive 
dominions,  I  never  shunned  labour,  nor  repined  under  fatigue  , 
but  now,  when  my  health  is  broken,  and  my  vigour  exhausted 
by  the  rage  of  an  incurable  distemper,  my  growing  infirmi- 
ties admonish  me  to  retire  ;  nor  am  I  so  fond  of  reigning  as  to 
retain  the  sceptre  in  an  impotent  hand,  which  is  no  longer  able 
to  protect  my  subjects.  Instead  of  a  sovereign  worn  out  with 
disease,  I  give  you  one  in  the  prime  of  life,  already  accustomed 
to  govern,  and  who  adds,  to  the  vigour  of  youth,  all  the  atten- 
tion and  sagacity  of  maturer  years." 

Then  turning  towards  Philip,  who  fell  on  his  knees  and 
kissed  his  father's  hand,  "  It  is  in  your  power,"  said  Charles, 
"  by  a  wise  and  virtuous  administration,  to  justify  the  extra- 
ordinary proof  which  I  give  this  day  of  my  paternal  affection, 
and  to  demonstrate  that  you  are  worthy  of  the  confidence 
which  I  repose  in  you.  Preserve,"  added  he,  "  an  invio- 
lable regard  for  religion;  maintain  the  Catholic  faith  in  its 
purity  ;  let  the  laws  of  your  country  be  sacred  in  your  eyes ; 
encroach  not  on  the  rights  of  your  people  ;  and  if  the  time 
should  ever  come,  when  you  should  wish  to  enjoy  the 
tranquillity  of  private  life,  may  vou  have  a  son  to  whom  you 

6' 


88  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [cHAP. 

can  resign  your  sceptre,  with  as  much  satisfaction  as  1  give 
up  mine  to  you."  A  few  weeks  after,  the  emperor  resigned 
to  Philip  tlie  Spanisli  crown,  witli  all  the  dominions  depend- 
ing upon  it,  both  in  llie  oUl  and  new  worhl ;  reserving  nothing 
to  himself  but  an  annual  pension,  and  retired  into  Spain. 

1556. — This  year  was  chiefly  occupied  in  negotiations  be- 
tween King  Philip  II.,  Ilrnry  II.,  and  Pope  Paul  IV.  In 
the  following  year,  Pliilip  determined  to  act  with  such  vigour, 
as  should  convince  all  Europe,  that  his  father  had  not  erred 
in  resigning  to  him  the  reins  of  government.  Finding  that 
Henry  had  violated  the  truce,  he  assembled  in  the  JjOw  Coun- 
tries a  body  of  50,000  men;  he  obtained  10,000  from  Eng- 
laivd,  and  gave  the  command  of  this  army  to  Emanuel  Pliili- 
bcrt,  Duke  of  Savoy,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  age. 
The  duke  advanced  by  rapid  marches  into  Picardy,  and  laid 
siege  to  St.  Quintin,  then  deemed  a  place  of  considerable 
strength.  The  Constable  Montmorenci  hastened  to  its  relief; 
but  his  army  was  cut  to  pieces,  himself  made  prisoiier,  and  the 
town,  after  being  long  and  gallantly  defended  by  Coligny,  was 
taken  by  storm.  Philip  next  reduced  Horn  and  Catelet,  which, 
with  St.  Quintin,  were  the  sole  fruits  of  one  of  the  most  de- 
cisive victories  gained  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Catho- 
lic king  vowed  to  build  a  churcii,  a  monastery,  and  a  palace, 
in  honour  of  St.  Lawrence,  on  whose  feast  the  battle  of  St. 
Quintin  had  been  fought.  Tlie  same  principle  that  dictated 
the  vow,  directed  the  construction  of  the  fabric.  It  was  so 
formed  as  to  resemble  a  gridiron,  on  which  the  saini  had  suf- 
fered martyrdom.  Such  is  the  origin  of  the  famous  Escurial, 
near  Madrid,  the  royal  residence  of  the  Kings  of  Spain.  In 
1558,  the  Duke  of  Guise,  taking  advantage  of  the  defenceless 
state  of  Calais,  the  garrison  of  which  amounted  only  to  500 
men,  made  himself  master  of  it,  an  offer  from  Philip  to  rein- 
force it  having  been  rejected  by  the  Queen  of  England's  mi- 
nisters. This  town  and  its  adjacent  territory  had  been  in  the 
possession  of  tlie  English  upwards  of  200  years,  and  as  it 
opened  to  them  an  easy  and  secure  entry  into  the  heart  of 
France,  was  regarded  as  the  most  valual)le  foreign  possession 
belonging  to  the  crown.  The  English  were  highly  enraged 
at  this  loss;  they  murmured  loudly  against  the  queen  and  her 
council,  who,  afler  engairing  the  nation  in  a  ruinous  war,  had 
exposed  it,  by  their  negligence,  to  so  severe  a  disgrac(;.  'i'liis 
event,  with  her  subjects'  ill  conduct  towards  her,  and  the  con- 
cerns of  religion,  so  affected  Mary,  that  she  fell  into  a  slow 
fever,  which  put  an  end  to  her  short  and   turbulent  reign  of 


ri.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  39 

five  years.  "  When  I  am  dead,"  said  she  to  her  attendants, 
"you  will  find  the  word  Calais  engraven  on  my  heart." 
Cardinal  Pole  died  the  next  morning,  aged  58. 

The  Princess  Elizabeth  was  in  Hertfordshire,  when  news 
was  brought  to  her  of  her  sister's  death.  She  hastened  im- 
mediately to  London,  where  she  met  with  a  very  flattering 
reception.  At  her  accession  she  found  the  kingdom  divided 
into  two  parties  ;  one  for  the  old,  the  other  for  the  new  reli- 
gion. Her  first  steps  were  calculated  to  inspire  the  Catholics 
with  a  hope  that  she  would  remain  in  the  communion  of 
that  church,  the  rights  and  liberties  of  which  she  solemnly 
promised  to  maintain  in  her  coronation  oath,  Avhich  she  took, 
according  to  the  ancient  form,  on  the  14th  of  January,  1559. 
But  the  friends  of  the  reformation,  M'ho  had  endeavoured  by 
force  to  place  her  upon  iier  sister's  throne,  were  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  real  sentiments  of  her  heart ;  and  with  some  of  these 
she  devised  measures  for  re-establishinsf  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion.  A  Parliament  devoted  to  her  will  assembled  on  the 
25th  of  January. 

Their  first  session  declared  Queen  Elizabeth  true  and  law- 
ful heir  to  the  crown  of  England,  though  it  passed  no  act  for 
the  validity  of  her  mother's  marriage,  on  which  her  title  prin- 
cipally depended,  A  bill  was  brought  in  for  suppressing  the 
monasteries,  which  Mary  had  re-established.  It  passed  with 
litde  opposition,  and  was  followed  by  another  for  annexing 
supremacy  to  the  crown.  This  act  was  vigorously  opposed 
in  both  houses  of  Parliament,  yet  it  was  carried  by  a  decided 
majority,  and  Elizabeth  was  declared  supreme  head  on  earth 
of  the  church  of  England. 

The  primary  cause  of  the  queen's  quarrel  with  the  Holy 
See,  has  by  some  been  attributed  to  the  cool  reception  her 
ambassador  met  with  at  Rome,  and  the  rude  reproach  she  re- 
ceived from  Paul  IV.,  for  having  assumed  the  crown  under  a 
doubtful  title.  This  Pope,  though  possessed  of  many  good 
qualities,  was  unfortunately  of  a  very  .austere  and  haughty 
disposition,  and  old  age,  and  his  late  quarrel  with  Spain  had 
rather  increased  than  mollified  the  asperity  of  his  temper. 
Elizabeth  was  far  from  entertaining  in  private  any  aversion  to 
the  Catholic  religion.  It  was  chiefly  owing  to  her  partiality 
for  the  hierarchy,  and  for  many  points  of  the  ancient  faith  and 
discipline,  that  the  church  of  England  has  departed  less  from 
the  ancient  church,  than  any  other  sect  of  Protestants.  She 
was  known,  in  private  conversation,  to  ridicule  her  own  spi- 
ritual supremacy  and  to  acknowledge  that  of  tlie  Pope ;  she 


4U  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

even  intimated  a  wisli,^  if  circumstances  would  permit  it,  to 
follow  tlie  original  faiih ;  but  as  ambition  was,  among  all  her 
strong  passions,  tl:e  most  violent,  and  as  the  counsellors  to 
whom  she  referred  the  question  of  religion  convinced  her  that 
it  was  for  her  temporal  interest  to  cast  off  the  Pope's  jurisdic- 
tion and  to  suppress  the  ancient  religion,  she  took  her  mea- 
sures accordingly,  and  became  in  the  end  one  of  the  most 
violent  persecutors  of  Catholics  upon  record.  Her  dissimula- 
tion, cruelty,  and  profligacy  of  manners  were  only  inferior  to 
her  ^inliition;  and  as  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  court 
would  be  more  virtuous  than  the  queen,  it  is  described  by  an 
eyewitness  and  member  of  it  as  a  scene  of  all  enormities, 
whore  wickedness  reigned  in  the  highest  degree.!  This  is 
particularly  applicable  to  the  three  most  distinguished  mem- 
bers of  her  ministry,  namely,  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Sii 
William  Cecil,  afterwards  Lord  Burghley,  the  chief  promoter 
of  the  civil  wars  among  the  subjects  of  foreign  princes  and  of 
the  persecutions  raised  at  home;  and,  lastly.  Sir  Francis  Wal- 
singham,  the  more  immediate  agent  in  those  murderous  acts 
of  assassination  and  horrid  forgeries  wliicli  Elizabeth's  minis- 
ters employed  to  siiorten  the  life  of  the  Queen  of  Scots,  and 
also  of  her  son,  James  LJ 

After  passing  the  Supremacy  Act,  Parliamejit  proceeded  to 
abolish  tiie  mass,  and  to  revive  the  form  of  divine  worsliip 
wliich  had  been  framed  in  Edward's  reign.  The  aversion 
which  the  bishops  and  many  of  the  clergy  evinced  for  this 
change,  made  the  government  resolve  to  put  them  to  the  test, 
by  tendering  to  them  the  oath  of  supremacy.  Out  of  fifteen 
bishops  who  remained  in  the  kingdom,  only  one  consented  to 
take  it;  the  others  were  deprived  of  their  sees,  and  put  under 
an  arrest.  Great  numbers  of  the  more  eminent  clergy  went 
abroad;  the  major  part  of  the  parochial  clergy  conformed 
against  the  conviction  of  conscience,  as  Echurd  writes.  In 
order  to  extirpate  the  Catholic  religion,  a  variety  of  penal 
statutes  were  enacted,  by  which  the  exercise  of  that  religion 
was  foi!)i(lden,  under  pain  of  forfeitures,  imprisonments,  and 
death.  This  system  of  persecution  was  kept  up  with  unre- 
lenting severity  during  the  whole  reign  of  Elizal)elli.  It  ig 
dilhcult  to  ascertain  the  precise  number  of  those  who  sufTered 

•  Sec  all  the  outhorities  quoted  by  Dr.  Milner  in  his  "  Letters  to  a  Pre- 
bendary," L-  fi.  p.  lyi. 

I  Viz.,  Sir  Nirhohis  Taunt,  undrr  secretary  to  Wal.singhnm.  Birch'a 
Mcin.  Eliz.,  vol.  1.     History  of  England,  l)y  Bfvil  Hit^mms,  p.  234 

^  See  Whittaker's  Vindication  of  Mary,  Cjueen  of  Scots. 


fl.'J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  4] 

loss  of  estates,  banishment,  imprisonment,  tortures,  and  death 
during  this  period.*  These  punishments  were  arbitrarily  inflict- 
ed by  a  Court  of  Commission,  consisting  of  forty-four  mem- 
bers, whose  jurisdiction  extended  aver  the  whole  kingdom, 
and  whose  power  was  unlimited. 

The  Protestant  religion  was  hardly  established  in  England, 
when  a  schism  was  formed  in  its  bosom,  which  seemed  to 
threaten  its  destruction.  The  emigrants,  whom  the  queen  had 
recalled  in  the  beginning  of  her  reign,  had  returned,  strongly 
imbued  with  the  puritanical  principles  of  Zuinglius  and  Cal- 
vin. To  compromise,  if  possible,  the  jarring  tenets  which 
set  the  Protestant  sects  at  variance,  a  convocation  met  in 
1562.  The  famous  thirty-nine  articles  were  then  agreed 
upon,  approved  by  the  queen,  published,  and  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  Parliament.  From  this  digression  we  must  return 
to  the  affairs  of  the  continent,  at  the  date  of  Elizabeth's 
accession. 

1558. — 'After  the  reduction  of  Calais,  the  Duke  of  Guise 
invested  Thionville,  in  the  Duchy  of  Luxembourg,  one  of 
the  strongest  towns  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
forced  it  to  capitulate  :  but  the  French  meeting  with  less  suc- 
cess in  other  parts,  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  compelled  to  re- 
linquish his  schemes  and  hasten  to  the  frontiers  of  Picardy 
The  Spanish  and  Flemish  army,  under  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
and  the  French  under  the  Duke  of  Guise,  both  40,000  strong 
were  now  encamped  within  a  few  leagues  of  each  other :  peace 
began  to  be  mentioned  in  each  camp.     Henry  and  Philip  were 
equally  desirous  of  it,  and  the  Abbey  of  Cercamp  was  fixed 
upon  as  the  place  of  congress. 

While  Henry  and  Philip  were  making  these  advances  to- 
wards a  treaty,  which  restored  tranquillity  to  Europe,  Charles 
V.  ended  his  days  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Justus,  in  Estra- 
madura,  having  lived  in  his  solitude  on  a  plan  that  would  have 
suited  a  gentleman  of  moderate  fortune.  He  sometimes  ad- 
mitted a  few  gentlemen  to  visit  him  and  entertained  them  as 
equals,  or  he  employed  himself  in  study  and  in  framing  curi- 
ous works  of  mechanism  :  but  he  always  set  apart  a  consider- 
able portion  of  his  time  for  religious  exercises,  and  regularly 
attended  divine  service  in  the  church  of  the  monastery.  To  pre- 
pare himself  more  immediately  for  death,  he  formed  the  singular 
resolution  of  celebrating  his  own  obsequies.    His  tomb  was  ac- 

*  See  the  "  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests,"  by  the  Right  Rev   Richard 
Challoner. 


48  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAF. 

cordinol y  erected  in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery  ;  his  attendants 
walked  thither  in  fimoral  procession,  Charles  followed  them  in 
his  shroud  ;  licMnglaid  in  liis  coflin,  the  burial  service  was  clianfed 
over  him,  he  himself  joining  in  tlie  prayers  that  were  oiTered 
for  the  repose  of  his  soul,  and  mingling  his  tears  with  tliose 
wliifh  his  attendants  shed.  The  fatiguing  length  of  the  cere- 
mony, or  the  awful  sentiments  whicii  it  inspired,  threw  him 
into  a  fever,  of  which  he  died,  in  the  fifty-ninth  year  of  his 
age.  His  enterprises  speak  his  most  eloquent  panegyric,  and 
his  history  forms  his  iiighcst  character.  His  abilities  as  a 
statesman  and  as  a  general  were  of  the  first  class,  but  his  ambi- 
tion frustrated  the  chief  end  of  government — the  happiness 
of  the  nations  committed  to  his  care. 

Philip  H.,  unwilling  to  lose  his  connexion  with  England, 
warmly  espoused  the  interests  of  Elizabetli  in  the  conference 
of  (ycrcamp,  and  afterwards  at  Chateau  Cambresis,  whither 
they  were  removed  ;  and  insisted  that  the  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Henry  and  Elizabeth  should  be  concluded  in  form  before 
that  between  France  and  Spain.  By  this  treaty  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  the  King  of  France  should  retain  possession  of  ( 'a- 
lais  during  eight  years,  at  the  end  of  which  term  he  should 
restore  it  to  England  or  pay  500,000  crowns;  but  as  the  force 
of  this  stipulation  was  made  to  depend  on  Elizabeth's  pre- 
serving inviolate,  during  that  period,  the  peace  with  France 
and  Scothmd,  all  men  of  discernment  saw  it  was  but  a  decent 
pretext  for  al^andoning  Calais,  and  palliating  what  could  not 
be  prevented.  The  principal  articles  of  peace  between  France 
and  Spain  were,  that  all  conquests  on  this  side  tlie  Alps  since 
15.51  should  be  mutually  restored;  that  the  duchy  of  Savoy, 
the  principality  of  I'iedmont,  the  county  of  I3resse,  and  ot'ier 
territories,  formerly  subjec-t  to  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  sliould  be 
restored  to  Emanuel  Pliilibertupon  his  marriage  with  Margaret 
of  France;  that  the  French  king  should  evacuate  the  phices 
he  held  in  Tuscany  and  Sienna,  receive  the  Genoese  into 
favour,  and  give  up  to  them  the  towns  he  had  taken  in  Corsi- 
ca ;  but  he  was  allowed  to  keep  Metz,  Toid,  and  Verdun.  All 
past  transactions  either  of  princes  or  sui)jects  were  to  t)e  bm'ied 
in  obHvion.  'J'hus  was  peace  ajjiiin  estabMslied  in  Europe,  alnioi*t 
every  prince  and  state  in  (Christendom  being  comprehended 
in  the  trraty  of  Chateau  ('ambrcsis,  as  aRies  either  of  Henry 
or  rhilij).  Among  thes(!  conlracting  powers  were  included 
the  Kings  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Poland. 

155!). — Meanliuif,  Henry  H.  liaving  l)een  killed  in  a  tourna- 
ment, while  celebrating  tiic  es])ousals  of  his  sister  with  the 


fl.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  43 

Duke  of  Savoy,  his  son,  Francis  11.,  a  weak  prince  and  under 
age,  already  married  to  tiie  Queen  of  Scots,  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  France.  A  few  weeks  after,  Paul  IV.  ended  his 
pontificate,  and  thus  the  personages  who  had  so  long  sustainei' 
the  principal  characters  on  the  great  theatre  of  Europe  disap- 
peared at  the  same  time. 

As  this  period  forms  an  era  in  history,  it  is  a  proper  place 
to  mention  some  of  the  persons  most  eminent  for  learning 
who  flourished  during  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  religious 
institutions  which  were  then  established.  The  celebrated  Eras- 
mus was  born  at  Rotterdam,  in  1467.  If  we  consider  him  as 
a  genius  and  a  scholar,  envy  itself  must  own  he  holds  a  rank 
to  which  very  few  have  ever  attained.  His  industry  could 
only  be  surpassed  by  the  ease  with  which  the  most  various 
and  difficult  attainments  became  familiar  to  him.  But  as  a 
Christian,  he  was  a  disgrace  to  the  clergy  to  which  he  belonged  ; 
there  having  been  scarcely  any  error  advanced  against  the 
Catho-lic  celigion,  which  he  professed,  that  he  has  not  revived, 
or  any  tenet  of  belief  or  practice  which  he  has  not  oppugned, 
either  by  profane  sneers  or  sophistry.  He  resided  a  long 
time  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  He  died  a 
Catholic,  in  15.36. 

St.  Ignatius  Loyola  founded  the  celebrated  order  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  about  the  same  time  that  Martin  Luther  was 
disseminating  his  doctrine  in  Germany.  The  first  fathers  of 
this  religious  order  were  remarkably  learned  ;  and  two  of 
them  assisted  at  the  council  of  Trent  as  the  Pope's  divines. 
The  order  was  confirmed  by  Paul  III.,  in  1540,  and  its  found- 
er lived  to  see  it  spread  almost  over  the  whole  world,  and 
divided  into  twelve  provinces,  which  contained  at  least  a  hun- 
dred colleges.  A  few  years  before  his  death,  St.  Francis  Xa- 
vier,  the  most  celebrated  of  his  disciples,  terminated  a  life, 
which  had  been  an  object  of  admiration,  not  only  to  the  Catho- 
lic church,  but  to  those  who  are  estranged  from  her  tenets. 
After  having  enlightened  the  empire  of  Japan,  and  several 
other  kingdoms  of  the  East,  with  the  gospel,  he  died  in  the 
Island  of  Sanciano,  as  he  was  preparing  to  communicate  that 
blessing  to  China,  in  1552. 

In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  Catholic  parents  were  de- 
barred from  bestowing  any  education  on  their  children  at  home, 
Dr.  William  Allen,  afterwards  cardinal,  formed  the  design  of 
establishing  English  colleges  on  the  continent  for  the  educa- 
tion  of  youth.  By  the  help  of  charitable  contributions,  an 
establishment  for  that  purpose  was  opened  at  Douay,  which 


44  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAH. 

then  formed  a  part  of  the  Spanish  Nethcrhuuls.  During  the 
trouhles  in  that  country,  it  removed  to  Rheims,  in  1578,  hut 
returned  to  Douay  in  1593,  and  continued  to  be  a  flourishing 
college  till  the  rcvohition  in  France,  at  the  close  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  IJishop  of  Geneva, 
was  born  in  1507,  and  seemed  destined  by  Providence  to 
repair  the  ravages  which  heresy  had  made  in  Savoy.  His  zeal 
in  the  conversion  of  Zuinglians  and  Calvinists  was  attended  bj 
the  most  surprising  success,  and  he  had  the  happiness  to  bring 
back  seventy-two  thousand  to  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic 
church.  Having  instructed  the  faithful  by  his  writinirs,  edi- 
fied them  by  the  admirable  example  of  his  virtues,  and  insii- 
tuted  the  holy  order  of  the  visitation  of  the  blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  he  died,  December  28th,  16'22.  St.  Vincent  of  Paul, 
the  illlustrious  apostle  oT  France,  in  these  later  ages,  was 
born  at  Puy,  in  that  kingdom,  in  the  year  15(57.  His  life, 
from  the  foundation  of  his  first  congregation  of  Missionary 
Priests,  (called  Lazarists,  from  the  priory  of  St.  Lazarus,  ceded 
to  them  in  1033,)  was  a  continued  series  of  works  of  charity. 
His  pious  foundations  for  missions  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
as  well  as  distant  provinces  and  states,  for  spiritual  retreats, 
for  foundlings,  and  for  the  sisters  of  charity,  have  proved  the 
resource  of  France,  in  these  latter  days,  against  the  deluge  of 
impiety  and  infidelitv,  which  had  overturned  nearly  all  her 
ancient  religious  establishments.  St.  V'incent  exerted  his  zeal 
in  opposing  the  partisans  of  Jansenius,  and,  worn  out  with 
labour  and  austerities,  died,  September  27th,  1000,  in  the  85th 
year  of  his  age.  St.  Philip  Neri,  founder  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  Oratorians  at  Home,  who  died  in  1595,  and  St.  'I'ere- 
sa,  the  celebrated  reformer  of  the  Carmelites,  deceased  at 
Avila  in  Spain,  in  1582,  deserve  by  their  labours  and  writings 
to  be  mentioned  in  history,  if  the  narrow  limits  of  this  abridg- 
ment did  ):ot  oblige  us  to  omit  any  particulars  of  their  lives.  St. 
Charles  liorromaeo,  Cardinals  nfllarmin  and  Herulle,  are  iiamcf 
that  will  ever  be  mentioned  with  sentiments  of  admiration. 


ni.j  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  45 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE    HISTORY  OF  THE    NORTHERN    KINGDOMS 

OF    EUROPE. 

Norway,  a  part  of  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  had  kings  of  its 
own  till  the  year  1375.  Of  Sweden,  we  have  no  certain  ac- 
count till  the  year  714,  when  it  was  converted  to  Christianity 
by  St.  Anscharius,  about  which  time  Denmark,  the  ancient 
seat  of  the  Cimbri,  is  said  to  have  been  governed  by  a  king 
called  Gormo. 

Margaret,  daughter  of  Waldemar  III.,  King  of  Denmark, 
married  Hacquin,  King  of  Norway,  son  of  Magnus  III.,  King 
of  Sweden.  On  the  death  of  her  son  Olaus,  the  last  male 
heir  of  these  three  crowns,  which  were  more  elective  than 
hereditary,  she  succeeded  by  consent  of  the  states  to  the 
Danish  throne  in  1387.  She  was  elected  Queen  of  Norway, 
which  she  had  governed  as  regent,  and  the  Swedes,  being  op- 
pressed by  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  whom  they  had  chosen 
king,  offered  their  crown  to  Margaret. 

The  three  northern  crowns  were  no  sooner  fixed  on  her 
head,  than  she  laboured  to  render  their  union  perpetual.  She 
convoked  the  states  of  the  three  kingdoms  to  meet  at  Calmar, 
in  Sweden,  where  it  was  established  as  a  fundamental  law 
that  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  should  thenceforth  have 
but  one  and  the  same  sovereign,  who  should  be  chosen  suc- 
cessively by  each  kingdom,  and  then  approved  by  the  other 
two.  But  this  union  proved  the  source  of  much  discontent 
and  of  many  barbarous  wars.  The  national  antipathy  be- 
tween the  Danes  and  Swedes  was  now  heightened  by  national 
jealousy.  Margaret's  partiality  to  the  former  is  said  to  have 
been  evident;  and  under  her  successor,  Eric,  the  Swedes 
openly  revolted,  choosing  their  Grand  Marshal  Canutson,  first 
regent,  and  afterwards  king.  The  Swedes,  however,  return- 
ed to  their  allegiance  under  Christian  I.  of  Denmark,  in  1442, 
but  again  revolted  from  the  same  prince ;  they  renewed  the 
treaty  of  Calmar,  under  John,  his  successor;  revolted  a  third 
time,  and  were  reduced  by  Christian  II.  to  the  state  of  a  con- 
quered people.  The  Swedes,  on  revolting  from  Christian  I., 
had  conferred  the  administration  of  the  kingdom  on  Steen 
Sture,  whose  son  succeeded  to  the  regency.  The  authority 
of  young  Sture  was  acknowledged  by  the  body  of  the  nation, 


•  6  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

&ut  disputed  by  Gustaviis  TroUe,  Archbishop  of  Upsal  and 
Primate  of  Sweden,  wliose  father  had  been  a  competitor  for 
the  achninistration,  and  whom  Christian  II.  had  brouirlu  over 
to  his  interest.  Besie<Ted  in  liis  castle  of  JSteclva,  and  obUged 
to  surrender,  notwithstanding  the  interposition  of  the  Danish 
nionarcli,  tlie  arclibishop  was  deprived  of  all  his  bcnericea. 
In  his  distress  he  applied  to  Pope  Leo  X.,  who  excommuni- 
cated the  regent  and  his  adherents,  corarnillir-g  the  execution 
of  the  decree  to  the  King  of  Denmark.  Pursuant  to  this 
decree,  the  Nero  of  the  North,  as  Christian  II.  is  deservedly 
Btylcd,  invaded  Sweden  with  a  powerful  army;  but  being 
worsted  in  a  great  battle,  he  pretended  to  treat,  and  offered  to 
go  in  {)erson  to  Stockholm  to  confer  with  the  regent,  provided 
six  hostages  were  sent  as  a  pledge  of  his  safety.  The  pro- 
posal was  accepted,  and  six  of  the  first  nobility,  among  whom 
was  Gustavus  Vasa,  grand-nephew  of  King  Canutson,  were 
put  on  board  the  Danish  lleet,  whom  the  perfidious  Christian 
carried  prisoners  to  Denmark.  Next  year  he  relumed  with 
a  more  formidable  armament,  invaded  West  Gothland,  where 
Steen  Sture,  advancing  to  erive  him  balde,  fell  into  an  ambus- 
cade, and  received  a  mortal  wound.  The  Swedisii  army,  left 
without  a  head,  was  soon  dispersed;  and  the  conqueror  left  the 
senate  no  time  to  deliberate  upon  the  choice  of  a  new  regent. 
He  immediately  marched  to  the  capital,  wasting  every  thing 
before  him  with  fire  and  sword.  Stockholm  surrendered,  and 
Gustavus  Trolle,  resuming  his  archiopiscopal  functions,  crown- 
ed Christian  King  of  Sweden.  Tiiis  coronation  was  followed 
by  one  of  the  most  tragical  scenes  recorded  in  history.  Chris- 
tian, knowing  how  much  he  was  hated  by  the  Swedes,  affected 
clemency,  and  swore  he  would  govern  Sweden,  not  as  a  con- 
queror, but  as  a  father;  after  which  he  invited  the  senators 
and  grandees  to  a  sumptuous  entertainment,  which  lasted  three 
days.  Meanwhile,  a  plot  was  formed  for  extirpating  the 
Swedish  nol)ility.  On  the  last  day  of  the  feast,  as  had  bern 
preconcerted,  Archbishop  Trolle  reminded  the  king,  that 
thouirh  his  majesty  had  graciously  pardoned  all  past  offences,  no 
satislaction  had  been  made  to  tin;  Pope,  in  whose  name  he 
demand(!d  justice.  The  hall  was  instantly  fdled  with  armed 
men,  who  secured  the  guests ;  the  primate  proceeded  against 
them  as  excommunicated  persons;  a  scaffold  was  (^reeled  be- 
fore the  palace  gale;  and  ninety-four  persons  of  dislinclion, 
»mong  whom  was  Eric  Vasa,  father  of  the  famous  Gustavus, 
were  publicly  executed.  The  rage  of  the  soldijcry  was  ihen 
let  l«)ose  against  the  citizens,  who   were  butchered  without 


VII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  47 

mercy.  The  body  of  the  late  regent  Avas  dug  from  the  gravg 
and  exposed  on  a  gibbet.  But  Sweden  soon  found  a  deliverer 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  Danes  in  Gustavus  Vasa,  who  had 
escaped  from  his  prison  in  Denmark,  and  concealed  himself 
in  the  habit  of  a  peasant  among  the  mountains  of  Dalecarlia. 
There,  deserted  by  his  sole  companion  and  guide,  who  car- 
ried off  his  little  treasure,  bewildered,  destitute  of  every  ne- 
cessary, and  ready  to  perish  with  hunger,  he  entered  himself 
among  the  miners,  and  worked  under  ground  for  bread,  with- 
out relinquishing  the  hope  of  one  day  ascending  the  throne  of 
Sweden.  Again  emerging  to  light,  and  distinguished  among 
the  Dalecarlians  by  his  lofty  mien,  and  by  his  strength  and 
agility,  he  had  acquired  a  considerable  degree  of  ascendency 
over  them  before  they  were  acquainted  with  his  rank.  He 
made  himself  known  to  them  at  tbeir  annual  feast,  and  exhorted 
them  to  assist  him  in  recovering  the  liberties  of  their  country. 
They  listened  with  admiration,  and  begged  to  be  led  against 
the  enemy.  Gustavus  did  not  suffer  their  ardour  to  cool. 
He  immediately  attacked  the  governor  of  the  province  in  his 
castle,  took  it  by  assault,  and  sacrificed  the  Danish  garrison 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  Dalecarlians.  Like  animals  that  have 
tasted  the  blood  of  their  prey,  they  were  now  furious,  and  fit 
for  any  desperate  enterprise.  Gustavus  everywhere  saw  him- 
self victorious,  and  gained  partisans  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
Every  thing  yielded  to  his  valour;  he  was  first  chosen  regent, 
and,  in  1523,  King  of  Sweden.  Meanwhile,  Christian  H., 
become  obnoxious  by  his  tyranny  even  to  his  Danish  subjects, 
was  degraded  from  the  throne ;  and  not  daring  to  trust  any  one, 
he  retired  into  the  Low  Countries,  the  hereditary  dominions  of 
his  brother-in-law,  Charles  V.  Frederic,  Duke  of  Holstein, 
Christian's  uncle,  was  elected  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway. 
He  aspired  also  to  the  sovereignty  of  Sweden;  but  finding 
Gustavus  firmly  seated  on  that  throne,  he  laid  aside  his  claim, 
and  afterwards  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Gustavus  and  the 
Hanse  towns  against  the  deposed  monarch.  Christian  H., 
who,  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  recover  his  crown, 
died  in  prison.  Frederic  was  succeeded  on  the  Danish  throne 
by  his  son.  Christian  HL,  in  1533.  This  prince  iiUroduced 
Lutheranism  into  Denmark  and  Norway  in  1537,  in  imitation 
of  Gustavus,  who  had  already  established  it  in  Sweden. 
Christian  HL  died  in  1558,  and  Gustavus  in  1560. 

While  Denmark  and  Sweden  were  thus  rising  to  distinction, 
Russia  remained  buried  in  that  barbarism  and  obscurity,  from 
which  it  was  called   by    tho   creative    genius   of  Peter   the 


IB  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Great,  who  made  his  country  known,  and  rendered  it  formi- 
dable to  the  rest  of  Emopc.  Jolin  Basilowitz,  Grand  Duke 
of  Muscovy,  threw  olf  the  yoke  of  the  Tartars,  to  wliom 
Russia  had  been  long  tributary;  invaded  tlieir  territories, 
made  himself  master  of  Novogorod  and  also  of  Cassan,  where 
he  was  crowned  with  the  diadem  of  that  country,  and 
assumed  the  tide  of  czar,  wliich,  in  the  Sclavonian  language, 
signifies  king  or  emperor.  To  these  acquisitions,  his  grand- 
pon,  John  Basilowitz  II.,  added,  in  1554,  Astracan  and  also 
Siberia,  hitherto  as  litde  known  to  the  Russians,  as  Mexico 
was  to  the  Spaniards  before  the  expedition  of  Cortez,  and  ns 
easily  conquered.  This  prince  sent  ambassadors  to  the  court 
of  England,  and  concluded  a  treaty  of  commerce  wiUi  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  15G9:  Richard  Chancellor,  an  English  navigator, 
having  discovered,  some  years  before,  (by  doubling  the  North 
Cape,)  the  port  of  Archangel,  on  the  river  Dwina,  Poland 
began  to  be  of  some  consideration  in  tlie  north  after  the  race 
of  the  Jagellons  came  to  the  throne,  and  united  Lithuania  to 
that  kingdom.  The  crown,  though  elective,  continued  imin- 
terrupted  in  the  same  family  nearly  two  hundred  years;  and 
Sigismund  I.,  contemporary  with  Charles  V.,  was  esteemed 
a  great  prince. 

Prussia,  which  has  since  made  so  great  a  figure  in  the  af- 
fairs of  Europe,  was  only  erected  into  a  kingdom  in  the  year 
1700.  It  was  originally  conquered  from  the  pagans  of  the 
north,  by  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who  held  it  up- 
wards of  300  years.  At  last  AUiert,  Margrave  of  Branden- 
burg, grand  master  of  tlie  order,  embracing  Lutheranism, 
and  willing  to  aggrandize  himself  at  the  expense  of  the 
knights,  agreed  to  share  Prussia  with  his  uncle,  Sigismund  I., 
King  of  Poland,  on  condition  of  paying  he  mage  for  the  pro- 
tection of  that  crown.  The  proposal  was  accepted ;  Albert, 
in  1582,  took  the  tide  of  duke  in  his  new  terriiory;  hence 
part  of  the  present  kingdom  is  called  Ducal  Prussia,  and  that 
part  ceded  to  Poland  on  the  western  side  of  the  Vistula, 
Regal  Prussia. 


VIII.]]  OENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  49 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

GERMANY,  FROM    THE    RESIGNATION    OF    CHARLES    V.,  IN    1556, 
TO    THE    DEATH    OF    MAXIMILIAN    II.,    IN    1576. 

1556. — Charles  V.  was  succeeded  on  the  imperial  throne 
by  his  brother,  Ferdinand  I.,  the  beginning  of  whose  reign  waa 
distinguished  by  the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  which  reconciled  tlie 
house  of  Hesse  to  that  of  Nassau.  Pius  IV.,  who  was  raised 
to  the  papacy  in  1559,  confirmed  the  imperial  dignity  to  Fer- 
dinand, and  issued  a  bull  for  reassembling  the  Council  of  Trent. 
On  the  publication  of  that  bull,  1561,  the  Protestants  assem- 
bled at  Naumberg  in  Saxony,  and  came  to  a  resolution  of  ad- 
hering to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  whatever  should  be 
determined  in  the  Council  of  Trent.  Meanwhile,  Ferdinand 
issued  orders  for  convoking  a  diet  at  Frankiort,  where  he  con- 
ducted matters  with  so  much  address,  that  his  son  Maximilian, 
already  promoted  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  was  elected  King  of 
the  Romans,  with  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  Germanic  body. 

1563. — The  famous  Council  of  Trent,  which  had  been  so 
often  suspended  and  renewed  during  eighteen  years,  was 
finally  concluded  in  the  December  of  this  year.  In  the  last 
session,  (December  5,)  all  the  decrees  of  the  former  sessions 
under  Paul  HI.,  Julius  HI.,  and  Pius  IV.,  were  confirmed  and 
subscribed  by  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  fathers,  viz. :  four 
legates  of  the  holy  see,  two  cardinals,  three  patriarchs,  twenty- 
five  archbishops,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  bishops,  thirty- 
nine  deputies  of  absent  prelates,  seven  abbots,  and  seven 
generals  of  religious  orders.  Among  these,  many  were 
eminent  for  their  learning,  and  many  for  their  extraordinary 
virtue.  Matters  were  discussed  in  particular  congregations, 
and  lasdy  defined  in  the  sessions.  It  was  agreed  that  points 
of  faith  and  matters  of  discipline  should  be  jointly  considered, 
and  the  condemnation  of  errors  and  the  decrees  for  the  refor- 
mation of  manners  carried  on  together;  there  being  abuses  in 
practice  relative  to  many  points  of  doctrine.  Besides  the 
prelates,  above  one  hundred  and  fifty  theologians,  some  of  the 
ablest  from  all  Catholic  nations,  attended  the  council,  and  dis- 
cussed every  point  in  the  conferences.  Innumerable  difficulties 
had  been  thrown  in  tlie  way,  first  by  one  prince  and  then  by  an- 
other ;  and  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  unw^earied  zeal  of  St. 
Charles  Borromreo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  that  they  were  at 
length  happily  removed.    The  council  was  confirmed  by  Pope 

7 


BO  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  (]CHAP 

Pins  IV.,  January  26tli,  15G4.*     Soon  after  died  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  I.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Maximilian 
II.,  who,  in  the  Iieuinning  of  his  reign,  was  obliged  to  engage  in 
a  war  against  ibe  Turks.     Solyman  II.,  whose  valour  and  am- 
bition had  been  so  long  terrible  to  Christendom,  though  now 
no  longer  fit  for  the  field,  continued  to  make  war  by  his  gene- 
rals.    He  even  projected,  it  w'as  said,  the  conquest  of  the 
German  empire.     The  affairs  of  Transylvania  furnished   him 
with  a  pretext  for  taking  up  arms.     Jolm  Sigismund,  prince 
of  that  country,  had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Hungary, 
(which  his  mother  had  resigned  for  some  possessions  in  Silesia,) 
and  put  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Grand  Seignior. 
Maximilian    immediately  sent   an    army  against  Sigismund, 
under   the    command    of  Lazarus  Schuendi.      The  imperial 
general  took  Tokay,  and  would  soon  have  reduced  all  Tran- 
sylvania, had  not  Solyman  despatched  an  ambassador  to  the 
imperial  court  to  negotiate  in  behalf  of  his  vassal.     By  this 
envoy,  matters  were  seemingly  accommodated;  however,   the 
sultan  did  not  lay  aside  his  projects,  nor,  happily,  the  emperor 
his  suspicions.     While  Maximilian  convoked  a  diet  at  Augs- 
burg for  regulating  the  domestic  affairs  of   the  empire    and 
securing  it  against  the  Turks,  Solyman  sent  a  fleet  and  army 
to  reduce  tlie  Isle  of  Malta,  whence  he  hoped   to  drive  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  whom  he  had  formerly  expelled  from 
Khodcs,  and  who  still  continued  to  annoy  the  infidels.     But 
the  rock  of  Malta  proved  fatal  to  Solyman's  glory.     His  gene- 
ral, Musiapha,  after  a  siege  of  almost  five  months  and  the  loss 
of  24,000  men,  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise.     La 
Valette,  Grand  Master  of  Malta,  and  the  whole  body  of  knights, 
signalized  themselves  wonderfully  on  that  occasion  ;  but,  as 
the  Turks  were  continually  reinforced,  the  island  must  at  last 
have  surrendered,  if  Don  Garcia,  Governor  of  Sicily,  had  not 
come  to  its  relief  with  12,000  men.     Solyman,  in  revenge  of 
this  disappointment  and  disgrace,  the  greatest  he  had    ever 
endured,  sent  a  fleet  to  reduce  the  Isle  of  Scio,  and  ravaged  the 
coast  of  Italy;  and  having  invaded  Hungary  with  a  powerful 

•  In  vain  have  the  advocates  for  reliijious  innovations  tried  to  invalidnto 
the  authority  of  this  last  cecumenical  council :  its  doctrinal  decisions  are 
those  of  truth :  they  are  received  by  the  whole  Catholic  church,  and  will 
stand  inviolable  to  the  end  of  time.  All  kincdoms  and  states  in  communion 
with  the  gee  of  Rome  were  witnesses  of  llie  *;ur[irisiiiiT  change  vvhicli  the 
regulations  ordered  by  ihe  couiiri!  etfected  both  in  the  clerpy  and  the  people 
An  exact  arrouni  of  this  council  is  to  Ik'  found  in  the  esteemed  history  of 
Cardinal  Palavicini,  who  has  charged  Fra  Paolo's  compilation,  bo  often 
cited  by  Protestant  authors,  with  no  fewer  than  3G0  errors. 


V1II.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  51 

army,  he  laid  siege  to  Sigeth.  This  city  is  strongly  situated 
in  a  marsh,  about  fifteen  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Drave,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Sclavonia,  and  was  tlien  the  bulwark  of  Stiria 
against  the  Turks.  The  brave  Count  Zerini  long  defended  it 
with  incredible  valour,  against  the  whole  force  of  the  sultan. 
Meanwhile,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  lay  in  tlie  neighbourhood, 
with  an  army  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  besiegers,  without 
daring  to  attempt  its  relief.  At  length,  all  the  works  being 
destroyed,  and  the  magazine  set  on  fire  by  the  enemy,  Zerini 
sallied  forth,  at  the  head  of  300  chosen  men,  and  died  gallantly, 
sword  in  hand.  During  tlie  siege  of  Sigeth,  before  which  the 
Turks  lost  above  3000  men,  Solyman  expired,  in  the  76th  year 
cA  his  age  ;  but  the  emperor,  being  unacquainted  with  tliis 
circumstance,  which  was  kept  secret  till  after  the  reduction 
of  the  place,  had  retired  towards  the  frontiers  of  Austria,  as 
soon  as  informed  of  the  death  of  Zerini.  Solyman  was  suc- 
ceeded on  the  Ottoman  throne  by  his  son,  Selim  II.,  who 
immediately  concluded  a  truce  of  twelve  years  with  Maximi- 
lian. In.  consequence  of  this  suspension  of  arms,  and  the 
pacific  disposition  of  the  emperor,  Germany  enjoyed  some 
repose.  Selim,  in  the  mean  time,  was  not  idle.  After 
attempting,  but  without  success,  to  subdue  the  kingdom  of 
Persia,  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  then 
belonging  to  the  republic  of  Venice.  Pope  Pius  V.  and  the 
King  of  Spain,  on  the  first  rumour  of  this  invasion,  had  entered 
into  a  league  with  the  Venetians  for  the  defence  of  Cyprus. 
But  Nicosia,  the  capital,  was  taken  by  storm  before  the  arrival 
of  the  allied  fleet,  and  the  Turks,  being  daily  reinforced  with 
fresh  troops,  had  reduced  all  the  towns  in  the  island  except 
Famagosta.  That  city,  after  a  most  gallant  and  obstinate 
defence,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  ;  and  Mustapha,  the  Turkisli 
general,  neither  respecting  courage  in  an  enemy,  nor  the  faith 
of  treaties,  ordered  Bragadino,  the  governor,  to  be  flayed  alive, 
and  the  companions  of  his  heroism,  either  to  be  butchered,  or 
chained  to  the  oar.  This  conquest  is  said  to  have  cost  the 
Turks  100,000  men. 

1571. — The  fate  of  Cyprus  alarmed  the  Christian  powers; 
Charles  IX.,  however,  excused  himself,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tressed state  of  his  kingdom,  from  entering  into  the  league 
against  the  Turks ;  the  emperor  pleaded  his  truce ;  and  the 
German  princes  were  in  general  too  much  interested  in  the 
issue  of  the  religious  wars  in  France  and  the  Low  Countries, 
to  enlist  themselves  under  the  banner  of  the  cross.  But 
Ph";  .ip  II.  entered  warmly  into  the  cause,  and  engaged  to  bear 


62  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [_CHA.P 

half  tlie  expense  of  the  armament.  Tlie  Venetians  fortilied 
tlieircity,  ami  aiio-ineiited  ilirir  (leel.  The  Pope,  who  was  the 
soul  of  llie  enterprise,  sent  twelve  jralleys  undur.Mark  Antony 
Calonna.  Venieri  commanded  tlie  Venetian  galleys,  D  )ria 
those  of  Philip.  Tlie  chief  eoinniand  was  ^iven  to  Don  .I.>hn 
of  Austria,*  who  had  lately  distin<ruished  himself  in  Spain,  by 
Bubduinff  the  Morescoes,  or  descendants  of  the  Moors. 

After  the  reduction  of  Cyprus,  the  Turks  not  only  ravaged 
with  impunity  the  coasts  of  Dalmatia  and  Istria,  but  also  those 
of  Italy.  'I'heir  ileet,  consisting  of  230  galleys,  was  met  by 
the  confederates,  on  the  5th  of  October,  in  the  gulf  of  Lepanto, 
near  Corinth,  where  was  fou<rht  the  greatest  naval  engagement 
that  modern  times  had  beheld.  'J'he  force  on  both  sides  was 
nearly  equal,  and  the  contest  was  long,  fierce,  and  bloody. 
Assisted  by  a  brisk  gale  of  wind,  which  promised  them  the 
greatest  possible  advantage,  the  Turks  bore  down  with  rapidity 
on  the  Christians  ;  but  just  as  the  fight  began,  a  calm  ensued, 
which  was  succeeded  by  a  high  wind  entirely  favourable  to 
the  latter.  The  hostile  combatants  fought  hand  to  hand  in 
most  of  the  galleys,  and  grappled  together  as  on  a  field  of 
balde.  Ilali,  the  Turkish  admiral,  surrounded  by  400  Janiza- 
ries, and  Don  John  of  Austria,  with  an  equal  number  of  chosen 
men,  maintained  such  a  struggle  for  three  hours.  At  last  llali 
was  slain  and  his  galley  taken :  the  banner  of  the  cross  was 
displayed  from  the  mainmast,  and  the  Ottoman  admiral's  head 
fixed  on  the  stern.  All  now  was  carnage  and  confusion. 
The  cry  of  "victory"  resounded  tiirough  the  Christian  fieet, 
and  the  Turkish  army  everywhere  gave  way.  They  lost 
30,000  men  in  the  conflict,  10,000  more  were  taken  prisoners, 
and  1.3,000  Christian  slaves  set  at  liberty.  This  victory, 
which  filled  Constantinople  with  the  deepest  melancholy,  was 
celebrated  at  Venice  with  the  most  splendid  festivals.  'I'he 
battle  of  Lepanto  was  followed  by  a  peace  between  the  Vene- 
tians and  Turks,  in  which  treaty  Cyprus  was  ceded  to  the 
Ottoman  empire.  The  Pope  was  displeased  at  this  treaty, 
fvnich  was  certainly  dislionouralile  to  ('hristcndom.  Don 
John  was  equally  dissatisfied  with  the  Venetians,  and  afler 
separating  himself  from  the  confederates,  took  Tunis ;  but  in 
spriuL',  1. "374,  the  Turks  attacked  it;  and.  though  tralhmtly  de- 
fended, it  was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  garrison  put  to  the  sword. 

In  lilTO,  Maximilian  II.  dieil,  while  preparing  to  support 
his  election  to  tlie  throne  of  Poland  ;  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  empire  by  his  son,  Rodolph  II. 

•  He  was  natural  son  to  Charles  V, 


IX."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OV    EUROPE  ftS 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ENGLAND,    SCOTLAND,    AND    FRANCE,    DURING    THE    SAME 

PERIOD,  i.  e.  FROM  1559,  TO   1574. 

The  treaty  of  Chateau  Cambresis  by  no  means  restored 
tranquillity  to  Europe.  The  Protestant  opinions  had  already 
made  considerable  progress,  both  in  France  and  the  Low 
Countries,  and  Philip  II,  and  Henry  II.  were  equally  resolved 
to  extirpate  heresy  from  their  dominions. 

1559. — A  new  source  of  discord  also  arose  between  France 
and  England.  The  family  of  Guise,  who  had  negotiated  the 
marriage  between  the  dauphin,  now  Francis  II.,  and  their 
niece,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  governed  both  king  and  kingdom. 
Catherine  of  Medicis,  the  queen-mother,  the  two  princes  of 
the  blood,  Anthony  de  Bourbon,  King  of  Navarre,  and  his 
brother  Lewis,  Prince  of  Conde,  besides  the  Constable  Mont- 
morenci  and  his  powerful  family,  became  envious  of  their 
power.  A  civil  war  ensued,  not  unlike  that  which  was  going 
on  at  the  same  time  in  Scotland ;  while  Elizabeth,  whose 
tide  was  disputed  in  both  these  countries,  openly  favoured  the 
Protestants  in  Scotland  and  the  Huguenots*  in  France.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  year  1560,  the  King  of  Navarre  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde  were  seized  and  thrown  into  prison;  the 
latter  was  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sudden  demise  of  the 
young  king  arrested  the  uplifted  blow.  Catherine  of  Medi- 
cis was  appointed  guardian  to  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  only  eleven 
years  of  age  at  his  accession,  and  invested  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  realm,  though  not  with  the  tide  of  regent.  In 
consequence  of  her  maxim,  "  Divide  and  govern,"  the  King 
of  Navarre  was  named  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom ; 
the  sentence  against  Conde  was  annulled ;  the  Constable  de 
Montmorenci  was  recalled  to  court,  and  the  C4ui?es,  though 
still  in  power,  found  a  counterpoise  to  the  weight  of  their  influ- 
ence. The  death  of  Francis  11.  without  issue,  freed  the 
Queen  of  England  from  the  perils  attending  a  union  of  Scot- 
land with  France,  and  the  still  greater  apprehensions  of  Eng- 
land's becoming  eventually  a  province  dependent  on  the  latter 
crown  ;  but  she  still  regarded  the  Queen  of  Scots  as  a  danger- 
ous rival,  and  again  insisted  on  a  renunciation  of  her  claim  tc 
the  English  crown.    Mary,  though  now  slighted  by  the  queeiv 

•  The  Protestants  in  France  were  called  Huguenots. 


64  OENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

motlier,  forsaken  by  the  swarm  of  courtiers,  who  appear  only 
in  the  sunshine  of  prosperity,  and  overwhehned  with  the  sor- 
row which  so  sad  a  revirse  of  fortune  could  occasion,  refused 
to  make  any  solemn  renunciation  of  the  English  throne.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  states  of  Scotland  invited  Mary  to  return 
to  her  native  kingdom  and  assume  the  reins  of  government. 
Accustomed  to  the  elegance  and  gayety  of  a  splendid  court, 
and  to  the  conversation  of  a  polished  people,  among  whom  she 
had  been  educated  from  her  infancy,  she  contemplated  with 
horror  the  barbarism  of  her  own  country,  and  the  turbidence 
of  her  native  subjects,  who  had  so  violendy  spurned  all  civil 
and  religious  authority.  By  the  advice  of  her  uncles,  how- 
ever, she  determined  at  last  to  set  out  for  Scotland,  and  de- 
manded of  Elizabeth  a  safe  conduct  during  her  voyage.  That 
request  Elizabeth  rejected  in  such  a  manner  as  gave  rise  to  no 
.slight  suspicion  of  a  design,  either  to  obstruct  the  passage,  or 
intercept  the  person  of  the  (Jueen  of  Scots.  This  ungenerous 
behaviour  of  Elizabeth  did  not  retard  Mary's  departure  from 
France.  She  embarked  on  board  a  galley  at  Calais,  and  pass- 
ing the  English  fleet  under  cover  of  a  thick  fog,  arrived  safclv 
at  Leilh.  The  first  appearance  of  afi'airs  in  Scotland  was 
more  favourable  than  Mary  had  reason  to  expect.  Her  youth 
and  beauty,  with  the  gracefulness  of  her  person,  attracted  uni- 
versal admiration;  while  her  elegant  manners  and  enlightened 
understanding  commanded  general  respect.  She  was  skilled 
in  many  languages,  ancient  as  well  as  modern.  The  progress 
she  had  made  in  all  the  arts  and  sciences  esteemed  useful  or 
ornamental,  was  far  beyond  what  is  commonly  attained  by 
those  who  are  born  and  educated  as  the  immediate  heirs  of 
the  crown  ;  and  a  courteous  affability,  which,  without  lessen- 
ing the  dignity  of  a  sovereign,  gains  the  hearts  of  her  subjects, 
rendered  all  her  other  qualities  more  engaging. 

'I'lie  first  measures  of  Mary's  administration  confirmed  the 
prepossessions  entertained  in  her  favour;  but  these  promising 
appearances  soon  vanished.  Mary  professed  the  Catholic 
religion,  and  this  circumstance  alone  rendered  her  odious  to 
her  subjects,  and  formed  the  ground  of  all  the  calumnies  and 
insults  that  were  afterwards  heaped  upon  her.  It  was  with 
much  difTiculty  she  could  even  obtain  permission  to  have  mass 
celebrated  in  her  own  ebapel.  The  pidpits  soon  became  mere 
stages  for  railing  airainst  her,  and  exciting  the  people  to  re- 
bellirm.  The  (^alvinistical  ppcacher,  John  Knox,  who  had 
recently  arrived  from  (Jeneva,  stvled  her  the  Jezebel  of  the  na- 
tion.   She  applied  for  relief  to   Elizabeth,  who  immediately 


IX. J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  55 

put. on  all  the  appearance  of  cordial  reconciliation  and  friend- 
ship, while  she  secretly  encouraged  the  factious  party. 

Meanwhile,  Catherine  of  Medicis,  the  queen-mother  of 
France,  in  consequence  of  her  maxim  of  dividing  to  govern, 
only  increased  the  troubles  of  the  state.  By  balancing  the 
Catholics  against  the  Protestants,  the  Duke  of  Guise  against 
the  Prince  of  Conde,  she  endeavoured  to  render  herself  ne- 
cessary to  both,  and  to  establish  her  own  dominion  on  their 
constrained  obedience.  Moved  by  zeal  for  the  ancient  rehgion, 
the  Constable  Montmorenci  united  with  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
and  the  King  of  Navarre  joined  the  same  party.  Fourteen 
armies  were  levied  and  put  in  motion  in  different  parts  of 
France.  Each  province,  each  city,  each  family,  was  distract- 
ed with  internal  rage  and  animosity.  Wherever  the  Hugue- 
nots prevailed,  the  altars  were  overthrown  and  churches  de- 
molished. 

1562. — They  had  already  made  themselves  master  of  Or- 
leans, Bourges,  Lyons,  Poitiers,  Tours,  Angers,  Angouleme, 
Rouen,  Dieppe,  Havre-de-Grace,  and  several  places  of  less 
note,  when  Philip  H.  sent  6,000  men  to  reinforce  the  Catho- 
lics;  and  the  Prince  of  Conde  craved  the  assistance  of  the 
Queen  of  England,  offering  to  put  her  in  possession  of  Havre- 
de-Grace.  Elizabeth  immediately  sent  3,000  men  to  take 
possession  of  that  town,  and  3,000  more  to  defend  Dieppe 
and  Rouen,  but  the  Catholics  carried  Havre  by  assault,  and 
put  the  garrison  and  inhabitants  to  the  sword. 

1563. — The  Duke  of  Guise,  animated  by  this  conquest, 
laid  siege  to  Orleans  :  he  had  the  prospect  of  speedy  success 
in  this  undertaking,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  an  enthusi- 
astic Huguenot  in  the  pay  of  Coligni.  Conde  and  Montmo- 
renci, the  heads  of  the  two  opposite  parties,  had  both  been 
taken  prisoners  ;  tired  of  captivity,  they  became  desirous  of  an 
accommodation,  and  soon  came  to  an  agreement.  A  general 
amnesty  was  published,  and  both  sides  laid  down  their  arms. 

1564. — In  the  subsequent  treaty  between  England  and 
France,  Elizabeth,  who  had  unjustifiably  broken  the  terms  ot 
the  peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis,  was  content  to  receive  one- 
fourth  part  of  the  sum  originally  stipulated  in  lieu  of  the  resti- 
tution of  Calais,  which  town  remained  united  with  the  French 
territory. 

The  negotiation  for  the  marriage  of  the  Queen  of  Scots 
awakened  anew  the  jealousy  of  Elizabeth,  and  roused  the  zeal 
of  the  Scottish  reformers.  The  young  queen's  hand  was  so- 
licited by  the  Archduke  Charles,  the  emperor's  third  son,  by 


M  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAP 

Don  Carlos,  heir  apparent  to  the  Spanisli  monarchy,  aii^l  by 
the  Duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III.  Eitlier  of  these 
foreiijn  alliances  would  have  been  alarming  to  Elizabeth  and 
to  .Mary's  Prulostaiit  subjects;  she  therefore  resolved  to  make 
Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley,  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lenox, 
and  her  cousiu-german,  by  Margaret  Douglas,  niece  of  Hen- 
ry VIIL,  the  partner  of  her  sway.  In  the  following  year, 
(1565)  the  malcontents  appeared  in  arms;  but,  by  the  vigour 
and  activity  of  Mary,  they  were  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
England.  The  deceitful  Elizabeth,  upon  whose  promises  of 
protection  they  had  revolted,  refused  to  see  them  except  in  the 
presence  of  the  French  and  Spanish  ambassadors ;  and  the 
Scottish  exiles,  finding  themselves  so  harshly  treated  by  her, 
had  recourse  to  the  clemency  of  their  ofTended  sovereign  for 
pardon. 

1506. — The  associated  lords  having  plotted  the  ruin  of 
their  queen,  whose  religion  they  hated,  determined  upon  the 
murder  of  her  husband,  as  a  preparatory  step  to  it.  Darnley, 
a  weak  and  profligate  character,  was  supposed  to  have  lost 
the  queen's  afTections,  and  it  is  certain  that  tlie  indilTorence 
he  sliowed  her,  ill  requited  the  fondness  and  generosity  she 
had  testified  for  him.  The  murder  of  her  faithful  secretary, 
Rizzio,  before  her  face,  by  Darnley's  order,  and  in  his  pre- 
sence, was  an  action  no  less  shocking  to  humanity,  than  in- 
sulting to  the  dignity  of  Mary,  who  not  long  after  gave  birth 
to  a  son,  named  James,  afterwards  King  of  England.  The 
next  year,  (1567,)  her  husband  being  taken  ill  at  Glasgow,  she 
followed  him  thillier,  and  as  soon  as  he  could  be  moved,  ac- 
companied him  to  Edinburgh,  in  order  that  she  might  be  able 
to  attend  him  herself,  without  being  absent  from  her  son. 
There,  in  a  house  called  "  Kirk  of  Field,"  situated  without 
the  town  walls,  to  which  she  removed  the  king  for  the  benefit 
of  the  air,  she  continued  her  assiduous  care  of  him,  sleeping 
several  nights  in  an  adjoining  room.  On  the  9th  of  February, 
about  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  she  left  the  house  in  order  to  be 
present  at  a  masked  ball  in  the  palace,  given  in  honour  of  the 
mnrriajje  of  one  of  her  domestics  ;  and  at  two  o'clock  the 
next  morning,  the  house  in  which  the  king  lay  was  blown  up 
with  gunpowder,  and  liis  dead  body  was  found  in  a  neighbouring 
enclosure.     Suspicion  instanUy  fell  on  the  Earl  of  IJothwell.* 

•  A  bond  had  been  rntrrcd  into,  siunrd  by  the  Earls  Hunllry,  Argyle, 
Botbwf'll,  Maiiland,  and  Sir  Jumps  Balfour,  to  murder  tho  king.  Both- 
well  Lndcrlook  to  perpetrate  the  deed. 


Oi.']  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  5? 

Among  the  profligate  characters  in  which  Scotland  then  abound- 
ed, he  held  a  conspicuous  rank.  He  aspired  to  a  partnership 
in  the  throne,  and  the  rebel  lords,  who  judged  him  a  proper 
instrument  for  the  accomplishment  of  their  dark  design,  haa 
encouraged  him  in  his  ambitious  views  ;  after  the  assassina- 
tion of  Darnley,  they  entered  into  a  new  league,  to  promote  a 
marriage  between  him  and  the  queen,  and  to  assist  him  against 
all  mortals  whomsoever.  Meanwhile,  Mary  summoned  a  par 
liament,  at  the  request  of  her  father-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Len- 
nox ;  and  a  day  was  appointed  for  the  trial  of  Bothwell  and 
some  others,  whom  the  earl  accused  of  the  murder  of  his  son  ; 
but,  intimidated  by  the  superior  power  of  his  adversary,  Len- 
nox, on  the  eve  of  the  trial,  wrote  from  Stirling,  to  request  an 
adjournment  of  forty  days.  This  petition  was  rejected;  and 
as  no  prosecutor  appeared,  the  jury  returned  a  verdict  in  fa- 
vour of  the  accused,  (April  12.)  But  as  Mary  resolutely 
refu;3ed  the  Earl  of  Bothwell's  suit,  convinced  that  force  alone 
could  extort  her  consent,  he  watched  the  opportunity,  when 
the  queen  was  returning  from  a  visit  to  her  infant  son,  at  Stir- 
ling, (April  24,)  seized  her  person,  and  conducted  her  to  the 
castle  of  Dunbar,  where  she  remained  a  prisoner  ten  days, 
nor  was  she  released  from  confinement  till  she  had  consentecf 
to  become  the  wife  of  Bothwell.  The  marriage  ceremony 
was  performed  at  Holyrood  House,  by  a  reformed  minister, 
on  the  15th  of  May.  Soon  after  the  rebel  lords,  who  had  so 
recently  bound  themselves  to  assist  Bothwell,  entered  into  a 
new  association,  and,  under  pretence  of  revenging  the  late 
king's  death,  made  their  queen,  with  the  infamous  Bothwell, 
prisoners.  Him  they  suffered  to  escape,  lest  he  might  betray 
their  secrets.  He  fled  to  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  thence  to 
Norway,  where  he  lost  his  senses,  and  died  in  confinement. 
The  captive  queen  they  conveyed  to  the  Castle  of  Lochleven, 
where  they  compelled  her  to  resign  her  crown  to  her  infant 
son,  and  to  appoint  Earl  Murray,  her  natural  brother  and  pro- 
fessed enemy,  regent.  Forged  letters,  supposed  to  have  pass- 
ed between  her  and  Bothwell,  during  the  late  king's  life,  were 
handed  about,  to  make  the  world  believe  that  she  was  accessa 
ry  to  the  murder  of  her  husband.  To  palliate  their  conduct, 
the  associated  lords  alleged  that  they  had  offered  to  obey  Ma- 
ry as  their  sovereign,  provided  she  would  give  up  Bothwell, 
to  suffer  as  the  murderer  of  Darnley.  The  queen,  on  her 
side,  who,  in  the  first  instance,  had  been  made  to  believe  him 
innocent  by  these  same  men,  said  she  had  proposed  to  con- 
vene the  three  estates  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  submit  to  their 


58  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

determiii;\tion  tlie  validity  of  her  marriage,  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  nmnh^rors. 

Tlie  conchictof  Elizaheth  during  all  this  period,  was  extreme* 
ly  equivocal.  On  the  first  intelligence  of  Darnlcy's  murder, 
she  iiad  despatched  Throckinorlun,  with  an  excellent  letter  of 
advice  to  Mary,  but  on  his  arrival  he  could  not  procure  ad- 
mittance to  tlie  queen,  and  it  is  lielieved  she  did  not  receive 
the  letter  hcfore  tlie  acquittal  of  Bothwell.  Ehzabeth,  though 
she  continued  openly  to  profess  herself  the  friend  of  Mary, 
and  demanded  her  lilieration  in  strong  terms,  was  deceived  by 
her  secretary,  Cecil ;  her  ministers  were  closely  leagued  with 
the  enemies  of  the  Scottish  queen,  and  through  tlieir  medium 
alone  could  Elizabeth  act  and  receive  information.  Afier  a 
year's  confinement,  when  a  loyal  party  effected  Mary's  es'^ape, 
(in  I5G8,)  she  lied  to  England;  where  Elizal^elh,  alfecting  to 
believe  all  the  calumnies  which  had  been  circulated  concerning 
this  unfortunate  queen,  not  only  refused  her  a  personal  inter- 
view, tliough  granted  to  the  rebel  Murray,  but  gave  orders  for 
her  to  be  put  under  arrest,  and  confined  her  in  dilfercnt  castles 
during  nineteen  years.  The  regent  (Murray)  was  assassi- 
nated in  revenge  for  a  private  injury,  in  1570,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  his  olfice  by  Morton. 

The  civil  war  broke  out  again  in  France  in  1567.  Pre- 
tending to  believe,  though  without  any  satisfactory  evidence, 
that  at  a  late  meeting  between  the  French  and  Spanish 
courts,  at  Bayonne,  a  resolution  had  been  formed  to  extirpate 
the  Protestants,  Conde  again  unsheathed  the  sword,  and  at- 
tempted to  surprise  the  young  king  at  Monceaux,  whence  he 
witli  dilliculty  escaped  to  Paris.  The  English  amiiassador, 
Norris,  had  been  instrumental  in  arranging  this  unjustifial)le 
outrage,  and  Elizabeth,  through  the  persuasion  of  her  minis- 
ters, continued  to  assist  tlie  insurgents,  though  she  professed 
to  be  at  peace  with  their  sovereign.  The  same  year,  (Nov. 
10,)  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  plains  of  St.  Denis,  in  which 
the  rebels  were  defeated,  but  the  old  Constalde  Montinorcnci, 
general  of  the  Catholics,  was  slain;  and  in  1501),  the  Duke 
of  Anjou,  brotlier  of  the  king,  gained  the  famous  batde  of 
Jarnac,  in  which  Conde  was  killed,  (^oligni,  whose  re- 
sources never  failed,  assembled  a  new  and  formidal)le  army 
of  Huguenots,  having  with  liim  the  young  King  of  Navarre, 
afterwards  Henrv  IV.  f'oliirni  was  defeated  in  1571,  at  the 
memoral)le  battle  of  Moutoiicour,  with  the  loss  of  10,000 
men.  Soon  after,  the  king  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
the  Huguenots,  granted  them  a  pardon  for  all  past  olTences, 


Ilf.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  59 

and  ceded  to  them  for  two  years,  as  places  of  refuge,  llo- 
chelle,  Montauban,  and  some  other  places  ;  and,  in  fine,  offered 
his  sister  Margaret  in  marriage  to  the  young  King  of  Navarre, 
(1572.)  The  Admiral  de  (loligni,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and 
all  the  chiefs  of  the  Protestant  party,  went  to  Paris  to  assist 
at  the  celebration  of  the  marriage ;  Coligni,  in  passing 
through  the  streets,  received  two  wounds  from  the  hands  of 
an  assassin,  which,  though  not  dangerous,  roused  the  chief- 
tains of  his  party  to  threats  of  vengeance  against  the  queen- 
mother,  to  whom  they  were  attributed  by  Coligni.  These 
threats  elicited  an  order  from  the  king  in  council,  to  anticipate 
the  expected  attack;  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  his  followers,  on 
the  following  morning,  (the  eve  of  St.  Bartholomew,)  forced 
the  hotel  where  the  admiral  resided,  and  murdered  him,  as 
well  as  every  Huguenot  that  fell  in  their  way.  The  bar- 
barous measure  was  imitated  in  several  of  the  provinces ;  and 
though  the  governors  were  ordered  to  prevent  similar  ex- 
cesses, many  fell  victims  to  the  revenge  of  an  infuriated  mob, 
chiefly  in  those  towns  where  the  remembrance  of  the  late 
cruelties  exercised  by  the  Huguenots  were  fresh  in  theii 
minds.  The  numbers  of  those  who  perished  on  this  occasion 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  Voltaire  and  by  Protestant 
writers,  who  at  first  made  them  amount  to  100,000.  The 
lists  collected  from  the  ministers  of  the  different  towns  gave 
the  names  of  786.*  Conde  and  the  Kinar  of  Navarre  were 
exempted  from  the  general  doom,  and  they  afterwards  abjured 
their  heresy. 

The  miseries  of  France  increased  every  day.  Charles 
grew  jealous  of  his  brothers;  and  many  of  the  Catholics, 
displeased  with  all  the  measures  of  the  court,  favoured  the 
progress  of  the  Huguenots.  In  the  midst  of  these  disorders 
died  Charles  IX.,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  years,  in  1574; 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Henry,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
lately  elected  King  of  Poland, 

*  See   LingarJ's  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  viii.  pp.  74 — 76,  and  note  T ; 
and  Vindication,  &c.,  in  reply  to  the  Edinburgh  Review. 


60  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 


CHAPTER  X 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLES  IX.,  TO  THE  ACCESSION 
OF  HENRY  IV.,  IN  1589. 

1574. — Henry  HI.,  on  liis  accession  to  the  throne  of 
France,  I'ound  the  kingdom  in  the  greatest  disorder.  The 
people  were  divided  into  two  factions,  mutually  enraged  from 
the  injuries  they  had  committed  or  suffered.  Henry,  desirou 
of  preserving  a  balance  between  tlie  factions,  granted  peace  to 
the  Protestants  on  the  most  advantageous  conditions.  Thi.s 
treaty  of  pacification  was  so  displeasing  to  the  ('alholics,  that 
the  Duke  of  Guise  immediately  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
League  ;  an  association,  which,  without  any  regard  to  the 
royal  authority,  aimed  at  the  entire  suppres^don  of  the  new 
doctrines.  In  order  to  divert  the  force  of  the  League,  Henry 
declared  himself  at  the  head  of  it;  but  his  dilatory  and  feeble 
measures  discovered  his  reluctance  to  the  undertaking.  His 
moderation  appeared  criminal  to  one  party,  and  suspicious  to 
both  ;  while  the  plain,  direct,  and  avowed  conduct  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  on  one  side,  and  of  the  King  of  Navarre  on 
the  other,  engaged  by  degrees  the  bulk  of  the  nation  to  enlist 
themselves  under  one  or  otlier  of  those  great  leaders.  (1 570.) 

While  such  was  tlie  position  of  affairs  in  France,  the  I^ow 
C'ountries  were  struggling  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and 
met  with  orreat  encouraorement  and  assistance  from  Elizabeth. 
After  a  variety  of  events,  much  bloodshed,  cruel  enmity,  jealou- 
sies, and  desperate  batUes,  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  (1  579,) 
formed  the  scheme  of  closely  uniting  the  provinces  of  Hol- 
land and  Zealand,  and  cementing  them  willi  such  others  as  lay 
most  contiguous;  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen,  Overyssel, 
and  Guelderland,  in  which  the  Protestant  interest  was  predo- 
minant. The  deputies  accordingly  met  at  Utrecht,  and  signed 
that  famous  union  of  seven  provinces,  independent  of  each 
other,  yet  as  closely  connected  as  a  bundle  of  arrows,  the 
arms  and  emblem  of  tlirir  republic. 

1580. — While  Pliili|)  was  losing  the  seven  United  Pro- 
vinces, fortune  threw  in  his  way  a  new  sovereignty.  Don  Se- 
/jaslian,  Kinir  of  Portuiral,  grcat-jirandson  of  T']ni:nuiel,  and 
grandson  of  Jolm  HI.,  determined  to  signalize  liimself  by  an 
expedition  against  tlie  Moors  in  Africa.  He  espoused  the 
cause  of  Muley  Mahomet,  (who  had  been  dispossessed  of  the 


X."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  6^. 

kingdoms  of  Fez  and  Morocco  by  his  uncle,  Muley-Moluck,) 
and,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  his  wisest  counsellors,  embark- 
ed for  Africa,  in  1578,  at  the  head  of  20,000  men.  The  army 
of  Muley-Moluck  was  superior,  but  this  only  roused  the  cou- 
rage of  Don  Sebastian.  The  two  armies  engaged  near  Alca- 
zarquivir,  and  after  a  desperate  conflict,  the  Christians  were 
totally  routed,  or  rather  destroyed,  being  either  killed  or  taken 
prisoners.  Among  the  slain  was  Don  Sebastian  ;  and  the  two 
Moorish  kings,  uncle  and  nephew,  were  also  left  dead  on  the 
field.  The  Kmg  of  Portugal,  having  left  no  issue,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  uncle.  Cardinal  Henry,  who  also  dying  withoul 
children,  (1580,)  a  number  of  competitors  arose  for  the  crown 
Among  them  was  the  King  of  Spain,  nephew  to  Henry  by  the 
mother's  side;  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  married  to  the  grand- 
daughter of  the  great  Emanuel,  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  and  Catherine  of  Medicis.  Philip's  claim  was 
perhaps  the  best,  and  he  had  most  power  to  support  it.  The 
old  Duke  of  Alva,  who  had  been  for  some  time  in  disgrace 
for  ill  success  in  the  Netherlands,  was  recalled  to  court,  like 
a  mastiff  unchained  for  fighting,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  an 
army.  His  victories  decided  the  contest.  Philip  was  crown- 
ed at  Lisbon,  and  proclaimed  in  India  in  1581. 

1583. — The  King  of  Spain,  though  not  yet  come  to  an 
open  rupture  with  Elizabeth,  sent  a  body  of  700  Spaniards 
into  Ireland,  to  retaliate  for  the  assistance  she  had  given  to  his 
rebellious  subjects  in  Holland;  but  they  were  cut  off"  to  a 
man.  When  the  English  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Madrid 
complained  of  this  invasion,  he  was  answered  by  like  com- 
plaints of  Francis  Drake,  a  bold  navigator,  who  had  passed 
into  the  South  Sea  by  the  straits  of  Magellan,  taken  many 
rich  prizes  from  the  Spaniards,  and  returned  home  safely  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1580.  As  he  was  the  first  Eng 
lishman  who  had  circumnavigated  the  globe,  his  name  became 
celebrated,  and  the  queen,  who  loved  valour,  and  hoped  to 
share  in  the  spoil,  conferred  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood, 
and  accepted  of  a  banquet  on  board  his  ship.  She,  however, 
caused  part  of  the  booty  to  be  restored,  in  order  to  appease 
the  Catholic  king. 

1584. — The  Prince  of  Orange  was  this  year  assassinated 
at  Delf ;  his  death  deprived  the  United  Provinces  of  their  chief 
support.  Out  of  gratitude  to  his  memory,  they  elected  his 
son  Maurice,  though  only  eighteen  years  old,  their  stadtholder 
and  captain-general  by  sea  and  land. 

Meanwhile,  the  Duke  of  Parma  having  reduced  Ghent  and 

8 


68  GENERAL    HISTOKY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Bnissels,  made  preparations  for  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  the 
richest  and  most  populous  city  of  the  Netherlands.  On  hia 
first  approach,  the  citizens  o[)eiie(l  the  sluices,  cut  down  the 
dykes,  and  ovcrtlowed  the  nei^hbouriuir  country  with  an  inun- 
dation which  swept  away  all  his  magazines.  Not  discouraged 
fcy  this  loss,  he  cut,  at  prodigious  labour  and  expense,  hut  with 
incredible  expedition,  a  canal  froniStckin  to  Caloo,  to  carry  oil 
the  waters.  lie  next  erected  that  stupendous  monumentof  his 
genius,  a  fortified  bridge  across  the  deep  and  rapid  river  Scheld, 
to  prevent  all  communication  with  the  town  by  sea.  The 
besieged  attempted  to  burn  it  or  blow  it  up,  by  sending  against 
it  two  fire-ships  full  of  powder  and  other  combustible  materials. 
But  this  scheme  failing,  and  the  besiegers  daily  making  pro- 
gress, in  spite  of  every  eflbrt  to  oppose  them,  Antwerp  sent 
deputies  to  the  duke,  and  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  sovereignty 
of  Philip,  Domestic  jealousy,  no  less  than  the  valour  of  the 
Spaniards  or  the  conduct  of  their  general,  contributed  to  the 
fall  of  this  flourishing  city.  The  Hollanders,  and  particularly 
the  citizens  of  Amsterdam,  obstructed  every  measure  for  the 
relief  of  Antwerp,  hoping  to  profit  by  its  reduction.  The 
Protestants,  it  was  concluded,  would  forsake  it,  as  soon  as  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Philip.  The  conjecture  proved  just. 
Antwerp  went  hourly  to  decay,  and  Amsterdam,  enriched  by 
tiie  emigration  of  her  inhabitants,  became  the  greatest  com- 
mercial city  in  the  Netherlands. 

1585. — -The  loss  of  Antwerp  was  a  mortal  blow  to  the  cause 
of  the  republicans :  they  tendered  the  sovereignly  of  their 
country  to  the  King  of  France  ;  but  the  distracted  state  of  that 
monarchy  obliged  Henry  HI.  to  reject  so  advantageous  an 
ofi^er.  The  Duke  of  Anjou's  death,  which  he  expected  would 
bring  him  relief  by  freeing  him  from  the  intrigues  of  tliat  prince, 
only  plunged  him  into  deeper  distress.  The  King  of  Navarre, 
a  professed  Protestant,  being  now  next  heir  to  the  crown,  the 
Duke  of  Guise  took  tlience  occasion  to  revive  the  League,  and 
to  urjje  the  king  to  exclude  the  King  of  Navarre,  and  to  ex- 
tinguish the  heresy  he  abetted. 

The  United  Provinces  ha^l  again  recourse  to  Elizabeth, 
who  immediately  concluded  a  treaty  with  them,  and  sent  the 
Earl  of  Leicester  over  to  Holland,  at  the  head  of  the  English 
auxiliaries:  while  Sir  Francis  Drake,  with  a  fieet  of  twenty 
sail,  attacked  the  Sj)anianis  in  the  West  Indies.  This  gallant 
seaman  made  himself  master  of  St.  .Tago  dc  Cuba;  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, tlie  capital  of  Hispaniola  ;  of  ('artliagena,  and  several 
Other  places  ;  and  returned   to  England  in  1586,  with  Buck 


K."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  63 

riches  as  served  to  stimulate  the  nation  to  futuie  enterprises. 
The  English  arms  were  less  successful  in  the  Low  Countries. 
Leicester  was  recalled,  and  Lord  Willoughby  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  English  forces.  The  scene  that  now  opened 
was  new  and  extraordinary.  Elizabeth  and  her  ministers 
resolved  to  bring  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  to  a  public  trial,  on 
pretence  of  her  having  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
the  English  queen.  As  Camden*  endeavours  to  connect  the 
several  partial  disturbances  which  happened  at  different  pe- 
riods of  this  reign,  during  the  nineteen  years  Mary  remained  a 
captive  in  England,  apparently  with  a  view  of  making  them 
appear  like  a  continued  chain  of  conspiracies  against  the  Bri- 
tish queen,  we  must  return  to  the  beginning  of  Mary's  cap- 
tivity, in  order  to  notice  the  first  of  these  really  separate 
events,  which  the  thread  of  the  naiTative  prevented  our  men- 
tioning before.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk,  though  a  professed 
Protestant,  was  supposed  secretly  to  favour  the  Catholic  inte- 
rest. This  circumstance,  in  addition  to  his  high  rank  and 
popularity,  rendered  him  the  object  of  ministerial  jealousy. 
He  aspired  to  a  marriage  with  the  captive  Queen  of  Scots. 
The  English  ministry  maliciously  contrived  to  have  the  pro- 
posal made  to  him,  with  a  design  of  effecting  his  ruin.  His 
consent  to  marry  Mary  was  construed  into  a  formal  conspiracy 
against  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  Protestant  religion,  and  on 
that  ground  the  duke  was  condemned  and  beheaded,  June  2d, 
1572. — The  supposed  correspondence  between  Pope  Pius  V. 
and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  is  solemnly  contradicted  by  Mary 
and  by  the  duke  himself.  When  the  queen  was  interrogated 
on  the  subject,  she  acknowledged  her  own  correspondence 
with  the  Pope,  but  said  it  was  on  spiritual  matters  only.  She 
likewise  owned  her  pecuniary  transactions  through  the  agency 
of  Rudolphi,  an  Italian  merchant  in  London,  who  had  con- 
veyed to  her  considerable  sums,  sent  by  the  charity  of  foreign 
princes  to  relieve  her  wants  ;  but  she  denied  them  to  have 
been  remitted  for  any  seditious  purposes.  The  conduct  of  the 
Pope  might  indeed  lead  us  to  suppose  that  there  was  some 
foundation  for  the  conspiracy  laid  to  his  charge.  Hoping  to 
effect  by  severity,  what  his  prudent  predecessor  (Pius  IV.) 
could  not  do  by  moderation,  Pius  V.  had  pviblished,  in  1569, 
a  bull  of  excommunication  and  deposition!  against  Elizabeth, 

*  Camden,  a  learned  Protestant  antiquary,  was  the  author  of  the  "  An- 
nals of  Queen  Elizabeth,"  which  he  published  in  Latin,  1615. 

■\  The  opinion  which  attributes  to  the  Pope  a  power  over  the  temporal 
rights  of  kings,  was  a  scholastic  doctrine,  much  in  vogue  among  the  the 


64  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    ETROPE.  [cHAP. 

and  declared  her  subjects  absolved,  by  liis  authority,  fiom  their 
oath  of  alleyfiaiice  to  her.  In  the  following  year,  the  bull  was 
sinuirgled  into  England,  and  a  Mr.  Felton  had  the  rashness  to 
fix  it  on  the  bishop's  gate  in  London,  for  which  act,  equally 
condemned  both  by  Catholics  and  Protestants,  he  was  exe- 
cuted. Meanwhile  an  extensive  conspiracy  was  organized  in 
the  north  of  Eiiglaiid,  and  headed  by  the  Earls  of  Northum- 
berland and  Westmoreland,  of  wliieh  the  ostensible  object  was 
to  effect  the  restoration  of  the  old  religion.  The  Catholics 
still  formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  po])ulation,  and  assem- 
hkd  in  considerable  numbers  under  the  standard  of  the  two 
Earls.  But  the  Duke  of  Sussex,  who  was  sent  by  Elizabeth 
to  suppress  the  insurrection,  was  every  where  victorious,  and 
while  the  leaders  made  good  their  escape,  hundreds  of  their 
humble  followers  suffered  the  penalty  of  treason.  As  this  in- 
surrection had  followed  so  closely  on  the  publication  of  the 
bull,  and  claimed  to  represent  the  Catholic  cause,  it  was,  though 
erroneously,  deemed  its  consequence.  The  whole  Catholic  body 
paid  the  forfeit,  although  they  never  adopted  the  bull  and  only 
in  one  section  of  country  ever  resisted  her  measures.  The  laws 
against  recusants  were  rendered  more  stringent,  and  the  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  prohibited  under  the  severest  penalties. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  death  of  the  Queen  of  Scots  being 
resolved  upon  by  the  English  ministry,  it  only  remained  1o 
engage  some  young  men  of  the  Scottisii,  or  the  Catholic 
party,  in  a  conspiracy  to  set  Mary  at  liberty,  with  some  cir- 
cumstances of  intended  violence  against  the  person  of  Eliza- 
beth, or  the  peace  of  the  realm,  and  then  to  procure  evidence, 
real  or  forged,  of  Mary's  being  implicated  in  it;  and  this 
work,  Walsingham,  with  the  help  of  his  band  of  spies  and 
forirers,  was  not  long  in  finding  the  means  to  accomplish. 
About  fourteen  Englisli  gendenien  united  in  an  association  to 
rescue  the  unhappy  Mary  from  the  hands  of  her  enemies. 
(1586.)  Walsirigham,  who  had  notice  of  the  plot,  and  appears 
to  liave  been  the  contriver  of  it,  deputed  two  of  his  spies  to 
associate  with  Habington  and  his  companions,  and  to  urge 
them  on  to  greater  excesses  than  they  would  otherwise  have 

oloRJans  of  that  at^p,  especially  l)eyon(l  tlie  AIp^,  thouirh  never  adoplcil  by 
the  church,  anil  now  iiriiversnlly  rcjcrted.  St.  Pius  V.  rarried  thai  opinion 
with  him  to  the  pontifical  throne.  But  it  ahnuM  lie  oliscrvei],  lat,  That 
Elizul>elh'8  title  to  tlie  throne  was  never  acknowletitjed  on  the  continent; 
2dly,  That  he  did  not  reijuire  the  Enclish  CathoiicH  to  receive  bin  hull. 

Sec  also  the  remnrWalile  works  of  \'oii;ht,  "  Hililehrnnd  and  his  Timed," 
and  of  Hurler,  History  of  Innocent  lit.  The  tein()oral  power  and  influ* 
eitce  of  the  Popes  iu  the  middle  itgeii  are  there  admirably  set  forth. 


X."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  65 

(hought  of.    When  the  plot  was  ripe  for  discovery,  they  were 
taken    up,    indicted    for  treason,    condemned  and   executed. 
Walsingham  then  had  a  fair  opportunity  of  giving-  to  Babing- 
ton's  conspiracy  any  extent  of  criminality  he  pleased,  for  the 
sake  of  rendering  the  Catholic  name  as  odious  as  possible  to 
the  nation ;  and  the  Queen  of  Scots  was  to  be  tried  as  a  part- 
ner in  the  conspiracy.*     An  idea  so  repugnant  to  majesty,  as 
being  arraigned  for  treason,  had  not  entered  the  mind  of  Mary, 
though  she  had  long  lived   in  dread  of  private  assassination, 
when  forty  commissioners,  with  five  judges,  arrived  at  Fothe- 
ringay  castle,  where  she  was  now  confined.     She  received  the 
intelligence,  however,  witliout  astonishment  or  emotion,  but, 
protesting  in  the  most  solemn  manner  that  she  had  never  counte- 
nanced any  attempt  against  the  life  of  Elizabeth,  she  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  her  commissioners.    "I  came 
into  England,"  said  she,  "  an  independent  sovereign,  to  im- 
plore the  queen's  assistance,  not  to  subject  myself  to  her  au- 
thority ;  nor  is  my  spirit  so  broken  by  past  misfortune,  or  so 
intimidated  by  present  dangers,  as  to  stoop  to  any  thing  unbe- 
coming the  majesty  of  a  crowned  head,  that  will  disgrace  the 
ancestors  from  whom  I  am  descended,  or  the  son  to  whom  I 
shall  leave  my  crown.    If  I  am  to  be  tried,  princes  alone  can  be 
my  peers.    The  Queen  of  England's  subjects,  how  noble  so- 
ever their  birth  may  be,  are  of  a  rank  inferior  to  mine.    Ever 
since  my  arrival  in  this  kingdom,  I  have  been  confined  as  a  pri- 
soner.    Its  laws  never  afforded  me  protection.     Let  them  not 
now  be  perverted  to  take  away  my  life."    The  commissioners 
were  perplexed ;  but  one  of  them  (Hatton)  having  observed  that 
conscious  guilt  made  her  refuse  to  plead,  she  consented  next 
morning  to  appear  before  them,  after  first  protesting  against 
the  authority  of  the  court.     The  lawyers  of  the  crown  opened 
the  charge  against  her,  and,  though  unprovided  with  papers, 
witnesses,  or  counsel,  she  had  for  two  days  defended  herself 
with  spirit,  and  had  the  advantage  over  her  enemies,  till,  on 
the  third,  the  proceedings  were  unexpectedly  suspended,  and 
adjourned  to  Westminster,  where  sentence  of  death  was  pro- 
nounced against  her,  Oct.  25th,  1586.     The  only  evidence 
against  the  Queen  of  Scots,  arose  from  the  declaration  of  her 
secretaries,  that  she  was  engaged  in  Babington's   conspiracy. 
They  were  threatened  with  the  torture,  if  they  refused  the 

*  Mary,  who  had  been  many  years  under  the  care  of  the  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  at  Sheffield,  then  in  the  old,  ruinous  castle  of  Tutbury,  in 
Staffordshire,  was  then  in  Fotheringay,  in  Northamptonshire,  under  Sir 
Amyas  Pawlet. 

8* 


•6  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

evidence  required  of  them.     As   her  secretaries,  ihoy  were 
Bworii  to  keep  her  secrets,  and  their  perjury  in  one  instance 
rendered  them  unworthy  of  creiht   in   auotJier.      Tiiey  were 
never  confronted  with  her,  thou<rh  she  desired  tliat  ihey  might 
be,  and  adirmed  that  tliey  would  never  to  her  face   ])ersist   in 
their  evidence;  nor  were  the  orijrinal  copies  of  the  letters  pro- 
duced against  her  ever  l)rought  forward.      But  the  condemna- 
tion of  ilie  Queen  of  Scots,  not  justice,  was  the  oI)ject  of  this 
unprecedented  trial:   the  sentence  of  tlie  commissioners  was 
received  in  London  with  transports  of  joy,  and  both  Huuses  of 
Parliament  united  in  a  petition  to  the  queen  to  have  it  speedily 
carried  into  execution.     Elizabeth  hesitated  ;  she  dreaded  the 
infamy  that  such  an  action  would  attach  to  her  name,  and  she 
wished  to  avoid  it  by  the  private  assassination  of  her  victim. 
She   made  the  proposal    to  Sir  Amyas  Pawlet,  February  2d, 
1587;  but  though  he  hated  Mary,  he  refused    to   shed   her 
blood  without  law  or  warrant.*     At  last  Elizabeth  signed  the 
fatal   warrant;    and   the  arrival   of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
Earl  Marshal  of  England,  with  his  attendants,  at  l"'otheringay, 
announced  the  following  morning  as  fixed  upon  for  its  execu- 
tion.    Never  did  Mary  appear  so  great  as  in  this  last  scene 
of  her  life;  slie  was  not  only  traii(|uil,  but  intrepid  and  mag- 
nanimous.     When   Sir  Andrew  Melville,  the   master  of  her 
household,  was  permitted  to  take   his  last  Airewell,  he   burst 
into  tears.     "Weep  not,  good  Melville,"  said  she,  "there  is 
at  present  greater  cause  U>t  rejoicing.     Thou  shall  this  day 
see  Mary  Stuart  delivered  from  all   her  cares,  and   such  an 
end  put  to  her  tedious   sulTerings  as  she   has  long  expected. 
Hut  witness  that  I  die  constant  in  my  religion,  firm  in  my  fide- 
lity towards  Scodand,  antl  unchanged  in  my  a(Tccli<Mi  to  IVance. 
Commend  me  to  my  son.     Tell   him    I   have  done   nothing 
injurious  to  his  kingdom,  to  his  honour,  or  to  his  rights:   and 
God  lorgive  all  those  who  have  thirsted  wiliiout  reason  for  my 
blood."     After  long  and   fervent  prayer,  she  ascended   the 
scafTold  at  half-past  eight  o'clock,  February  8th,  with  a  firm 
and   intrepid  step,  and  after  publicly  declaring  h(!r  iimocence 
of  the  crime  laid  to   her  charge,  and   professing  her   reliirjon 
and  parrlon  of  her  enemies,  she  began  with  the  aid  of  her  wo- 
men to  lake  oir  her  v(m1  ;  the  executioner  nidelv  endeavoinini» 
to  assist  Uiem,  she  gently  checked  him,  and   siniliu'r  said.  "I 
have  not  been  accustomed  to  undress  before  so   many  spccta- 

•    8pc  Eiizalx-th's  letter  to  Sir  A.  Pawlet,  extant  in  RobcrUon  and  in 
Dr.  Miliicr'a  "  Letters  to  a  Prebendary." 


X.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  67 

tors,  nor  served  by  such  valets ;"  and  soon  after  laid  her 
head  on  the  block  witli  calm  but  undaunted  fortitude.  Such 
was  the  fate  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland  and  Dowager 
Queen  of  France,  who,  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  her  age,  and 
the  tweutieth  of  her  captivity  in  England,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
jealousy  of  an  offended  rival.*  Elizabeth,  when  informed  of 
Mary's  execution,  affected  the  utmost  surprise  and  concern ; 
sighs,  tears,  lamentations,  and  weeds  of  mourning,  were 
all  employed  to  display  the  greatness  of  her  sorrow.  She 
even  undertook  to  make  the  world  believe  that  the  Queen  of 
Scots,  her  dear  sister  and  kinswoman,  had  been  put  to  death 
without  her  knowledge,  and  contrary  to  her  inclination ;  and 
to  complete  the  farce,  she  commanded  Davison,  her  secretary, 
to  be  thrown  into  prison,  under  pretence  that  he  had  exceeded 
his  commission  in  despatching  the  fatal  warrant,  which, 
though  she  had  signed,  she  never  meant  to  carry  into  execu- 
tion. This  hypocritical  disguise  was  assumed  chiefly  to 
appease  the  young  King  of  Scotland,  who  seemed  determined 
to  employ  the  whole  force  of  his  dominions  in  order  to 
revenge  his  mother's  death.  He  recalled  his  ambas- 
sador from  England,  and  every  thing  bore  the  appearance 
of  war.  Elizabeth  saw  the  danger ;  and  after  allowing 
James  an  interval  to  vent  his  grief  and  anger,  she  employed 
her  emissaries  to  set  before  Jiim  every  motive  of  hope  or  fear, 
which  might  induce  him  to  live  in  amity  with  her;  and  these, 
joined  to  the  queen's  dissimulation  and  the  pacific  disposition 
of  James,  prevailed  over  his  resentment.  He  fell  gradually 
into  a  good  understanding  Avith  the  court  of  England. 

While  Elizabeth  was  thus  insuring  the  tranquillity  of  her 
kingdom  from  the  attempts  of  her  neighbours,  she  was  not 
inattentive  to  more  distant  dangers.  Hearing  that  Philip  was 
secretly  preparing  a  prodigious  armament,  she  sent  Sir  Fran- 
cis Drake  with  a  fleet,  to  intercept  his  supplies  and  pillage 
his  coasts.  Drake,  besides  other  successes,  burned,  in  the 
harbour  of  Cadiz,  a  hundred  vessels  laden  with  ammunition  and 
naval  stores.  The  sailing  of  the  armada  was  thus  retarded 
for  twelve  months,  which  afforded  Elizabeth  leisure  to  take 
more  effectual  measures  against  that  formidable  fleet  and  army, 
intended  for  the  invasion  of  her  kingdom.  Philip  was  now 
no  longer  desirous  of  keeping  his  project  secret.  Every  part 
of  his  European  dominions  resounded  with  the  noise  of  arma- 

*  Her  body  was  embalmed,  and,  after  six  months,  interred  by  order  of 
Elizabeth  with  royal  pomp  in  the  Abbey  Church  of  Peterborough,  whero 
it  reposed  till  James  I.  had  it  removed  to  Westminster,  in  1612. 


^8  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

nieiits.  and  the  treasures  of  botli  Indies  were  exhausted  in 
vast  preparations  lor  war.  In  all  the  ports  of  Sicily,  Naples, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  artizans  were  employed  in  building 
vessels  of  uncommon  size  and  force ;  naval  stores  and  pro- 
visions were  amassed  at  great  expense;  armies  levied  and 
quartered  in  the  maritime  provinces;  and  plans  laid  for  such 
an  embarkation,  as  had  never  before  appeared  on  the  ocean. 
The  military  preparations  in  Flanders  were  no  less  formi- 
dable. Troops  from  all  quarters  joined  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
who  assembled  in  the  Netherlands  35,000  men,  whom  he  was 
to  transport  into  England.  Elizabeth  was  apprised  of  all 
these  preparations.  Lord  Howard  of  Efilngham  was  ap- 
pointed admiral :  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  Forbisher,  the  most 
renowned  seamen  in  Europe,  served  under  him.  The  prin- 
cipal tleet  was  stationed  at  Plymouth,  and  a  smaller  squadron, 
under  Lord  Seymour,  lay  oil'  Dunkirk,  in  order  to  intercept 
the  Duke  of  Parma.  An  army  of  20,000  men  was  disposed 
in  different  bodies  along  the  south  coast;  22,000  foot  were 
stationed  at  Tilbury,  to  defend  the  capital;  and  another  army 
of  30,000  men  were  ready  to  marcli  on  any  side.  The 
queen  appeared  on  horseback  at  Tilbury,  and,  riding  through 
the  lines,  exliorted  the  soldiers  to  do  their  duty;  professing 
her  intention  rather  to  perish  with  them  in  batdc,  than  to 
survive  the  ruin  of  her  people.  "  I  know,"  said  she,  "  I 
have  only  the  feeble  arm  of  a  woman,  but  I  have  the  heart 
of  a  king,  and  of  a  King  of  England  too." 

1588. — The  Spanish  Armada,  after  various  obstructions,  at 
length  appeared  in  the  channel.  It  consisted  of  130  vessels, 
and  carried  about  20,000  land  forces.  Effingham  saw  it  as  he 
was  just  getting  out  of  Plymouth  Sound,"  coming  full  sail 
towards  him,  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  and  stretch- 
ing the  distance  of  seven  miles,  from  the  extremity  of  one 
<liyision  to  that  of  the  other.  The  lofty  masts,  the  swelling 
sails,  and  the  towering  prows  of  the  Spanish  galleons  seemed 
impossible  to  be  justly  described  by  the  historians  of  that  age, 
without  assuming  the  language  of  poetry.  Not  satisfied  with 
representing  the  armada  as  a  sj)ectacle  infusing  equal  terror 
and  admiration  into  the  minds  of  all  beholders,  and  as  the 
most  magnificent  that  had  ever  appeared  on  the  main;  they 
assf;rt,  that  although  the  ships  bore  every  sail,  it  yet  advanced 
with  a  slow  motion,  as  if  the  ocean  had  groaned  with  support- 
ing, and  the  winds  Itecn  tired  with  irnpclliiiir  so  enormous  a 
weight.  The  Etiglish  admiral  at  first  gave  orders  not  to  come 
lo  close  fight  with  the  Spaniards,  on  account  of  the  size  of 


X."]         .  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  69 

their  ships,  and  the  number  of  soldiers  on  board ;  but  a  few 
trials  convinced  him  that  the  size  of  the  Spanish  ships  was 
no  advantage  to  them  ;  their  bulk  exposed  them  to  tlie  fire ; 
while  their  cannon,  placed  too  high,  shot  over  the  heads  of 
the  English  vessels.  Every  thing  conspired  to  the  ruin  of 
this  vast  armament.  Sir  Francis  Drake  took  the  great  galleon 
of  Andalusia,  and  a  large  ship  of  Biscay,  which  had  fallen 
behind  the  rest;  while  the  nobdity  and  gentry  hastened  out 
with  their  vessels  from  every  harbour  to  reinforce  Efhngham, 
who  filled  eight  of  his  smaller  ships  with  combustibles,  and 
sent  them  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy.  The  Spaniards  fled 
with  disorder,  (July  29,)  and  the  English,  besides  doing  great 
damage  to  their  whole  fleet,  took  twelve  large  ships.  The 
Duke  of  Parma,  whose  vessels  were  calculated  only  for  trans- 
porting soldiers,  refused  to  leave  the  harbour,  while  the  Eng- 
lish were  masters  of  the  sea.  The  Spanish  admiral,  (the 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,)  therefore,  after  many  unsuccessful 
encounters  and  dangers  in  unknown  seas,  vs'ith  contrary  winds, 
prepared  to  make  his  way,  but  not  daring  to  re-enter  the  chan- 
nel, resolved  to  take  the  circuit  of  the  island.  The  English 
fleet  followed  him  for  some  time ;  and,  had  not  their  ammunition 
failed,  they  had  obliged  the  armada  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
This  vast  armament,  which  had  been  styled  the  Invincible, 
was  attacked  by  a  violent  storm  in  passing  the  Orkneys ; 
some  of  the  ships  were  driven  on  the  Western  Isles,  some  on 
the  coast  of  Ireland ;  not  one-half  of  the  fleet  returned  to  Spain. 
Philip,  whose  command  of  temper  and  fortitude  were  supe- 
rior to  adverse  fortune,  received  with  an  air  of  tranquillity  the 
news  of  such  a  disastrous  event.  "  I  thank  God,"  he  coolly 
replied,  "  who  has  given  me  so  many  resources,  that  I  can  bear 
without  inconvenience  so  heavy  a  loss.  One  branch  has  been 
lopped  off;  but  the  tree  is  still  flourishing,  and  able  to  supply 
its  place." 

In  England,  the  defeat  of  the  armada  was  celebrated  by  the 
people  with  the  most  lively  demonstrations  of  joy :  the  queen 
marked  it  o*it  as  an  epoch  for  increasing  the  sufferings  of  her 
Catholic  subjects.  The  Earl  of  Arundel*  had  been  a  prisoner 
on  suspicion  of  treason,  which  could  not  be  proved  against 
him,  since  the  year  158.3  ;  he  was  now  arraigned  again  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason  contained  in  a  formula  of  prayer  he 

*  Philip  Howard  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and 
became  Earl  of  Arundel  in  right  of  his  mother,  Mary  Fitzallan,  daughtei 
of  the  late  earl,  and  heiress  of  the  castle  and  earldom  of  Arundel. 


70  OEXERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

had  made  use  of  with  some  other  Calliolic  prisoners  in  tlie 
Tower,  during  the  Spanish  invasion.  Tliouirh  the  charge  was 
unrounded,  his  peers  declared  liini  giiihy,  and  he  was  con- 
demned. The  queen  was  prevailed  upon  to  spare  his  life,  yet 
she  concealed  lier  intentions  from  the  prisoner,  whose  sudden 
illness  and  deatli  in  1595  provoked  a  suspicion  of  poison. 
From  this  dale,  till  llie  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Catholics  was  unremitting.  Sixty-one  priests, 
forty-seven  laymen,  and  two  gentlewomen,  sutTered  capital 
punishment,  which,  in  nearly  all  these  instances,  consisted  in 
the  butchery  of  the  victim,  while  still  alive  and  in  his  perfect 
senses. 

The  Puritans  next  experienced  the  severity  of  the  queen's 
government.  Several  of  them  were  executed ;  but,  by  degrees, 
the  persecution  against  them  subsided,  and  before  the  death 
of  Elizibeth,  they  enjoyed  a  state  of  comparative  peace. 

While  the  naval  power  of  Spain  was  receiving  so  signal  a 
defeat  on  the  British  shores,  great  revolutions  were  taking 
place  in  France.  Henry  III.,  jealous  of  tlie  popularity  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  basely  contrived  to  have  him  and  his  brother, 
the  cardinal,  murdered.  The  partisans  of  the  League  were 
enraged,  and  flew  to  arms.  In  this  extremity,  the  king  entered 
mto  a  confederacy  with  the  Huguenots  and  the  King  of 
Navarre,  who  advanced  with  him  to  tlie  gates  of  Paris.  They 
(aid  siege  to  the  capital,  when  Henry  HI.  was  assassinated 
by  one  Clement,  an  ignorant  enthusiast.  This  assassination 
left  the  succession  open  to  the  King  of  Navarre,*  who,  as  next 
heir  to  the  crown,  assumed  the  government,  under  the  name 
of  Henry  IV. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

EUROPE,  FROM    THE  ACCESSION    OF    HENRY    IV.,  TO    THE    PEACB 

OF    VERVINS,    IN    1598. 

The  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  jusfly  styled  the  Great,  forms  one 
of  the  most  memoralile  eras  in  the  history  of  France.  Tlie 
eyes  of  all  Europe  were  fixed  upon  this  prince,  as  the  hero 
of  its  militarv  theatre  and  the  rentre  of  its  political  system; 
Philip  and  Elizabeth  were  now  Init  secondary  actors.      Upon 

•  Henry,  King  of  Navarre,  was  a  descendant  of  ■'^t.  liowia,  by  Robert, 
Count  of  ('lermont,  younKeft  son  of  that  monarch.  He  inherited  Navarre 
in  right  of  his  mother,  .liine,  who  introduced  the  leneU  of  Luther  into  hef 
dominions,  and  cruelly  persecuted  her  Catholic  subjects. 


XI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  71 

the  assassination  of  Henry  III.,  one-half  of  the  royal  army 
forsook  the  King  of  Navarre  on  account  of  his  religion.  This 
desertion  obliged  liim  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Paris,  and  retire 
into  Normandy.  Thither  he  was  followed  by  the  forces  of 
the  League,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Mayenne,*  who  had 
proclaimed  the  Cardinal  of  Bourbon  king,  under  the  name  of 
Charles  X. ;  though  that  old  man,  who  had  been  thrown  into 
prison  on  the  assassination  of  the  Guises,  was  still  confined 
in  the  casde  of  Fontenai-le-Comte,  in  Poitou.  Conscious  of 
Henry's  distress,  Elizabeth  immediately  sent  him  a  present 
of  £22,000,  in  order  to  prevent  the  desertion  of  his  Swiss  and 
German  auxiliaries,  and  a  reinforcement  of  4,000  men.  Mean- 
while Henry  had  been  so  fortunate  as  to  secure  Dieppe  aiid 
Caen,  and  to  repulse  the  Duke  of  Mayenne,  who  had  attacked 
him  at  Arquos.  On  the  arrival  of  the  English  forces,  Henry 
marched  towards  Paris,  but  was  again  obliged  to  retire.  His 
forces  were  still  inferior  to  those  of  the  League,  but  what  was 
wanting  in  numbers  was  supplied  by  valour.  He  attacked  the 
Duke  of  Mayenne  at  Ivri,  (1590,)  and  gained  a  complete  vic- 
tory over  him.  Henry,  in  this  battle,  rushed  into  the  thickest 
of  the  enemy ;  but  when  he  perceived  their  ranks  broken,  and 
great  havoc  committed  in  the  pursuit,  his  natural  humanity 
and  attachment  to  his  countrymen  returned,  and  he  cried  out, 
"  Spare  my  enemies ;  they  are  Frenchmen."  Soon  after  this 
victory,  died  the  Cardinal  of  Bourbon;  and  the  king  invested 
Paris,  which  he  certainly  might  have  reduced  by  famine,  had 
not  his  paternal  tenderness  for  his  people  made  him  forget  the 
duty  of  the  soldier,  and  relax  the  rigour  of  war.  He  left  a 
free  passage  to  the  old  men,  women,  and  children.  He  per- 
mitted the  peasants,  and  even  his  own  men,  to  carry  provisions 
secretly  to  the  besieged.  Meantime,  the  Duke  of  Parma,  by 
order  of  the  King  of  Spain,  left  the  Low  Countries,  where  he 
was  hard  pressed  by  Prince  Maurice,  and  hastened  to  the 
relief  of  Paris.  On  his  approach,  Henry  raised  the  siege  and 
offered  him  battle ;  but  that  consummate  general,  having  per- 
formed the  service  for  which  he  was  detached,  prudently 
declined  the  combat,  and  retired  with  honour. 

1591. — Elizabeth,  who  had  withdrawn  her  troops  on  the 
first  prosperous  appearance  of  Henry's  affairs,  again  inter- 
posed, and  sent  him  3,000  men,  and  afterwards  4,000  more, 
under  the  command  of  her  favourite,  the  Earl  of  Essex. 
These,  joined  to  an  army  of  35,000  men,  enabled  Henry  to 
lay  siege  to  Rouen,  and  to  prosecute  the  war,  though  witli 
•  He  was  brother  to  the  late  Duke  of  Guise. 


72  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

various  success,  till  in  1593,  afior  tlic  taking  of  Droiix,  he 
solemnly  made  his  abjuration  at  tSt.  Denis;,  and  received  abso- 
lution from  the  Arciibisliop  of  Bourges,  On  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  he  had  promised  to  study  the  doctrines  of  liie  reli- 
gion of  his  ancestors  ;  and  this  step  was  the  result  of  several 
conferences  on  the  subject,  at  which  he  had  been  present. 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  not  a  little  mortified  and  irritated  at  tliis 
change  in  her  ally  ;  but  her  remonstrances  on  the  occasion 
were  unsuccessful.  The  dillcrent  provinces  and  towns  of 
France  submitted  by  degrees  to  Henry  ;  in  1590  the  Duke  of 
Mayenne  was  reconciled  to  him;  and,  cliarnied  with  the  gene- 
rous reception  which  he  met  with  on  his  submission,  he  con- 
tinued ever  after  firmly  attached  to  the  king's  person  and 
government. 

During  these  transactions  in  France,  the  confederates  were 
not  idle  in  the  Low  Countries.  Prince  Maurice  and  Sir  Francis 
Vere  gained  at  Tournhout,  (1597,)  a  complete  victory  over 
the  Spaniards,  in  consequence  of  which  that  place  immediately 
surrendered,  and  many  others  were  reduced  before  the  clos& 
of  the  campaign. 

1598, — The  confederates  were  equally  successful  in  other 
parts.  Besides  the  naval  armaments  which  Elizal)eth  was 
continually  sending  to  annoy  the  Spaniards,  in  the  AVcst  Indies, 
and  to  obstruct  tlieir  trade  at  home,  a  strong  force  was  sent 
to  Cadiz,  where  Philip  was  making  preparations  agamst  Eng- 
land. The  combined  English  and  Dutch  fleet  altackeil  liie 
Spanish  ships  and  galleys  in  the  bay,  and  oi)liged  them  all  to 
surrender  or  run  ashore.  The  Earl  of  Essex  then  disem- 
barked his  troops,  and  carried  the  city  by  assault.  The  plun- 
der was  considerable,  and  the  loss  of  the  Spaniards  was  com- 
puted at  twenty  millions  of  ducats  ;  but  the  rpicen  was  dissatis- 
fied with  the  commander  on  his  return,  because  she  did  not 
receive  a  share  of  the  booty.* 

Age  and  infirmities,  added  to  many  disappointments,  had 
now  broken  tlie  spirit  of  Philip,  and  he  offered  peace  to  the 
confederates  on  equitable  terms  ;  but  as  he  refused  to  acknow- 
ledge the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces,  they  would 
not  negotiate  with  him.  Henry's  situation  did  not  albtw  him 
to  l)ehave  with  the  same  rigour.  France,  torn  by  civil  dissen- 
sions, stood  in  need  of  peace.     Philip  knew  it,  and  offered 

•  Lord  Burlrip;h  and  his  son,  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  were  the  earl's  enrmie« 
at  court:  Drill  durini;  hiH  aliHcnce  the  former  liad  the  nddrrssto  p;ct  his  non 
■p[ir>inted  to  ihc  ullko  of  bccivtary,  vacant  riiicc  ihu  dvulhof  WuUiiigliam, 
in  15U0. 


XII.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  78; 

advantageous  conditions  to  Henry.  The  French  monarch, 
however,  first  sent  ambassadors  to  Elizabeth  and  the  States  to 
facilitate  a  <rencral  agreement :  they  remonstrated  against  such 
a  mea»«ure,  unless  the  independence  of  the  States  were  made 
its  basis.  Henry  pleaded  his  necessity  of  negotiating,  and 
they  were  made  sensible  of  the  justness  of  his  arguments. 
A  separate  peace  was  accordingly  concluded  at  Vervins  (in 
Aisne)  between  France  and  Spain,  (in  1598,)  by  which  Henry 
recovered  possession  of  all  the  places  seized  by  Philip  during 
the  civil  wars,  and  procured  to  himself,  what  he  had  long 
ardently  desired,  leisure  to  setde  the  domestic  affairs  of  his 
kingdom,  to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace,  and  to  contribute  to 
the  happiness  of  his  people. 


CHAPTER  XH. 

SPAIN  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES,  FROM  1598  TO  1609. 

1598. — Soon  after  the  peace  concluded  between  France 
and  Spain,  at  Vervins,  a  new  treaty  was  negotiated  between 
England  and  the  United  Provinces,  that  the  war  might  be 
prosecuted  with  vigour  against  Philip.  Scarcely  was  this  ne- 
gotiation finished,  when  Philip  H.,  its  first  object,  breathed 
his  last  at  Madrid.  No  European  prince  ever  possessed  such 
vast  resources  as  this  monarch.  Besides  his  Spanish  and  Ita- 
lian possessions,  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  and  the  Netherlands, 
he  enjoyed  the  whole  East  India  commerce,  and  reaped  the 
richest  harvest  from  the  American  mines.  But  his  prodigious 
armaments,  his  quarrels  with  France  and  England,  and  his 
long  and  expensive  wars  in  the  Low  Countries,  exhausted  his 
treasures,  and  enriched  those  whom  he  sought  to  subdue ; 
while  the  Spaniards,  dazzled  with  the  sight  of  the  precious 
metals,  and  elated  with  an  idea  of  imaginary  wealth,  neglected 
agriculture  and  manufactures,  and  were  obliged  to  depend  on 
their  more  industrious  neighbours  for  the  luxuries,  as  well  as 
the  necessaries  of  life.  Spain,  once  a  rich  and  fertile  king- 
dom, became  only  the  mint  of  Europe.  Its  wedges  and  ingots 
were  no  sooner  coined,  than  called  for;  and  often  mortgaged 
before  their  arrival,  as  the  price  of  labour  and  ingenuity.  The 
state  was  enfeebled,  the  country  rendered  sterile,  and  the  peo- 
ple poor  and  miserable.  The  condition  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces was,  in  all  respects,  the  reverse  of  Spain.    They  owed 

9 


74  GENERAL    HTSTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

every  thing  to  their  imhistry;  manufactures  were  carried  on 
with  \  iiro'ir,  and  comnierce  was  extended  to  all  the  quarters  of 
the  globe.  The  republic  was  become  powerful  and  the  peo- 
ple rich.  Conscious  of  this,  the  court  of  Madrid  had  changed 
its  measures  before  the  deadi  of  Philip.  Despairing  of  being 
able  to  reduce  the  revolted  provinces  by  force,  and  desirous 
of  an  accommodation,  that  he  might  end  his  days  in  peace, 
Philip  transferred  to  his  daughter  Isabella,  contracted  to  the 
Archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  the  sovereignty  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Philip  died  before  the  celebration  of  the  marriage,  but 
his  son  and  successor,  Philip  III.,  executed  his  will. 

1599. — The  first  material  step  taken  by  All)ert  and  Isabella 
for  reducing  the  Hollanders  to  obedience,  was  the  precluding 
the  United  Provinces  from  all  intercourse  by  trade  with  the 
Spanish  dominions  ;  which  an  idea  of  general  advantage  had 
induced  Philip  II.  to  allow  them.  Meanwhile,  war  was  carried 
on  with  vigour  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  after  several  towns 
had  been  taken,  many  gallantly  assaulted,  and  no  less  gallantly 
defended  on  both  sides,  the  two  arniios  came  to  a  general  en- 
gagement  at  Newport,  near  Oslcnd,  where  Albert  was  totally 
defeated.  Overtures  of  peace  were  again  renewed,  but  rejected 
by  the  States.  In  1601,  the  Archduke  Albert  laid  siege  to 
Ostend.  The  brave  resistance  which  he  met  with,  astonished, 
but  did  not  discourage  him.  All  the  resources  of  war  were 
exhausted,  rivers  of  blood  were  spilled  ;  but  neither  side  was 
dispirited,  because  both  received  constant  supplies;  the  one 
by  sea,  the  other  from  the  neighbouring  country.  Spinola, 
who  commanded  for  Albert,  showed  at  last,  that  no  fortification, 
however  strong,  is  impregnable  to  an  able  engineer,  furnished 
with  the  necessary  force.  Ostend  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of 
ruins,  and  the  besiegers  were  preparing  for  the  grand  assault, 
when  the  governor  offered  to  capitulate,  in  1004.  Spinola 
granted  the  garrison  honourable  terms.  During  this  memora- 
ble siege,  which  lasted  upwards  of  three  years,  and  cost  the 
Kin<r  of  Spain  and  the  Archduke  the  lives  of  80,000  brave 
soldiers.  Prince  Maurice  made  himself  master  )f  Rinil)ack, 
Grave,  and  Sluys,  acquisitions  which  more  than  balanced  the 
loss  of  Ostend ;  and  Albert,  by  employing  all  his  strength 
against  that  place,  was  prevented  durinir  thn^e  campaitjus  from 
entering  the  United  Provinces.  The  Dulch  profited  ctf  that 
interval  of  security,  to  push  their  trade  and  manufactures. 
Every  nerve  was  strained  in  labour,  and  every  talent  in  inge- 
nuity. Commerce,  both  foreign  and  domestic,  llourished. 
Ternatc,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  had  been  gained,  and  the  East 


Xn.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  75 

India  Company,  that  grand  pillar  of  the  republic,  was  estab- 
lished. But,  as  a  counterpoise  to  these  advantages,  the  States 
had  lost  the  alliance  of  England,  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  Elizabeth.  James  I.,  her  successor,  showed  no  inclination 
to  engage  in  hostilities  with  Spain  ;  and  concluded,  soon  after 
his  accession,  a  treaty  with  that  court. 

1605. — Philip  III.  now  resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
the  revolted  provinces,  with  the  whole  force  of  his  dominions. 
Spinola  was  declared  commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  and 
Italian  forces.  On  the  other  hand,  the  States  empowered 
Prince  Maurice  to  augment  his  army ;  they  recruited  their 
garrisons,  and  repaired  their  fortifications.  Spinola's  success 
was  rapid  during  two  campaigns,  in  spite  of  all  the  eflbrts  of 
Maurice.  But  although  he  had  made  himself  master  of  many 
important  places,  he  had  yet  made  no  impression  on  the  body 
of  the  republic ;  and  300,000  doubloons  a  month,  the  com- 
mon expense  of  the  army,  was  a  sum  too  large  for  the  Spanish 
treasury  long  to  disburse,  and  a  drain  which  not  even  the 
mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  could  supply.  His  troops  muti- 
nied for  want  of  pay.  He  became  sensible  of  the  impractica- 
bility of  his  undertaking;  and  delivered  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
it  was  more  advisable  to  enjoy  the  ten  provinces  in  peace  and 
security,  than  to  risk  the  loss  of  the  whole  Netherlands,  in 
pursuit  of  the  other  seven.  It  was  accordingly  agreed  (1607) 
to  negotiate  with  the  Belgian  powers  as  an  independent  state. 
A  suspension  of  arms  took  place  ;  and,  in  1609,  a  truce  of 
twelve  years  was  concluded  at  the  Hague,  through  the  media- 
tion of  France  and  England.  This  treaty  secured  to  the  United 
Provinces  the  acquisitions  they  had  made,  and  the  liberty 
for  which  they  had  so  long  struggled.  Scarcely  had  the  court 
of  Spain  terminated  one  civil  war,  than  it  commenced  another. 
Philip  III.,  by  the  advice  of  his  minister,  the  Duke  of  Lerma, 
issued  an  edict  ordering  all  the  Morescoes,  or  descendants  of 
the  Moors,  to  leave  the  kingdom  within  the  space  of  thirty 
days,  under  penalty  of  death.  Their  attachment  to  Mohamme- 
danism, though  many  of  them  had  received  baptism,  induced 
the  king  to  take  this  step  for  the  preservation  of  religion 
among  his  subjects.  He  has  been  severely  censured  for  it 
by  Protestant  writers,  who  tell  us,  that  by  this  violent  and 
impolitic  measure,  Spain  lost  nearly  a  million  of  industrious 
inhabitants  ;  and  as  that  kingdom  was  already  depopulated  by 
long  and  bloody  foreign  wars,  by  repeated  emigrations  to  the 
New  World,  and  enervated  by  luxury,  it  now  sunk  into  a 
state  of  languor,  from  which  it  has  never  recovered. 


76  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  CcHAP 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ENGLAND,    FROM    THE    DEFEAT    OF    THE    SPANISH    ARMADA,    TO 
THE    DKATH    OF    ELIZADliTH,   IN    1003. 

The  leading  cliaractcristics  of  Elizabeth's  administration 
were  economy  and  vigour.  The  exeeulioa  of  the  Queen  of 
Scots  and  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  haviii<r  ficcd  her 
from  all  apprehension  in  regard  to  the  safety  of  her  crown,  she 
now  turned  her  attention  to  the  alTairs  of  Ireland,  where  the  Eng- 
lish sovereignty  had  liitherto  been  little  more  than  nominal. 
Elizabeth  saw  the  importance  of  that  island,  and  took  several 
measures  for  reducing  it  to  greater  submission.  She  furnished 
her  dej)uties  with  a  greater  force,  and  founded  a  university  in 
Dublin.  But  in  1585,  Sir  John  Perrot,  then  lord  deputy,  put 
arms  into  the  hands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ulster,  to  enable 
them  to  repress  the  incursions  of  tlie  Scottish  islanders ;  and 
Philip  II.  having  about  tiie  same  time  engaged  many  of  the 
Irish  gentry  to  serve  in  his  armies  in  the  Low  Countries,  Ire- 
land, thus  provided  with  ofllccrs  and  soldiers,  was  able  to 
maintain  a  more  regular  war,  and  became  more  formidable  to 
England.  Hugh  O'Neal,  the  head  of  a  potent  clan,  who  had 
been  created  Earl  of  Tyrone,  framed  the  project  of  rendering 
himself  independent.  His  success  surpassed  even  his  hopes. 
After  spinning  out  the  war  lor  some  years,  he  defeated  the 
English  army  under  Sir  Henry  Bagnal,  who  was  left  dead  on 
the  field  with  1500  men.  This  victory  made  Elizalieth  re- 
solve to  push  the  war  I)y  more  vigorous  measures  ;  and  she 
appointed,  at  his  own  request,  her  reigning  favourite,  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  Governor  of  Ireland,  under  the  title  of  lord  lieu- 
tenant: vested  him  with  almost  unlimited  i)Ower,  and  gave  him 
the  command  of  a  considerable  army.  (1599.)  Hut  Essex, 
unacquainted  with  the  country,  and  misled  by  interested  coun- 
sels, disappointed  tlic  expectations  of  the  queen  and  the  nation, 
and  fearing  the  artifices  of  his  enemies  at  home,  sudiicidv  re- 
turned, expressly  contrary  to  the  queen's  orders.  He  was 
confined  a  prisoner  in  his  nwn  house  by  her  command,  and, 
by  a  decree  of  tlic  privy  council,  was  deprived  of  all  his  em- 
ployments except  tliat  of  master  of  tiie  horse. 

IGOl. — Essex,  finding  the  (jueen  inexorable,  ihrciw  ofT  all 
appearance  of  diity  and  respect.  Already  high  in  the  public 
favour,  he  practised  anew  every  art  of  poj)ularity,  and,  sallying 


XIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  77 

forth  at  the  head  of  200  followers,  attempted  to  raise  the  city ; 
but,  meeting  with  little  encouragement,  he  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render at  discretion.  Orders  were  immediately  given  for  his 
trial.  He  was  condemned,  and  privately  beheaded  in  the  Tower, 
to  prevent  the  danger  of  an  insurrection. 

1602. — Meanwhile,  Lord  Mountjoy,  who  had  succeeded 
Essex  in  Ireland,  restored  the  queen's  authority  in  that  king- 
dom. He  defeated  the  rebels  near  Kinsale,  though  supported 
by  6,000  Spaniards,  whom  he  expelled  the  island ;  and  many 
of  the  chieftains  submitted  to  mercy,  and  received  such  terms 
as  the  deputy  was  pleased  to  prescribe.  Even  Tyrone  peti- 
tioned for  terms,  which  being  denied  him,  he  was  obliged  to 
throw  himself  on  the  queen's  clemency.  He  renounced  for- 
ever the  name  of  O'Neal,  and  all  pretensions  to  sovereignty ; 
on  these  conditions  his  life  was  spared,  and  most  of  his  estates 
were  restored  to  him. 

But  Elizabeth  was  now  incapable  of  receiving  any  pleasure 
from    the    fortunate    conclusion   of  a  war,  which    had   long 
occupied  her  councils,  exhausted  her  treasury,  and  disturbed 
her  domestic  peace.     Though  in  her  seventieth  year,  she  had 
hitherto  enjoyed  good  health ;  but  the  infirmities  of  old  age 
stole  upon  her,  and  with  them  great   depression  of  spirits. 
She  had  no  offspring  to  inherit  her  dominions ;  she  saw  they 
must  descend  to  the  son  of  her  hated  rival ;  and  hence  a  deep 
melancholy  settled  on  her  mind.       The  enemies  of  Essex, 
through  fear  and  envy,  had  hastened  his  destruction;  but  no 
sooner  was  the  blow  given,  than  his  merits  were  universally 
extolled.     Elizabeth  became  sensible  she  had  been  deceived. 
Her  courtiers  having  no  longer  the  superior  influence  of  Essex 
to  dread,  grew  less  respectful  and  assiduous  in  their  attendance, 
and  all  men  desirous  of  preferment,  seemed  to  look  forward  to 
her  successor.     The  people  caught  the  temper  of  the  court; 
the  queen  went  abroad  without  the  usual  acclamations.     Her 
existence  itself  now  seemed  a  burden.     She  threw  herself  on 
a  carpet,  where  she  remained  pensive  and  silent  during  ten 
days  and  nights,  leaning  on  cushions,  and  holding  her  finger 
in  her  mouth,  with  her  eyes  open  and  fixed  on  the  ground. 
Her  sighs  and  groans  were  all  expressive  of  some  inward  grief, 
which  preyed  upon  her  life.  At  last,  her  death  visibly  approach- 
ing, the  privy  council  sent  to  know  her  will  in  regard  to  her 
successor.       She  gave  them  to  understand  the  King  of  Scots 
was  the  person,  and  soon  after  expired. 

1603. — Few  sovereigns  ever  swayed  the  sceptre  with  more 
dignity  than  Elizabeth  ;  few  have  enjoyed  more  uniform  pros- 


78  GENERAL    HISTOIW    OF    EUROPE.  [CH\P 

perity;  yet,  after  all  hor  ijlory  and  popularity,  she  lived  to  fall 
into  neglect;  and  sank  into  tlie  grave  beneath  the  pressure  of 
a  private  grief,  accompanied  by  circumstances  of  distress, 
which  the  wretch  on  the  rack  might  pity,  and  which  the  slave 
who  expires  at  the  oar  does  not  feel.* 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FRANCE,  FROM   1598,  TO    THE    DEATH    OF    HENRY  IV,,  IN   1610. 

No  kingdom  exempt  from  the  horrors  of  war,  could  be 
more  wrelciied  than  France  at  the  peace  of  Vervins.  The 
crown  was  loaded  with  debts,  the  people  poor  and  miserable. 
To  form  a  regular  plan  of  administration,  and  to  pursue  it 
with  success,  Henry  stood  in  need  of  an  able  and  upright 
minister.  He  found  one  in  the  Marquis  de  Hosni,  whom  he 
created  Duke;  of  Sidly.  Sully  seemed  formed  to  be  the 
minister  of  Henry  the  IV.  By  his  prudent  measures  he  paid, 
in  the  space  of  five  years,  all  the  debts  of  the  crown,  augment- 
ed the  revenue  four  millions  of  livres,  had  four  millions  in  the 
treasury,  and  had  considerably  reduced  the  taxes.  Henry 
introduced  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  silk  into  his  king- 
dom ;  and  in  1607,  at  great  expense,  but  with  greater  profit, 
manufactures  of  linen  and  tapestry.  He  built  the  Pont-neuf, 
and  cut  the  canal  of  liriare,  which  joins  the  Seine  and  the 
Loire  ;  and  he  had  projected  the  union  of  the  two  seas,  when 
a  period  was  put  to  his  life. 

1008. — The  Duke  of  Savoy  was  encouraged  by  Spain  to 
declare  war  against  Henry,  but  his  estates  were  overrun,  and 
he  was  soon  obliged  to  make  peace  :  the  Duke  of  Uiron  was 
then  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  which  cost  him  his  head.  Many 
other  attempts  being  made  against  him,  Henry  resolved  to 
carry  into  execution  a  design,  which  he  had  long  meditated, 
of  humbling  the  house  of  Austria,  which  he  considered  as  the 
jealous  rival  of  his  glory,  and  of  circumscribing  its  power  in 
Italy  and  (iermany.  While  he  was  maturinir  tliat  i/reat  project, 
a  dispute,  concerning  llie  succession  to  the  duchies  of  Cleves 
and  .iuliers,  alTorded  him  a  pretext  for  taking  up  arms.  Ro- 
dolph  n.,  sou  and  successor  of  Maximilian  H.,  had  succeeded 
to  th"  imperial  throne,  in  1.57(5.  'J'iie  eiiuity  of  liis  adminis- 
tra*     I  ct^'^ensated  for  its  weakness.     The  chief  disturbances 

*   Russc),  vol.  3d,  p.  85. 


XIV.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  79 

which  he  met  with  proceeded  from  his  brother  Matthias.  The 
Turks,  as  usual,  had  invaded  Hungary;  Matthias  had  been 
successful  in  opposing  them,  and  a  peace  being  concluded,  in 
1606,  with  Sultan  Achmet,  successor  of  Mahomet  II.,  the 
Hungarians  conferred  their  crown  upon  Matthias,  who  after- 
wards made  himself  master  of  Moravia  and  Bohemia.  Ro- 
dolph,  ambitious  only  of  extending  the  empire  of  science, 
confirmed  to  his  brother  those  usurpations,  with  the  succession 
to  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  where  the  new  opinions  had 
taken  deep  root.  In  proportion  as  Lutheranisra  gained  ground 
in  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  empire 
became  desirous  of  extending  their  privileges,  and  entered 
into  a  new  confederacy,  called  the  Evangelical  Union.  This 
association  was  opposed  by  another,  formed  (in  1609)  to 
protect  the  ancient  faith,  under  the  name  of  the  Catholic 
League. 

The  succession  to  the  duchies  of  Cleves  and  Juliers  roused 
to  arms  the  heads  of  the  two  parties,  who  may  be  said  to  have 
slumbered  since  th'3  peace  of  Passau.  John  William,  Duke 
of  Cleves  and  Juliers,  dying  without  issue,  several  competitors 
arose  for  the  succession,  and  prepared  to  support  their  title  by 
the  sword.  Rodolph  ordered  the  claimants  to  appear  before 
him  to  explain  their  pretensions,  and  in  the  mean  time  sent  his 
cousin,  Leopold,  to  rule  the  disputed  fiefs  in  his  name,  till  the 
right  of  inheritance  should  be  settled.  John  Sigismund 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  Duke  of  Newburg,  alarmed, 
at  this  step,  united  against  the  emperor,  and  were  assisted  by 
the  Elector  Palatine  and  the  other  princes  of  the  evangelical 
union.  In  order  to  be  a  match  for  the  emperor,  who  was 
assisted  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  Pope,  and  the  King  of 
Spain,  they  applied  to  the  King  of  France.  Henry  had  only 
wanted  an  apology  for  breaking  with  the  house  of  Austria. 
His  preparations  were  vigorous  and  his  negotiations  successful. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy,  the  Swiss,  and  the  Venetians  entered 
warmly  into  his  views.  He  assembled  an  army  of  40,000 
men,  (1610,)  and  resolved  to  command  it  in  person;  but  the 
queen,  Mary  of  Medicis,  appointed  regent  during  his  absence, 
insisted  on  being  solemnly  crowned  before  his  departure. 
Henry  consented  with  an  inward  dread,  arising,  no  doubt,  from 
the  many  barbarous  attempts  which  had  been  made  upon  his 
person,  the  rumours  of  new  conspiracies,  and  the  opportunities 
which  a  crowd  afforded  of  putting  them  into  execution.  He 
escaped,  however,  on  that  occasion;  but  the  next  day,  his 
coach  being  obstructed  in  a  narrow  street,  Ravaillac,  a  d(!spe- 


80  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.    "  [cHAF. 

rate  fanatic,  mounted  the  wlioel  of  his  carriage,  and  stabbed 
him  to  the  lieart,  wilii  a  knife,  over  the  Duke  d'Epernon's 
shoukler,  and  amidst  six  of  his  courtiers. 

France  seems  only  to  have  been  fully  sensible  of  the  worth 
of  this  monarch,  justly  styled  the  "Great,"  when  she  had  lost 
him;  but  in  estimating  his  character,  we  consider  him  only  in  his 
regal  capacity;  the  libertinism  of  his  private  life  had  a  pernicious 
effect  upon  the  morals  of  the  nation,  and  tarnished  his  great 
qualities  ;  but  he  always  preserved  a  due  respect  for  religion, 
and  appears  to  have  embraced  the  Catholic  faith  from  conviction. 
He  received  the  Jesuits  into  France,  and  obliged  the  Parlia- 
ment to  sanction  their  establishment  in  his  kingdom  l)y  law 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ENGLAND,  FROM  1603  TO  1628. 

The  English  throne  being  left  vacant  by  the  death  of  Eliza- 
beth, James  VI.  of  Scotland  was  immediately  proclaimed 
King  of  England,  by  the  lords  of  the  privy  council,  'i'his 
prince  was  great-grandson  of  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of 
Henry  VH.,  so  that,  on  the  failure  of  the  male  line,  his  here- 
ditary title  remained  unquestionable.  The  crown  of  F'ngland, 
therefore,  passed  from  the  family  of  Tudor  to  that  of  Stuart, 
with  as  much  tranquillity  as  ever  it  was  transmitted  from  father 
to  son.  People  of  all  ranks,  forgetting  their  former  hostility 
towards  Scotland,  testified  their  satisfaction  with  louder  accla- 
mations than  were  usual  at  the  accession  even  of  their  native 
princes.  They  foresaw  greater  advantages  resulting  from  a 
perjK'tual  alliance  with  Scodand,  and  the  addition  of  power 
and  consequence  which  England  would  derive  from  it,  than 
inconveniences  from  submitting-  to  the  dominion  of  a  stranijer. 

James  retained  most  of  Elizabeth's  ministers  in  office, 
amoiirj  whom  Robert  Cecil,  son  to  the  late  lord  15urh'ijr)i,  was 
regarded  as  his  prime  minister  and  chief  counsellor.  He  created 
him  Earl  of  Salisbury,  and  loaded  him  with  honours.  Cecil 
began  his  ministry  l)y  getting  rid  of  several  pc^rsons  peculiarly 
obnoxifuis  to  him,  under  pretence  of  their  being  entratreil  in  a 
conspiracy  to  place  the  king's  cousin-uerman,  Arabella  Stuart, 
on  the  throne  of  England.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  one  of 
the  principals  in  this  conspiracy,  and,  thou<rh  not  convicted, 
w  \B  detained  prisoner  several  years  in  the  Tower. 


XV.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  81 

Soon  after  surmounting  this  danger,  the  king  was  engaged 
in  a  scene  of  business  much  more  suitable  to  his  temper,  and 
in  which  he  was  particularly  ambitious  to  make  a  figure.  Of 
all  the  qualities  that  mark  his  character,  he  was  by  none  so 
much  distinguished,  as  by  the  vanity  of  being  thought  to  excel 
in  school-learning.  In  effect,  his  learning  and  eloquence  were 
not  contemptible ;  but  the  one  was  tinctured  with  pedantry, 
and  the  other  with  affectation.  To  decide  upon  the  differ- 
ences which  existed  between  the  Puritans  and  Protestants,  he 
appointed  a  conference  to  be  held ;  but  as  he  was  well  aware 
of  the  hostile  dispositions  of  the  former,  he  always  declared 
himself  on  the  side  of  the  established  church,  and  frequently 
repeated  his  favourite  maxim,  "  No  bishop,  no  king."  A 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  also  an  object  which  James 
had  much  at  heart ;  but  the  animosity  that  existed  between 
them  could  only  be  allayed  by  time ;  and  all  that  he  could  ob- 
tain of  Parliament  at  the  present  moment,  was  an  appointment 
of  commissioners  on  both  sides,  to  deliberate  on  the  subject. 
To  procure  money  from  the  Commons  was  still  more  difficult; 
but  as  he  soon  after  concluded  a  peace  with  Spain,  supplies 
were  less  necessary. 

Though  educated  by  Puritans,*  James  entertained  favoura- 
ble ideas  of  the  Catholic  religion;  and  considering  his  new 
Catholic  subjects  as  a  loyal  body,  who  had  been  oppressed 
and  heavily  aggrieved,  he  made  no  secret  of  his  friendly  dispo- 
sitions towards  them.  The  regard  which  he  expressed  for 
them  at  the  opening  of  the  Parliament,  raised  their  expecta- 
tions of  seeing  the  penal  statutes  repealed,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  gave  great  umbrage  to  the  Puritans.  -  They  beset  the 
throne  with  declaimers  against  popery;  ministers  supported 
the  popular  clamour,  and  spoke  loudly  of  public  dangers,  aris- 
ing from  the  machinations  of  Jesuits  and  popish  priests. 
James,  unwilling  to  offend  his  Protestant  subjects,  published 
an  order  for  all  priests  to  quit  the  kingdom  ;  and,  by  another 
proclamation,  he  affirmed  the  ecclesiastical  government,  and 
book  of  common  prayer.  This  put  an  end  to  the  flattering 
hopes  the  Catholics  had  entertained  since  the  beginning  of  the 
reign.  They  were  disappointed  ;  but  their  disappointment 
neither  lessened  the  loyalty  of  that  body  at  large,  nor  stimulated 
revenge.     Some  few  individuals,  indeed,  being  actuated  with 

*  After  the  imprisonment  of  his  mother,  James  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  reformists,  and  had  the  celebrated  Scotch  historian  Buchanan  for  hia 
preceptor.  This  violent  Puritan  and  bitter  enemy  of  the  unfortunate  Mary 
died  in  1582.     Hume  and  Robertson  have  inherited  his  prejudices. 


88  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

a  diaboliciil  desire  of  ivvpncfc  upon  tliat  occasion,  cntercl  into 
one  of  tlie  most  execral)lo  plots  that  history  has  rccordeil ;  it 
is  commonly  called  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  the  design  of  which 
was,  to  blow  up  the  royal  family  and  l)oth  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, at  the  very  time  that  tiie  king  addressed  them  from 
the  throne.  The  atrocity  of  the  treason,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  carried  on  to  the  time  of  its  disclosure,  leaves 
litUe  room  to  doubt  that  the  whole  was  a  political  contrivance 
of  Cecil,  who  had  been  profoundly  lettered  in  that  kind  of 
mischief  by  his  intriguing  father,  in  order  to  furnish  govern- 
ment with  a  pretext  for  persecuting  the  Catholics,  Tresham, 
one  of  the  conspirators,  was  well  ac(iuaiuted  with  Cecil,  and 
is  known  to  have  had  some  communication  with  him  concern- 
ing the  afTairs  of  the  Catholics  :  at  the  disclosure  of  the  plot, 
he  never  attempted  to  escape,  presuming,  no  doubt,  that  he 
was  sufficiently  protected  at  court,  but,  on  the  contrary,  offered 
his  services  to  apprehend  the  conspirators.  Being,  however, 
seized  upon  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  he  met  with  a  sud- 
den death  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  before  any  examination 
of  him  had  taken  place.  The  physician  who  attended  him 
pronounced  that  he  died  of  poison.  But  whelhor  tiie  treason 
originated  with  those  wretched  men  who  visibly  lal)oured  for 
its  execution,  or  was  suggested  to  them  by  Tresham  as  an 
emissary  of  the  minister,*  the  guilt  of  a  few  deluded,  rash 
men  could  not  stigmatize  the  loyalty  of  the  Catholic  body  at 
large.  The  number  of  the  conspiralorswasonl}  twelve;f five 
more  were  executed  as  having  been  privy  to  the  plot  and  not 
revealing  it ;  among  these  were  two  .Tesuits,  F.  F.  Garnet,  and 
I'esmond  or  Greenway,  the  first  of  whom  was  only  made  ac- 
quainted with  it  tmder  the  seal  of  confession,  and  did  all  in 
his  power  to  prevent  it;  the  second  sufTercd  for  harbouring 
him  :  a  third,  by  name  F.  Gerard,  who  was  suspected,  on  ac- 
count of  his  personal  knowledge  of  some  of  those  who  were 
let  into  the  secret,  made  his  escape.  No  proofs  of  his  guilt 
could  be  produced;  and  in  a  letter  written  to  the  Right  Kev. 
Dr.  Smith,  he  solemnly  protests  his  entire  ignorance  of  the 
plot  till  its  detection. J     But  that  Cecil  aimed  at  involving  per- 

•  Wee  Di)(l(],  vol.  2,  p.  .395,  and  his  authorities:  also  Mem.  Miss.  Priests, 
vol.  2,  p.  476. 

j-  Amon(5  these,  seven  only  appear  to  have  Itccn  arquaintotl  with  the  worst 
part  of  it,  VIZ.  Catcslty,  Pk-rcy,  Fawkcs,  Winter,  Keycs,  Bates,  and  'I'res- 
ham.  See  the  presumptive  (jroofs  of  the  supposition  of  Cecil's  knowledge 
of  the  conspiracy,  in  Reeve's  Christ.  Church,  vol.  2,  century  17th,  chap.  2, 
3,  and  4. 

t  Thii  letter  is  ini>erted  in  Bartoli,  Ingbiltcrra,  p.  513,  in  Roma,  1667. 


XV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPR.  83 

sons  of  greater  respectability  than  the  rash  youths  that  were 
engaged  in  the  plot,  is  evident  from  the  letter  written  to  Lord 
Monteagle,  a  young  Catholic  peer,  and  which  led  to  its  disco- 
very. Had  Monteagle  concealed  this  anonymous  letter,  which 
warned  him  not  to  attend  Parliament  on  the  fatal  day,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  all  the  other  twenty  Catholic  peers,  who  then 
sat  in  Parliament,  would  have  received  similar  advertisements. 
But  he  immediately  carried  it  to  the  secretary  himself,  who 
was  thereupon  obliged  to  dissolve  his  plot  prematurely.  Still, 
however,  he  waited  till  the  very  day  (November  5,  1605) 
before  the  sessions,  to  examine  the  vault  beneath  the  Parlia- 
ment-house. The  king  having  by  supposed  inspiration  been 
enlightened  as  to  the  nature  of  the  plot,  every  thing  was  then 
found  as  Cecil  expected ;  the  conspirators  were  arrested,  and 
soon  destroyed,  either  fighting  or  on  the  scaffold. 

The  Earl  of  Salisbury  and  the  Puritans  had  now  succeeded 
in  their  malicious  schemes  against  the  Catholics.  So  sensible 
was  James  of  the  advantages  which  his  minister  reaped  from 
the  plot,  that  he  ever  afterwards  called  the  5th  November, 
CeciVs  Holiday. 

The  conduct  of  James  in  Ireland  was  characterized  by  an 
unexpected  hostility.  The  Irish,  viewing  in  him  a  descendant 
of  their  ancient  kings,  hailed  his  accession  with  joy,  and  soon 
despatched  envoys  to  solicit  freedom  to  practise  the  religion 
of  their  ancestors.  Not  only  was  all  toleration  refused,  but 
the  deputies  were  cast  into  prison  for  their  presumption,  and 
all  succeeding  monarchs  followed  the  precedent  thus  set  by 
James.  His  next  step  was  an  attempt  to  entrap  the  Earl  of 
Tyrone,  and  when  that  nobleman  fled  and  O'Dogherty  re- 
volted, James's  joy  was  unbounded,  as  it  required  then  but  a 
few  lines  from  a  willing  parliament,  to  declare  forfeited  to 
himself,  two  millions  of  acres  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  This  he 
granted  out  chiefly  to  his  countrymen,  and  as  his  wholesale 
robbery  did  not  impress  the  Irish  with  any  great  reverence 
for  English  laws,  an  army  was  needed  to  protect  the  new 
settlers.  It  was  to  raise  money  to  support  this  guard,  that 
James  created  and  sold  the  title  of  baronet ;  the  price  being 
one  thousand  pounds.  His  plan  siicceeded,  and  this  colony, 
with  its  severely  disciplined  army,  did  much  to  introduce  and 
maintain  English  laws,  land  tenures,  and  judicial  proceedings. 
Deeming  that  his  system  of  robbery  and  violence  had  civi- 
lized the  Irish  nation,  James  and  his  flatterers  always  boasted 
of  this  as  the  masterpiece  of  his  reign.  A  few  trifling  im- 
pro%  ements  were  indeed  introduced,  but  on  the  whole  Ireland 
lost  rather   than    gained.     While  the  king  was   thus   busi- 


84  OENEKAI,    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

hly  em  ployed,  the  death  of  Ilenry,  Prince  of  Wales,  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  his  age,  cast  a  general  gloom  over  the 
prospects  of  the  nation.  This  prince  seems  to  have  possessed 
great  and  real  merit.  Neither  his  high  birth  nor  his  youth 
liad  seduced  him  into  any  irregular  pleasures  :  business  and 
ambition  were  his  sole  delight;  his  disposition  was  strongly 
turned  to  war.  The  trench  ambassador,  taking  leave  of  him, 
and  asking  his  commands  for  France,  found  him  employed  in 
the  exercise  of  the  pike.  "  Tell  your  king,"  said  Henry,  "in 
what  occupation  you  left  me  engaged." 

The  marriage  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  with  Frederic, 
Elector  Palatine,  which  soon  after  took  place,  served  to  dissi- 
pate the  grief  which  the  death  of  the  prince  had  occasioned 
throughout  the  whole  kingdom.  The  court  of  James,  at  this 
period,  produced  various  incidents,  which  had  a  considerable 
effect  on  public  opinion,  if  not  on  public  happiness.  James, 
amongst  many  other  weaknesses,  had  one  in  particular,  which 
drew  upon  him  the  odium  of  the  nation;  namely,  an  infatu- 
ated attachment  to  young  and  undeserving  favourites.  About 
the  end  of  1609,  Robert  Carr,  a  youth  of  a  good  family  in 
Scotland,  first  appeared  in  the  English  court.  The  charms 
of  his  person  and  the  elegance  of  his  manners  soon  won  the 
heart  of  James,  and,  in  a  short  time,  he  was  successively 
knighted,  created  Viscount  Rochester,  and  honoured  with  the 
garter.  Intoxicated,  however,  by  good  fortune,  he  soon  gave 
himself  up  to  the  indulgence  of  every  criminal  passion,  and 
in  a  short  time  he  was  freed  from  all  restraint  by  the  death  of 
his  former  friend  and  counsellor,  Sir  'I'homas  Overburv,  who 
is  sujjposed  to  have  fallen  by  poison,  administered  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  earl  and  his  lady. 

1011. — Every  eff"ort  having  been  made  to  raise  money  by 
virtue  of  the  prerogative,  and  always  without  success,  a  Parlia- 
ment was  again  called  ;  but  that  assembly,  instead  of  granting 
a  supply,  began  with  disputing  the  king's  power  to  levy  cus- 
toms and  taxes.  His  majesty  was  so  provoked,  that  he  dis- 
solved them  without  obtaining  theol)jectof  their  convocation. 
About  this  period  Sir  Waller  Raleigh,  whose  enteri)rising 
.spirit  had  not  been  broken  by  an  imprisonment  of  thirteen 
years,  taking  advantage  of  the  abated  resentment  of  his  ene- 
mies, and  of  the  favourable  impression  of  the  public,  spread 
a  report  that  he  knew  of  a  rich  gold  mine  in  fJuiana.  hoping 
by  this  means  to  recover  his  liberty;  Italcigh  was  accordingly 
released  from  prison,  but  without  pardon,  and  obtained  per- 
jnission  to  embark  in  the  hazardous  enterprise.     No  sooner 


KV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  85 

was  he  arrived,  than  he  sent  a  detachment  uader  the  command 
of  h's  son  and  of  Captain  Kemys,  who  were  tired  upon  at  their 
landing.  The  Spaniards  had  formed  a  small  setderaent  on  the 
river  Oronoko,  and  built  a  town  called  St.  Thomas.  Raleigh 
was  either  not  aware  of  this  circumstance  before  his  setting  out, 
or  he  affected  total  ignorance  of  it.  The  young  Raleigh,  irri- 
tated by  his  reception,  pursued  the  enemy  into  the  town,  which 
was  reduced  to  ashes  ;  but  a  shot  carried  him  off  in  the  midst 
of  his  career,  and  Kemys  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  pro- 
ceed. Returning  to  his  vessel,  he  retired  to  his  cabin,  and 
put  an  end  to  his  life  in  despair.  The  other  adventurers, 
thinking  themselves  duped  by  Raleigh,  hastened  back  to  Eng- 
land, carrying  their  leader  with  them.  Raleigh  was  tried, 
declared  guilty,  and  the  warrant  for  his  execution  signed  upon 
the  former  sentence.  He  met  the  blow  with  resolution ;  his 
address  to  the  people  was  calm  and  eloquent;  and  with  the 
utmost  indifference  he  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  and  received 
the  fatal  stroke. 

In  order  to  hasten  the  match  between  the  Princess  of 
Spain  and  his  heir-apparent,  James  despatched  the  Earl  of 
Bristol  to  Philip  IV.,  and  matters  were,  apparently,  in  a  fair 
train  of  settlement,  when  every  flattering  prospect  was  blasted 
by  the  temerity  of  Buckingham.  The  young  and  ardent  m^ 
of  Prince  Charles  eagerly  embraced  the  scheme  proposed  by 
Buckingham,  of  proceeding  to  Madrid  in  disguise;  and  the 
king  having  unguardedly  given  his  consent,  they  set  out  on 
this  romantic  expedition.  The  Spanish  monarch  treated 
Charles  with  the  most  flattering  attentions;  but  according  to 
the  established  etiquette,  the  infanta  was  only  shown  to  him 
in  public  until  a  dispensation  should  arrive  from  Rome.  In 
the  mean  time  Gregory  XV.  died,  and  the  refusal  of  the  nuncio 
to  deliver  the  dispensation  until  it  should  be  renewed  by  his 
successor.  Urban  VIII.,  caused  various  delays.  The  King 
of  England,  as  well  as  the  prince,  became  impatient,  and  the 
latter,  taking  his  leave,  embarked  on  board  the  English  fleet 
at  St.  Andrew,  and  returned  to  England.  Buckingham,  during 
his  residence  in  Spain,  had  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  he,  probably,  feeling  reciprocal  animosity  for  them,  con- 
curred with  the  prince  in  putting  an  end  to  the  long-protracted 
negotiation.  James  having  reluctantly  entered  into  the  views 
of  the  favourite,  all  thoughts  of  a  union  with  the  infanta  w^ere 
forever  laid  aside.  Soon  after  this,  a  treaty  of  marriage  be- 
tween the  Prince  of  Wales  and  Henrietta  of  France  being 
proposed,  James  entered  into  the  negotiation  with  so  much 

10 


86  GENERAL    HISTORY    01     EUKOHE.  [tHAP. 

arilour,  that  it  was  soon  hroiijrht  to  a  favourable  conclusion. 
James  dill  not  lt)n<r  survive  tlie  rummiMK-cmi'nt  of  hostilities 
for  the  recovery  of  the  Palatinate.  He  met  death  with  calm- 
ness and  fortitude,  in  the  5*.)lh  year  of  his  acre,  and  the  22d  of 
his  reign  over  England,  March  27lli,  1025.  The  character 
of  James  has  been  variously  represented.  As  a  man,  he  is 
allowed  to  have  possessed  some  good  qualities;  lie  had  a  con- 
aiderahle  share  of  learning  and  abilities,  l)ut  wanting  sincerity, 
as  well  as  that  vigour  of  mind  and  dignity  of  manner  so 
essential  to  the  character  of  a  sovereign  :  as  a  monarch,  he  was 
certainly  contemptible.  His  disposition,  naturally  lenient, 
inclined  him  to  alleviate  the  snfl'erings  of  his  Oalliolic  sulijects, 
and  moderate  the  fanatical  zeal  of  the  puritanical  party. 
Though  the  prisons  were  crowded  with  priests,  yet,  during 
the  lapse  of  eleven  years,  from  1007  to  1018,  only  sixteen 
suffered  as  traitors  for  the  exercise  of  their  functions:  but  the 
statute  enacted  in  IGOG*  had  severely  aggravated  the  sufferings 
of  the  lay  ('atholics.  The  proposal  of  an  ambiguous  oath  of 
allegiance,  which  was  received  in  general  by  the  secular  clergy, 
and  by  their  superior,  the  Arch-priest  Blackwall,  rejected 
mostly  bv  the  regulars,  and  finally  censured  by  the  Pope, 
(Paul  V.,)  increased  the  dilhculty  of  their  situation.  'I'he 
fines  of  recusancy  continued  to  be  levied  with  rigour;  they 
were  continually  summoned  to  take  the  disputed  oath,  and 
non-attendance  was  visited  with  excommunication,  and  the 
civil  consequences  of  that  ecclesiastical  sentence;  while  the 
refusal  of  the  oath  subjected  them  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
and  the  penalties  of  a  pr^munire. 

During  the  latter  part  of  tlie  reign  of  James,  the  great  seal 
was  in  the  hands  of  Francis  Bacon,  Lord  Vendam,  a  man 
universally  admired  for  the  s\iblimitv  of  his  tjenius,  but  who 
had  made  himself  obnoxious  to  censure  by  the  easiness  of  his 
disposition,  and  the  irregular  means  he  had  used  to  obtain 
money,  less  indeed  on  his  own  account,  than  to  gratify  his 
dependents,  whose  importunities  he  could  not  resist.  lieing 
impeached  by  the  Commons,  the  Peers  sentenced  him  to  pay 
a  fine  of  forty  tiiousand  pounds,  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  Tower, 
and  to  be  forever  incapal)le  of  holding  any  ofTice,  place,  or 
employment.  Hacon,  however,  was  soon  released  from  prison, 
his  fine  was  remitted,  and,  in  consideration  of  his  intrinsic 
worth,  received  a  pension  of  ci<rhteeii  hundred  pounds  a  year. 
The  short  remainder  of  his   life  was  sjxiil  in  literary  avoca- 

•  See  the  wvcrc  [wnnlties  enacted  by  this  slatute,  in  Lingard'a  History 
pf  England,  reign  of  Jameti  I. 


XVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  W 

tions  ;  and  in  the  greatness  of  his  talents,  posterity  have  al- 
most forgotten  that  lie  had  the  weaknesses  and  the  failings  of 
a  man. 

Charles  I.,  son  of  James,  mounted  the  throne  in  the  flower 
of  his  age.  He  immediately  hastened  to  call  a  Parliament,  to 
whom  he  frankly  explained  the  nature  of  the  engagements  he 
had  made  with  his  father,  and  the  sums  that  would  be  neces- 
sary to  discharge  them,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  opera- 
tions of  the  war.  But  all  his  efl'orts  were  vain;  no  supplies 
were  to  be  obtained,  and  Charles,  in  order  to  s  pply  the  want 
of  parliamentary  aid,  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  des- 
perate and  unconstitutional  method  of  issuing  privy  seals,  foi 
borrowing  money  of  his  subjects,  and  of  reviving  the  taxes 
on  tonnage  and  poundage  ;  a  loan  was  also  required  both  from 
the  nobility  and  the  city;  and  the  counties,  as  well  as  the 
capital,  were  compelled  to  equip  a  certain  number  of  ships. 
This  mode  of  taxation  was  afterwards  productive  of  very 
violent  discontents.  The  people  complained  loudly  of  the 
loans  which  were  extorted  from  them  under  various  forms; 
the  Commons  enumerated  the  encroachments  that  had  been 
made  on  their  constitutional  liberties,  under  tlie  name  of  a 
"  Petition  of  Rights;"  they  recurred  to  the  duties  of  tonnage 
and  poundage,  which  could  only  be  relinquished  for  an  equi- 
valent which  was  never  offered ;  and  when  the  question  was 
about  to  be  put  on  this  subject,  the  speaker  rose  and  declared, 
"  that  he  had  it  in  command  from  the  king  to  adjourn."  A 
few  days  after,  the  Parliament  was  dissolved;  and  it  was  evi- 
dent that  the  king  now  intended  to  emancipate  himself  forever 
from  the  control  of  Parliaments,  and  to  reign  without  them. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  HENRY  TV.,  TO  THE  TREATY 
OF  PRAGUE,  IN  1635. 

The  two  great  confederacies,  called  the  Catholic  League 
and  the  Evangelical  Union,  appeared  to  be  dissolved  with  the 
death  of  Henry  IV. ;  but  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  his 
adherents  expelled  Leopold,  and  took  possession  of  Cleves  and 
Juliers  by  force  of  arms.  In  this  petty  quarrel,  Spain  and 
the  United  Provinces  interested  themselves,  and  the  two  great- 
est generals  in  Europe  were  once  more  opposed  to  each  other; 


B8  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    ECROrE.  [CHAP. 

Spinoln  on  tlie  part  rf  tlio  Duke  of  Nc\vl)urir,  who  liad 
rcmmiiced  lailhrraiiisni,  and  .Mauiic-e  on  tlie  side  ol'llu;  Elector 
of  Brand(!nIiurCT,  who  introduced  Calvinism  into  his  dominions, 
to  attach  the  Dutch  to  his  cause. 

1012. — This  year  died  Hodolph  11.;  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Matthias.  The  Turks  now  entered 'IVansylvania: 
but  the  extent  of  the  Ottoman  dominions,  which  had  so 
alarmed  Christendom,  proved  its  safety.  The  younjr  and 
am!)ilious  Aclimet,  who  hojjed  to  signalize  the  i)eginniiig  of  his 
reign  by  the  conquest  of  Hungary,  was  obliged  to  recall  his 
fi)rces  from  that  (piarter,  in  order  to  protect  the  eastern  frontier 
of  iiis  empire;  and  Matthias  obtained,  without  striking  a  I)low, 
a  peace  as  advantageous  as  he  could  have  expected  after  the 
most  successful  war. 

lie  stipulated  for  the  restitution  of  Agria,  Pest,  Buda,  and 
every  other  place  held  by  the  Turks  in  Hungary. 

1617. — Matthias  procured  his  cousin,  Ferdinand  de  Gratz, 
Duke  of  Stiria,  to  be  elected  Kinnr  of  Bohemia  and  ackiio\vled<red 
in  Hungary,  and  he  engaged  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  house 
of  Austria  to  renounce  all  pretensions  to  those  crowns.  This 
family  compact  alarmed  the  Evangelical  Union,  and  occasioned 
the  revolt  of  the  Hunirarians  and  Bohemians.  Thus  was 
kindled  a  furious  civil  war,  which  was  not  extinguislied  till 
the  peace  of  Westphalia.  Amid  these  disorders  died  the 
Emperor  Matthias,  (in  1619,)  and  Ferdinand  de  (^ratz  was 
raised  to  the  vacant  throne.  The  Bohemians  chose  Frederic 
V.  I'dector  Palatine.  Frederic,  seduced  by  his  flatterers, 
unwisely  acce])ted  of  the  crown,  notwithstanding  the  remon- 
strances of  James  I.  of  England,  his  father-in-law.  Frederic 
was  seconded  by  most  of  the  Protestant  princes;  but  Ferdi- 
nand, assisted  by  the  C'atbolic  princes  of  the  empire,  by  the 
King  of  Spain  and  tbe  Archduke  Albert,  was  more  than  a 
match  for  his  enemies.  Frederic  was  totally  routed  near 
Prague,  (1620,)  and  degraded  from  his  electoral  dignity,  which 
was  conferred  on  the  Duke  of  Bavaria. 

While  the  house  of  Austria  was  thus  extending  its  authority 
in  Germany,  the  Spanish  branch  of  that  family  was  endcavour- 
ini:  to  render  itself  absolute  in  Italy.  In  the  midst  of  these 
ambitious  schemes,  to  which  he  was  himself  liide  inclined, 
died  Philip  HI.,  1021.  Philip  I V^.,  his  son  and  successor,  was 
more  cnterprisino-,  and  the  alulities  of  Olivarez,  {hv  new  minis- 
ter, were  fir  superior  to  those  of  the  Duke  of  Lerma,  who  had 
directed  all  in  the  last  reiffn.  The  ambition  of  Olivarez  was 
yet  greater  than  his  capacity.     He  made  his  master  assume 


Jtfl.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  89 

the  surname  of  Great,  and  thouglit  himself  bound  to  justify 
this  appellation.  He  hoped  to  raise  the  house  of  Austria  to 
that  absolute  dominion  in  Europe,  for  which  it  had  been  so 
long  struggling.  In  prosecution  of  this  bold  plan,  he  resolved 
to  maintain  the  closest  alliance  with  the  emperor;  to  make 
him  despotic  in  Germany,  to  keep  possession  of  the  Valtelline, 
to  humble  the  Italian  powers,  and  reduce  the  United  Provinces 
to  subjection,  the  truce  being  now  expired. 

The  minority  of  Lewis  XIII.  had  been  a  constant  scene  of 
faction  and  domestic  broils.  In  1620,  Lewis  having,  by  a 
solemn  edict,  united  the  principality  of  Beam,  the  hereditary 
estate  of  his  family,  to  the  crown  of  France,  attempted  to  re- 
establish the  Catholic  religion  in  that  province.  The  Hugue- 
nots, alarmed,  assembled  atRochelle  and  determined  to  erect  a 
republic  after  the  example  of  the  Protestants  in  the  Low 
Countries :  but  upon  a  confirmation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
peace  was  again  concluded,  in  1622.  The  French  councils 
now  began  to  assume  more  vigour.  Cardinal  Richelieu  no 
sooner  got  a  share  in  the  administration,  than,  turning  his  eyes 
on  the  state  of  Europe,  he  formed  three  mighty  projects;  to 
subdue  the  turbulent  spirit  of  the  French  nobility,  to  reduce 
the  rebellious  Huguenots,  and  to  curb  the  power  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  Hence  it  was  necessary  to  keep  peace  with  Eng- 
land, and  Richelieu  accordingly  negotiated  a  treaty  of  marriage 
between  Charles,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  Henrietta  Maria,  sister 
of  Lewis  XIII. :  he  also  negotiated  with  England  and  Holland 
that  alliance  which  brought  on  hostilities  with  Spain.  (1624.) 
In  consequence  of  these  negotiations,  preparations  were  made 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Palatine,  and  Christian  IV.  of  Den* 
mark  was  declared  head  of  the  confederation.  About  the  same 
time,  a  French  army,  with  the  Venetians  and  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  recovered  the  Valtelline,  which  had  been  sequestered 
to  the  Pope,  and  restored  it  to  the  Grisons. 

Meanwhile,  the  house  of  Austria  was  neither  inactive  nor 
unfortunate.  Spinola  reduced  Breda,  one  of  the  strongest 
towns  in  the  Netherlands,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Prince 
Maurice,  who  died  of  chagrin  before  the  place  surrendered. 
The  English  failed  in  their  attempt  upon  Cadiz,  the  embarka- 
tion of  their  troops  at  Dover  proved  abortive,  and  the  King  of 
Denmark  was  defeated  by  the  Imperialists  near  Northeim. 
This  ill  success  of  the  English  cooled  their  ardour  for  foreign 
enterprises,  and  Richelieu  found  for  a  time  enough  to  occupy 
his  genius  at  home.  He  had  not  only  to  quiet  the  Huguenots, 
who  again  rebelled,  but  a  powerful  faction  at  court  to  oppose 

10* 


90  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Not  one  prince  of  the  blood  was  heartily  his  friend.  Gaston, 
Diike  of  Orleans,  the  kind's  brother,  was  his  declared  enemy; 
the  queen-mother  herself  was  jealous  of  him,  and  Lewis  was 
attached  to  him  rather  from  motives  of  interest  than  of  aflVciion. 
Hut  the  bold  and  amliitious  spirit  of  Kichclieu  triumi)h('(i  ovrr 
every  obstacle;  it  discovered  and  dissipated  the  cabals  formetl 
ajrainst  liim,  and  at  length  made  him  absolute  master  of  ih^ 
kint;^  and  Uiiiirdoin. 

1G27. — During  these  cabals  in  the  French  court,  the  Hugue- 
nots showed  once  more  a  disposition  to  render  themselves 
independent,  and  in  that  spirit  they  were  encouraged  l)v  t  le 
court  of  England.  As  Lewis  XIIL  was  wholly  governed  Ity 
Richelieu,  and  I^liilip  IV.  by  Olivarez,  Charles  L  was  in  like 
manner  governed  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  who  no«v 
eniraifed  his  master  to  declare  war  asjainst  France.  Tiie 
Huguenots  had  been  deprived  of  many  of  their  cautionary 
towns,  and  forls  were  erecliiiir  in  order  to  i)rid|o  Rochclle, 
their  most  considerable  bulwark.  Buckingham  appeared 
before  that  place  with  an  army  of  7,000  men,  and  a  fleet  of  a 
hundred  sail;  but  so  ill  contrived  were  his  measures,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  that  city  shut  tlieir  gates  against  him,  and  refusi'd 
to  admit  allies  of  whose  coming  they  were  not  previously 
informed.  'I'his  blunder  was  followed  bv  another.  Instead 
of  attacking  Oleron,  a  fertile  island  and  defenceless,  he  made 
a  descent  on  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  well  garrisoned  and  fortified. 
He  allowed  the  governor  to  amuse  him  with  a  negotiation,  till 
the  principal  fort  was  provided  for  a  siege;  and  guarded  tlie 
sea  so  negligently,  that  a  French  army  stole  over  in  small 
divisions  and  oblig-ed  him  to  retreat  to  his  ships.  He  was  the 
last  man  that  endjarked,  and  having  lost  two-thirds  of  his 
forces,  ret\irned  to  England,  bringing  home  with  him  no  repu- 
tation but  that  of  personal  courage.  This  ill-concerted  enter- 
prise proved  fatal  to  the  power  of  the  French  Protestants. 
The  siege  of  Rochelle  was  now  regularly  formed,  and  conthicted 
With  vii;our  by  Lewis  and  th(;  canlinal  in  person.  The  latter, 
finding  it  impossible  to  reduce  the  place,  while  the  comnnnii- 
cation  remained  open  l)v  sea,  attempted  to  shut  u|)  the  harbour 
by  sUikes  and  l)y  a  boom,  'i'iiese  methods  proving  inellectual, 
he  recollected  what  Alexander  had  performed  at  the  siege  of 
Tyre,  and  finished  a  mole  of  a  mile's  length  across  a  gulf,  into 
which  the  sea  rolled  with  an  impetuosity  tb.at  seemed  to  l)id 
defiance  to  all  the  works  of  man.  The  place  being  now 
blockaded  on  all  sides,  the  irdiabitunta  were  obliged  to  surren- 
der, after  sulfering  -dl  die  miseries  of  famine  and  war  during  a 


XVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  9i 

siege  of  almost  twelve  months.  Cardinal  Richelieu  then 
marched  against  the  Protestants  in  the  other  provinces  of 
France ;  destroyed  all  their  fortifications,  and  took  from  them 
their  cautionary  towns,  but  confirmed  to  them  the  possession 
of  their  estates  and  otJier  privileges.  From  this  era  we  may- 
date  the  aggrandisement  of  the  French  monarchy  in  latter 
times,  and  the  absolute  power  of  its  princes.  Richelieu's 
system,  however,  was  not  yet  complete.  No  sooner  had  he 
subdued  tlie  Protestants  in  France,  than  he  resolved  to  support 
them  in  Germany,  that  he  might  be  enabled  by  their  means 
to  set  bounds  to  the  power  of  the  house  of  Austria. 

Ferdinand  II.,  whom  we  have  seen  triumphant  over  the 
Palatine  and  the  Evangelical  Union,  continued  to  carry  every 
thing  before  him  in  the  empire.  The  King  of  Denmark  and 
the  League  in  Lower  Saxony  were  unable  to  withstand  his 
armies  under  Tilly  and  Wallenstein.  The  Danish  monarch, 
after  repeated  defeats,  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  and  the 
emperor  found  himself  possessed  of  absolute  authority.  But 
Ferdinand  attempting  to  revive  the  imperial  jurisdiction  in 
Italy,  Richelieu  passed  the  Alps  at  the  head  of  20,000  men, 
gained  several  advantages  over  the  Spaniards  and  Imperialists, 
and  obliged  the  emperor  to  grant  the  investiture  of  Mantua  and 
Montserrat  to  the  Duke  of  Nevers.  (1630.)  The  Duke  of 
Savoy  and  Spinola  died  during  these  transactions,  and  an 
accommodation  between  France  and  the  empire  was  partly 
negotiated  by  Julio  Mazarin,  who  now  first  appeared  on  the 
theatre  of  the  world  as  an  ecclesiastic  and  a  politician.  The 
Protestants,  in  the  mean  time,  secretly  formed  an  alliance  with 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden.  Eric  Vasa,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Gustavus,  proving  a  dissolute  and  cruel 
prince,  had  been  dethroned  and  imprisoned  by  the  states  of 
Sweden  in  1568.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John, 
who,  after  attempting  in  vain  to  re-establish  the  Catholic 
religion,  died  in  1592,  and  left  the  crown  to  his  son  Sigismond, 
already  elected  King  of  Poland.  Sigismond,  like  his  father, 
being  a  zealous  Catholic,  the  Swedes  deposed  him,  and  raised 
to  the  sovereignty  his  uncle,  Charles  IX.  The  Poles  attempted, 
in  vain,  to  restore  Sigismond  to  the  throne  of  Sweden :  Charles 
swayed  the  sceptre  till  his  death,  and  was  succeeded  in  1611 
by  his  son,  the  celebrated  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Russia,  during  that  period,  was  a  prey  to  civil  wars.  John 
Basilowitz  II.  dying,  left  two  sons,  Theodore  and  Demetrius. 
Theodore  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne,  and,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Boris,  his  prime  minister,  ordered  his  brother  Deme- 


92  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

trills  to  be  murdered.  He  liimself  died  soon  after,  and  Boris 
was  proclaimed  sovereign.  Meanwhile  a  young  man  appeared 
in  Iiilhuaiii;i,  under  the  name  and  character  of  Prince  Deme- 
trius, pretending  thai  he  had  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
assassin.  Assisted  by  a  Polish  army,  he  entered  Moscow  in 
1605,  and  was  proclaimed  Czar  without  opposition,  Boris 
being  now  dead.  This  Demetrius  was,  on  the  day  of  his 
marriage,  slain,  with  most  of  his  Polish  attendants,  who  had 
rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  Russians;  and  Zuski,  a  noble- 
man who  had  fomented  the  insurrection,  was  declared  his 
successor.  But  scarcely  was  Zuski  seated  on  the  throne,  when 
a  second  Demetrius  made  his  appearance,  and  after  his  death 
a  third.  Poland  and  Sweden  took  part  in  the  quarrel,  Zuski 
was  delivered  up  to  the  Poles,  and  Demetrius  was  massacred 
by  the  Tartars.  But  a  fourth  and  even  a  fifth  Demetrius  ap- 
peared, and  Russia,  during  these  struggles,  was  repeatedly 
ravaged  by  opposite  factions  and  foreign  troops.  At  length, 
Michael  Theodorowilz,  son  of  Roraanow,  Bishop  of  Roston, 
afterwards  patriarch,  related,  in  the  female  line,  to  the  Czar 
John  Basilowitz,  was  raised  to  the  throne  ;  and  this  prince 
having  conchnlcd  a  peace  with  Sweden  and  iNjIand  in  1618, 
restored  tranquillity  to  Russia,  and  transmitted  the  crown  to  his 
descendants. 

Denmark  affords  nothinfj  tliat  merits  our  attention  during  the 
reign  of  Frederic  II.,  who  succeeded  his  father.  Christian  III., 
in  1.558;  nor  during  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor.  Chris- 
tian IV.,  before  he  was  chosen  General  of  the  League  in  Lower 
Saxony.  Sweden  alone,  during  those  limes,  of  all  tlie  northern 
kingdoms,  yields  a  spectacle  worthy  of  ol)servation.  No 
sooner  was  Guslavus  seated  on  tlie  throne,  though  only  eiiihteen 
years  of  age  at  his  accession,  than  he  signalized  himself  by  his 
exploits  against  the  Danes,  the  ancient  enemies  of  his  crown. 
In  a  war  against  Russia,  he  subdued  almost  all  Fiidand,  and 
secured  to  himself  the  possession  of  his  conquests  l)y  a  treaty. 
His  cousin,  Sigismond,  King  of  Poland,  refusing  peace  when 
oflered  l)y  Gustavus,  the  latter  overran  Livonia,  Prussia,  and 
Poinerania.  An  advantageous  truce  of  six  years,  concluded 
wilii  Pohind,  in  162'J,  gave  him  leisure  to  make  war  against 
the  emperor,  for  which  his  chief  motives  were  his  love  of  glory 
and  his  zr-al  for  Liithoranism.  He  laid  his  desiirn  before  the 
slates  nf  Sweden,  and  negotiated  with  France,  England,  and 
Holland.  (16."J0.)  Charles  I.  sent  him  supplies  of  men,  and 
irichelieu  proniised  an  annual  sulisidy  of  I, '300,0(10  livres. 
Gustavus  entered  Pomerania,  and   matle  himself   master    of 


XVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  93 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Colberg,  and  several  t)ther  places.  To 
put  an  end  to  the  irresolution  of  the  Protestant  Princes,  who 
were  afraid  to  join  him,  he  summoned  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg to  declare  himself  openly  in  tiiree  days,  but  receiving  an 
evasive  answer,  he  marched  directly  to  Berlin.  This  conduct 
had  the  desired  effect.  The  gates  were  thrown  open,  and  he 
was  received  as  a  friend.  He  was  soon  after  joined  by  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  In  1631  he 
marched  towards  Leipsic,  where  Tilly  lay  encamped.  That 
experienced  general  advanced  into  the  plains  of  Breitenfield, 
where  Gustavus,  by  his  conduct  and  the  superior  valour  of  the 
Swedes,  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  conqueror  was  now 
joined  by  all  the  members  of  the  Evangelical  Union,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  whole  country  from  the  Elb  to  the 
Rhine,  comprehending  near  100  leagues,  full  of  fortified  towns. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  Elector  of  Saxony  entered  Bohemia  and 
took  Prague,  and  Tilly  was  killed  in  disputing  with  the 
Swedes  the  passage  of  the  Lech.  The  next  year,  1632, 
Gustavus  reduced  Augsburg,  and  there  re-established  Luther- 
anism.  He  then  marched  into  Bavaria  and  took  Munich. 
During  these  transactions,  the  renowned  imperial  general, 
Wallenstein,  who  had  been  for  some  time  in  disgrace,  but  was 
now  restored  to  the  chief  command,  recovered  Prague  and  the 
greatest  part  of  Bohemia.  Gustavus  offered  him  battle,  near 
Nuremberg,  but  he  declined  it;  the  king  was  repulsed  in 
attempting  to  force  his  entrenchments,  and  a  masterly  retreat 
alone  could  save  him  from  a  total  overthrow.  That  service 
was  chiefly  performed  by  an  old  Scotch  colonel,  named  Hep- 
burn, who  had  resigned  his  commission  in  disgust,  but  was 
present  at  this  assault.  To  him  Gustavus  applied  in  his  dis- 
tress, and  trusting  to  the  colonel's  natural  generosity,  he  was 
not  deceived.  Hepburn's  pride  overcame  his  resentment :  he 
rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  batde,  delivered  the  orders  of 
Gustavus  to  his  army,  and  conducted  the  retreat  with  so  much 
order  and  ability,  that  the  Imperialists  durst  not  give  him  the 
smallest  disturbance.  Gustavus  afterwards  attacked  Wallen- 
stein in  the  wide  plain  of  Lutzen,  near  Leipsic,  where  a  great 
battle  was  fought,  and  the  Swedish  monarch  lost  his  life  in  the 
height  of  a  complete  victory,  which  was  improved  by  Bernard 
of  Saxe  Weymar,  his  lieutenant-general.  The  Swedes,  though 
victorious,  were  overwhelmed  with  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  their 
heroic  prince,  .whose  daughter  and  successor  was  only  six 
years  of  age.  A  council  of  regency,  however,  being  appointed, 
and  the  management  of  the  war  committed  to  the  Chancellor 


94  OEXERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Oxenstiein,  the  Protestant  confedorarv  still  wore  a  formidable 
aspect;  hostilities  were  eoniimied  duriii!^  the  lollowiiij^  year 
witli  viffoiir  and  success,  by  the  Generals  Banner  and  Horn. 

KkH. — The  emperor  now  became  jealous  of  the  vast  pow- 
er he  had  irranleil  to  Wallenstein,  and  resolved  to  dt^prive  him 
of  the  command;  and  Wallenstein,  perhaps,  to  prevent  his 
disgrace,  is  said  to  have  concerted  the  means  of  a  revolt.  It 
is  at  least  certain  tliat  he  was  assassinated,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  conjinand  of  the  Imperial  army  by  die  emperor's  eldest 
son,  the  K\n<T  of  Hungary.  Both  armies  were  reinforced 
from  every  quarter,  and  met  ajrain,  after  various  success,  near 
Nordlin<ren,  in  Swabia;  where  was  foujrht  one  of  the  most 
obstinate  and  bloody  battles  recorded  in  history,  and  where 
the  Swedes  were  totally  routed,  in  spite  of  their  most  vijroroug 
efi'orts.  This  defeat  threw  the  members  of  the  Evans^elical 
Union  into  the  utmost  consternation  and  despair,  and  brouixht 
on  a  treaty  wliich  was  si<rned  at  Pratrue,  (1635,)  i)y  all  the 
Protestant  princes,  except  the  liaudirrave  of  Hesse  Cassel. 
By  this  treaty,  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  relii^ion  was 
freely  permitted  in  all  the  dominions  of  the  empire,  except 
the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  ami  iIk;  provinces  belomrinji  to  the 
house  of  Austria;  and  a  mutual  restitution  was  to  take  place  of 
all  that  had  been  conquered  since  the  irruption  of  Gustavus 
into  the  empire. 


CHAPTER  XVH. 

ENGLAND,  FROM  1628,  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLES  I.,  IN  1  6 19. 

The  ill  success  of  the  enterprise  afjainst  Rochelle  helped 
to  increase  the  discontents  of  the  Eni^lish  ;  their  commerce, 
which  had  been  injured  by  the  Spanish,  was  ruined  by  the 
French  war,  while  the  J^lory  of  the  nation  was  tarnished,  and 
its  safety  threatened,  by  the  forces  of  two  powerful  monarch- 
ies. At  such  a  season,  Cliarles  and  I^uckinirliam  must  have 
dreadeil,  above  all  thinj^s,  the  callino[  of  a  l*arliament;  yet  the 
necessity  of  supply,  and  the  danjrer  of  fnrcinir  anotlier  loan, 
oblijTcd  them  to  have  recourse  to  that  expedient.  It  was  soon 
found  that  the  new  memliers  were  equally  independent  with 
the  old,  and  that  the  resentment  of  past  injuries  was  neither 
weakened  nor  forirotten  ;  vet  they  ent(!red  upan  business  with 
no  less  temper  and  decorum,  than  vijrour  and  aliility.  A  vote 
was  unanimously  passed  against  arbitrary  imprisonments,  aud 


XVII.]  GENEUAI.    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  96 

forced  loans.  In  return  for  this  concession,  a  supply  of  five 
subsidies  was  voted  with  apparent  good  will,  but  though  voted, 
was  not  immediately  passed  into  a  law,  and  the  Commons 
were  resolved  to  employ  the  interval  in  providing  some  barriers 
to  their  liberties  so  lately  violated.  An  immunity  from  such 
invasion  they  alleged  to  be  the  inherent  right  of  the  subject; 
therefore,  the  demand  was  denominated  a  '■^Petition  of  right." 
As  this  seemed  to  infringe  the  prerogative,  it  was  not  without 
much  difficulty  and  many  evasions,  that  the  royal  assent  could 
be  obtained.  The  Commons  continued  their  scrutiny  into 
every  department  of  government,  and  made  so  many  demands, 
that  Charles,  finding  that  one  concession  only  led  to  others, 
suddenly  prorogued  the  Parliament. 

An  armament  having  been  prepared  for  the  relief  of  Rochelle, 
Buckingham  repaired  to  Portsmouth,  resolved  once  more  to 
display  his  prowess  on  the  coast  of  France ;  but  this  enter- 
prise was  obstructed  by  an  enthusiast,  named  Thomas  Felton, 
who  having  met  with  some  disappointment  in  his  hopes  of 
promotion,  inflamed  with  resentment,  and  taught  by  the  public 
voice  to  consider  Buckingham  as  the  cause  of  all  the  national 
grievances,  assassinated  him  while  he  was  conversing  with 
some  officers. 

1629. — The  Parliament  assembled  again,  in  January,  when 
they  proceeded  to  question  the  legality  of  levying  tonnage 
and  poundage,  without  the  consent  of  the  representatives  of 
the  people,  a  right  which  they  had  not  granted  to  the  king, 
though  it  had  been  given  to  each  of  his  predecessors,  since 
Henry  V.,  and  had  usually  been  voted  by  the  first  Parliament 
of  each  reign.  But,  determined  to  reduce  Charles  to  a  state 
of  dependence,  instead  of  conferring  it  on  him  for  life,  they 
had  only  voted  it  for  one  year.  He  did  not,  however,  imme- 
diately break  with  them  on  their  delay  of  granting  him  the 
contested  duties ;  but  when,  instead  of  listening  to  his  earnest 
solicitations  for  supply,  they  proceeded  to  carry  their  scrutiny 
into  his  management  of  religion,  his  indignation  was  roused, 
and  he  dissolved  the  Parliament  with  a  determined  resolution 
never  to  call  another,  unless  he  could  see  indications  of  a  more 
compliant  disposition  in  the  nation.  He  ordered  those  popular 
leaders  who  had  been  most  active  in  the  late  tumult  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  to  be  taken  into  custody.  Some  of  them 
were  fined,  and  condemned  to  find  sureties  for  their  good 
behaviour.  In  the  midst  of  so  many  domestic  difficulties,  and 
utterly  destitute  of  money,  Charles  submitted  to  necessity, 
and  concluded  a  peace  with  France  and  Spain.  (1630.)     Sir 


96  GENERAL    HISTORv    OF    EUROPE.  [CIIAP. 

Thomas  Wentworth,  created  Earl  of  Staflbrd,  whom  he  hf.d 
detached  from  the  republican  party,  became  now  liis  prime 
minister.  Tiie  cmincni  abilities  and  unsliakon  litielity  of  thi? 
nobleman,  merited  all  the  conlidence  which  his  royal  master 
reposed  in  him  ;  but  in  proportion  as  he  became  honoured  at 
court,  he  was  detested  I)V  the  opposite  party.  The  alliance 
of  Charles  with  a  Catholic  princess,  had  procured  the  ('atho- 
lics  a  temporary  relief  from  the  penal  laws.  Some  of  the 
Protestant  bishops,  particularly  Laud,  when  he  was  advanced 
to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury  in  1G)J3,  seemed  to 
favour  Catholic  principles.  The  knit^'s  preachers  openly 
commended  them  from  the  pulpit.  This  show  of  moderation 
in  the  Protestant  clergy,  furnished  the  dissenters  with  ample 
matter  of  declamation  against  the  Catholic  as  well  as  the  esta- 
blished church.  They  represented  both  as  the  enemies  of 
liberty,  and  the  obstinate  supporters  of  the  high  prerogatives 
of  the  crown.  Foperi/,  the  watchword  of  pojjular  commotions, 
never  failed  of  its  effect.  In  this  the  puritanic  faction  had  a 
double  view ;  the  one  to  draw  the  attention  of  government 
from  the  dissenters,  the  other  to  stigmatize  the  Catholics,  by 
charging  them  with  the  very  traitorous  design,  which  they 
themselves  were  preparing  to  execute. 

In  the  mean  lime,  it  appeared  that  Charles  was  resolved  to 
reign  without  a  I'arliainent.  He  continued  his  uuconslilutional 
expedient  of  raising  money ;  compositions  were  made  with 
nonconformists  ;  the  Star  Chamber  and  high  commission  court 
exercised  their  arbitrary  severities  upon  sev(!ral  olTenders, 
who  only  gloried  in  their  sufferings,  and  contrii)uted  to  render 
government  odious  and  contemptible.  Among  the  other  taxes, 
that  of  ship-money  had  been  revived,  and  levied  upon  the 
whole  kingdom.  (1G37.)  It  was  refused  by  a  private  gentle- 
man named  John  Hampden,  though  the  stun  at  which  he  was 
rated  did  not  exceed  twenty  shillings.  His  cause  was  argued 
in  the  Exchequer  Chamber  before  all  the  judges  in  England; 
he  lost  it,  but  the  applauses  of  the  people  more  than  recom- 
pensed his  conduct.  Hampden  died  fighting  against  his  king 
in  in  13. 

Wiiile  the  minds  of  men  underwent  this  fermentation  in 
England,  a  more  dangerous  spirit  made  its  appearance  in  Scot- 
land. (Jharles  pursued  his  father's  system  of  introducing 
episcopacy  into  that  kingdom,  and  with  that  view  visited  his 
native  country  in  1033,  and  made  a  violent  attempt  to  get  his 
authority  ackno'vlcdirfMl  there  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  His 
proclamation  to  order  the  use  of  the  liturgy,  (1G37,)  occasioned 


XVII J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  97 

the  formation  of  the  famous  association  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Cjvenant,  in  which  were  comprehended  all  orders  of 
men  in  the  state.  It  required  an  engagement  upon  oath  to 
defend  the  Presbyterian  worship  against  Popery,  and  to  rejec* 
all  innovations  whatever.  To  enable  him  to  oppose  the 
Scotch  rebels,  Charles  was  obliged  to  call  an  English  Parlia- 
ment, after  an  interval  of  eleven  years.  (1640.)  The  Commons, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  insisted  that  the  redress  of 
grievances  should  be  taken  first  into  consideration  ;  and  Charles, 
finding  his  friends  in  the  House  outnumbered  by  his  enemies, 
came  to  the  hasty  resolution  of  dissolving  this  Parliament,  as 
he  had  done  tlie  preceding  ones.  Frustrated  in  the  hope  of 
a  legitimate  supply,  he  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  other 
measures  to  oppose  the  Covenanters,  who,  having  taken  a  de- 
tachment of  the  king's  troops,  had  made  themselves  masters 
of  Newcastle.  The  Earl  of  Strafford  opposed  all  conciliatory 
measures,  and  advised  the  king  to  hazard  a  battle,  but  his 
advice  was  not  followed.  A  conference  was  entered  upon  by 
commissioners  of  both  parties,  and  a  treaty  agreed  upon.  In 
compliance  with  the  general  wish  of  his  subjects,  Charles 
again  assembled  a  Parliament.  Its  first  measure  was  to  im- 
peach his  minister,  Strafford.  Twenty-eight  articles  were 
exhibited  against  this  unfortunate  nobleman,  and  a  committee 
appointed  to  scrutinize  his  conduct  in  every  particular.  Straf- 
ford was  at  that  time  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,*  which  he 
governed  as  a  conquered  kingdom.  During  his  administration 
as  deputy,  when  Lord  Wentworth,  complaints  of  his  harsh, 
imperious,  and  unjust  conduct,  had  reached  the  ear  of  the 
English  monarch  ;  but  his  influence  over  the  mind  of  his  royal 
master  was  proof  against  all  the  efforts  of  his  enemies.  On 
the  present  occasion,  the  Irish  committee  were  directed  to  ad- 
dress themselves  to  the  king ;  but  they  seem  to  have  been 
privately  instructed  to  apply  to  the  English  House  of  Com- 
mons. Contrary  to  his  own  sentiments,  and  relying  on  the 
protection  and  promises  of  the  king,  by  whose  authority  he 
seems  to  have  acted,  Strafford  attended  Parliament  and  was 
immediately  arrested.      Though   no   distinct  charge  of  high 

*  At  the  beginning  of  Charles's  reign,  while  Lord  Falkland  was  deput}', 
the  Irish  Catholics  met  with  some  inilulgence.  But  it  was  of  short  duration 
The  Puritans  lieset  the  English  cabinet  with  complaints  of  his  administra- 
tion, and  the  king  sacrificed  a  faithful  servant  to  the  intrigues  of  enemies. 
Falkland  was  recalled.  Under  his  successors,  Viscount  Ely  and  the  Earl 
of  Cork,  two  lord  justices,  the  penal  statutes  were  rigorously  enforced  and 
a  system  of  terrorism  again  adopted. 

11 


•9  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

treason  could  he  proved  agniiist  him,  he  was  declared  guilty,  and 
his  death  was  demanded  with  the  loudest  clamours  by  an  in- 
censed populace.  Tlio  kiuij  at  last  reluelantly  sisiuitied  his 
consent  l)y  a  hill  of  commission,  and  the  earl  was  hcheatled  at 
Tower-hill.  (IGll.)  Charles  soon  after  sanctioned  a  bill  still 
more  fatal  to  his  interests,  i)y  which  Parliament  could  neither 
be  adjourned  nor  dissolved  without  their  own  consent.  The 
rijjht  of  }jrantiu<r  tonnaire  and  pouiulaire  was  forever  vested  in 
the  Commons  ;  the  Star-Chamber  and  high  commission  courts 
were  abolished ;  the  demolition  of  crucifixes,  altars,  and 
images,  enacted  ;  all  religious  ceremonies  rejected  as  savouring 
of  Popery  ;  triennial  Parliaments  established,  and,  in  short,  the 
kingly  power  reduced  almost  to  a  shadow.  Charles  soon 
after  visited  Scotland,  where  he  sanctioned  all  the  decrees  of 
the  Covenanters  ;  but  while  he  was  thus  conciliating  the  affec- 
tions of  his  Si!Oltish  subjects,  he  received  intelligence  that  a 
rei)ellion  had  broken  o\it  in  Ireland.  Goaded  by  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Puritans,  who  were  headed  by  the  Lords  (^hief 
Justices  Parsons  and  Borlase,  and  threatened  the  extinction 
of  loyaltv  as  well  as  of  the  Catliolic  religion,  the  Irish  broke 
out  into  open  rebellion,  and  retaliated  upon  their  oppressors 
the  cruelties  which  they  themselves  had  so  dreadfully  ex- 
perienced. Instead  of  assisting  the  loyal  Catholics  to  suppress 
the  nijrliiern  insurgents,  the  lords  justices  emi)l()ved  all  their 
power  to  drive  the  rest  of  the  kingilom  into  a  similar  insurrec- 
tion, for  the  base  purpose  of  sequestrating  the  estates  of  those 
who  should  engage  in  it.  diaries,  unable  to  put  a  stop  to 
these  disorders,  once  more  applied  to  the  Commons  ;  who,  in- 
stead of  affording  assistance,  insinuated  that  he  had  himself 
fomented  the  rebellion.  Every  measure  pursued  by  them 
from  this  time  evinced  their  determined  resolution  to  subvert 
the  whole  civil  and  religious  government.  Their  iirst  attack 
was  against  episcopacy,  which  they  knew  to  be  one  of  the 
strongest  bulwarks  of  the  regal  power  ;  thev  impeaclnul  lliirteen 
bishops  for  high  treason,  which  measure  induced  their  lord- 
ships all  to  leave  the  House,  having  entered  a  protest  against 
every  thing  that  should  be  transacted  in  their  absence.  A 
precipitate  impeachment  of  five  of  the  most  turbulent  members 
by  the  king  in  person,  completed  his  unpopularity,  and  his 
subsequent  submission  to  his  Commons  rendered  him  con- 
temptible. Taking  with  him  his  two  sons,  he  retired  to  York  : 
die  queen  had  alnsady  taken  refuge  in  Holland.  There  she 
resided  with  her  daughter  Mary,  who  had  been  given  in  m:ir- 
riage  to  the  Prince  of  Orange. 


XVII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  9© 

On  the  appearance  of  civil  commotion  in  England,  the 
Princes  Rupert  and  Maurice,  sons  to  tlie  unfortunate  Palatine, 
and  nephews  to  Charles,  offered  him  their  services.  The  for- 
mer was  made  general  of  tlic  horse.  The  king  erected  his 
royal  standard  in  1641,  and  invited  all  his  faithful  suhjects  to 
come  forward  in  defence  of  his  crown.  The  Catholics,  though 
fetiered  with  penal  laws  for  their  religion,  and  branded  with 
the  repute  of  disaffection  towards  a  Protestant  sovereign, 
hastened  among  the  foremost  to  testify  their  loyalty.  They 
Isvied  troops  at  their  own  expense,  they  sacrificed  their 
property  and  lives  for  the  king  and  constitution,  and  this  at  a 
time  when  many  of  their  clergy  were  iniquitously  dragged  to 
prison,  and  from  prison  to  the  gallows,  merely  for  their  reli- 
gion. 

1642. — Edge  Hill,  in  Warwickshire,  was  the  first  place 
where  the  two  armies  were  drawn  out  in  array  :  the  Earl  of 
Essex  commanded  the  parliamentary  forces.  After  an  en- 
gagement of  some  hours,  they  separated  with  nearly  equal  loss. 
The  first  campaign  was  favourable  to  the  king,  but  the  Parlia- 
ment was  not  discouraged.  They  united  in  a  league  of  mutual 
defence  with  the  Scotch  Covenanters,  while  Charles  received 
a  reinforcement  of  Irish  troops.  In  order  to  preserve  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  Parliament,  the  king  had  summoned  to  Oxford 
(1644)  the  members  who  adhered  to  his  interest.  A  great 
majority  of  peers  attended  him,  but  the  Commons  were  scarcely 
half  so  numerous  as  those  who  sat  at  Westminster.  An  ac- 
count of  the  different  battles  and  skirmishes  that  took  place 
between  the  two  armies,  during  the  space  of  eight  years,  would 
far  exceed  our  narrow  limits.  The  battle  of  Marston  Moor 
was  the  beffinning  of  the  king's  misfortunes.  The  Scottish 
and  parliamentarian  army  had  united,  and  were  besiegmg 
York,  when  Prince  Rupert  determined  to  give  them  batUe. 
The  Royalists  were  opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  now 
came  into  notice,  and  succeeded  in  breaking  their  right  wing. 
They  returned  to  a  second  engagement,  no  less  furious  than 
the  first.  The  king's  artillery  was  taken,  and  his  army  pushed 
off  the  field.  Prince  Rupert  retired  to  Lancashire,  and  Lord 
Fairfax  (a  parliamentarian  general)  fixed  his  residence  in  York, 
while  the  Scottish  army,  marching  north,  laid  siege  to  New- 
castle, and  carried  it  by  assault.  Archbishop  Laud,  who  had 
long  been  confined  in  the  Tower,  was  this  year  (1645)  sacri- 
ficed to  the  vengeance  of  his  enemies. 

In  the  mean  time  a  new  sect  began  to  discover  itself 
among  the  Presbyterians,  called  the  Independents  ;  their  aim 


100  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

was  a  total  abolition  of  tiie  monarcliic;il,  aiul  even  of  the  aristo- 
eralical  brancii  of  the  Enji^lish  constituticiii.  Of  course,  they 
were  (leclared  I'liiMuie.s  to  all  proposaLs  for  peace,  wliieh  had 
been  so  often  made  l)y  tbe  kiiijr.  Tlio  obstinate  l)altle  wliich 
decided  the  fate  of  Charles,  was  fonglit  at  Naseby,  a  village 
in  Yorksiiire,  on  the  lltli  of  June.  The  king  himself  com- 
manded the  main  body  o{'  the  royal  army,  and  disjilayed  in  the 
action  all  the  conduct  of  an  experienced  general,  and  all  the 
courage  of  a  gallant  soldier.  Victory,  however,  declared  for 
Cromwell;  near  5,000  of  tbe  royalists  were  taken  prisoners, 
and  all  their  baggage,  artillery,  and  ammunition,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  After  the  batUe  of  Naseby,  the  king's 
afl'airs  went  to  ruin  so  fast  in  all  quarters,  that  be  sent  the 
Prince  of  Wales  abroad  to  join  the  queen  his  mother  at  Paris, 
while  he  himself  retreated  into  Wales,  in  hopes  of  raising  a  body 
of  troops  in  that  loyal  but  exhausted  country.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  parliamentary  generals  and  the  Scots  made  them- 
selves masters  of  almost  every  place  of  importance  in  the 
kingdom.  Prince  Rupert,  who  had  thrown  himself  into 
Bristol,  had  promised  to  hold  out  four  months,  yet  be  surren- 
dered at  the  lirst  summons,  (.'barles,  astiwiished  at  this  unex- 
pected event,  recalled  the  prince's  commissions,  and  ordered 
him  to  quit  the  kingdom.  To  crown  the  king's  misfortunes, 
the  gallant  Marquis  of  Montrose,  who,  witli  a  Iiody  of  High- 
landers, had  for  some  time  supported  tlie  royal  cause  in  Scot- 
land, was  this  year  defeated.  The  civil  war  continued  in 
Ireland,  long  after  the  king  bad  commanded  a  cessation  of 
arms,  and  appointed  his  deputy,  the  Marquis  of  Ormond,  to 
negotiate  with  the  confederated  Irish.  Though  thoroughly 
convinced  of  their  loyalty,  this  nobleman,  unwilling  to  concede 
in  full  the  demands  of  the  Irish  Catholics,  who  stipulated  for 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  delayed  the  peace  till  it  was 
rendered  unavailing,  by  the  imprisonment  of  his  majesty.  It 
was  not  concluded  till  1018. 

Afraid  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  insolent  enemies,  and 
of  being  led  in  triumph  by  them,  Charles  (in  1(»4G)  resolved 
to  throw  himself  on  tin;  generosity  of  the  Scots :  without 
sudiciently  rellecting,  that  he  must  by  such  a  step  disgust  bis 
English  subjects  of  all  denominations,  and  that  the  Scottish 
covenanters  were  not  only  bis  declared  enemies,  but  were  now 
acting  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Hnglish  Parliament.  The  Scottish 
generals  alTected  great  surprise  at  tbe  appearance  of  Charles, 
tliough  previously  acquainted  with  his  design;  and  while  they 
treated  him  with  the  exterior  respect  due  to  his  dignity,  they 


XVII.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  101 

made  him  in  reality  a  prisoner,  and  soon  after  (1647)  delivered 
hirn  up  to  the  English  Parliament,  on  condition  of  being  paid 
their  arrears,  which  were  compounded  at  i]400,000  sterling. 

The  civil  war  was  now  over.  The  Scots  returned  to  their 
own  country,  and  every  one  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the 
ruling  powers.  But  the  dominion  of  the  Parliament  was  of 
short  duration.  The  power  of  the  Independents  became  daily 
greater ;  and  having  obtained  the  command  of  the  army,  tumbled 
the  Parliament  from  its  slippery  throne.  This  was  the  crisis 
for  Cromwell  to  lay  the  foundation  of  his  future  greatness ; 
and  he  did  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  it.  Heavy  taxes  ex- 
cited discontents  among  the  people,  and  the  army,  though 
commanded  by  Parliament,  was  unwilling  to  disband.  In 
opposition,  that  of  Westminster,  a  kind  of  military  parliament 
was  formed,  consisting  of  a  council  of  the  principal  officers 
and  of  two  private  men  from  each  troop  or  company,  under 
the  tide  of  Agitators.  Still  more  to  strengthen  their  party, 
they  sent  a  party  of  horse  to  Holmby  Casde  in  Northumber- 
land, where  the  king  was  confined,  who  conducted  the 
monarch  to  the  rendezvous  of  the  army  near  Cambridge. 
Charles  was  more  inclined  to  negotiate  with  the  council  of 
officers  than  with  the  Parliament,  whose  rigour  he  had  severely 
felt,  because  the  former  neither  insisted  on  the  abolition  of 
episcopacy,  nor  on  the  punishment  of  the  royalists  ;  the  very 
points  he  was  unwilling  to  yield,  and  had  refused  to  the  Long  Par- 
liament. He  was  soon  after  conducted  to  Hampton  Court,  where 
he  lived  for  a  time  with  an  appearance  of  dignity  and  freedom. 
But  Cromwell's  ambitious  views  were  not  consistent  with  the 
restoration  of  the  monarchy ;  by  doubling  the  king's  guards 
and  rendering  his  situation  uneasy  to  him,  they  induced  him 
to  take  the  imprudent  resolution  of  withdrawing  himself  from 
Hampton  Court.  He  retired  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he 
was  made  a  prisoner  by  the  governor,  and  confined  in  Caris- 
brooke  Castle.  Cromwell,  in  the  mean  time,  had  led  his  troops 
to  London ;  reduced  the  Parliament  to  submission  by  force ; 
quelled  an  insurrection  in  the  army,  by  punishing  the  ring- 
leaders with  exemplary  severity,  and  routed  the  Scots,  who, 
being  alarmed  at  the  subjection  of  Parliament  to  the  military, 
had  marched  a  considerable  army  southward,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Marquis  of  Hamilton.  But  the  Parliament,  though 
deprived  of  all  hopes  of  succeeding,  were  still  determined  to 
resist,  and  attempted  to  proceed  in  the  setdement  of  the  kingdom. 
(1648.)  This  was  the  time  for  the  generals  to  interpose,  an(] 
they  knew  it.     Next  morning,  when  the  Commons  were  to 

11* 


103  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

moot-,  Colonel  Pride,  formerly  a  drayman,  entered  the  house 
Nvitli  a  party  of  soldiers,  seized  in  the  passag-e  forty-one  mem- 
bt>rs  of  the  PreshytiTinn  partv,  and  <'xchi(l('(I  a  hundred  and 
fifty  more.  '^  'J'lie  I'mious  Independents  remained,  who  passed 
a  vote  declaring  it  liis^h  treason  in  a  king  to  levy  war  against 
his  Pttrliament,  and  appointing  a  higl\  court  of  juslice,  to  try 
Charles  ^^luart  for  that  crime.  'I'h<'  hill  was  thrown  out  by 
the  Peers,  but  the  Commons  neverlliele*!s  proceeded;  and 
Colonel  Harrison,  who  was  the  son  of  a  butcher,  and  the  most 
furious  demagogue  in  England,  received  orders  to  conduct  his 
sovereijjn  to  London. 

1G49. — The  court  assembled  at  Westminster.  Cromwell 
and  Irelon  were  among  the  judges;  Cook  was  the  accuser  in 
the  name  of  the  nation,  and  IJradsliavv  was  president  of  the 
tribunal.  Charles  appeared  amidst  his  enemies  with  his  hair 
grown  gray  through  misfortune,  and  with  a  serene  tranquillity. 
Having  been  accustomed  during  eighteen  months  to  ruminate 
on  the  deceptions  of  life  in  the  gloom  of  a  solitary  prison,  he 
no  longer  hoped  for  any  thing  from  mankind ;  being  con- 
ducted to  a  chair  witliin  tlie  liar,  he  took  his  seat  with  his  hat 
on,  and  surveyed  his  judges  with  an  air  of  dignified  disdain. 
It  would  be  difiicult  to  imagine  a  conduct  more  noble  and  in- 
trepid than  he  displayed.  'J'hrec;  times  was  Charles  produced 
before  the  court,  and  as  often  declined  its  jurisdiction.  On 
the  foiirth,  the  judges  having  examined  some  witnesses,  ad- 
judged him  to  suffer  death,  as  a  traitor,  assassin,  tyrant,  and 
enemy  of  the  republic.  Firm  and  composed  in  all  liis  appear- 
ances before  his  judges,  the  unfortunate  monarch  never  forgot 
him.self  either  as  a  prince  or  as  a  man ;  nor  did  he  discover 
anv  emotion  at  this  extraordinary  sentence,  but  seemed  to  look 
down  willi  a  hiixture  of  pity  and  contemjtt  on  all  the  elforts 
of  human  malice  and  iniqtuty.  Three  days  were  allowed  him 
to  prepare  for  his  fate.  These  he  passed  in  great  tranqtiillity, 
and  every  night  slept  as  sound  as  usual  amidst  the  noise  of 
workmen  employed  in  framing  die  scafl'old.  C'harles,  though 
thus  oppressed  by  a  rebellious  faction  and  insidted  by  the  sol- 
diers, who  even  spit  in  bis  face,  was  not  sufl'ered  to  die  with- 
out the  tear  of  compassion,  or  the  interposition  of  friendly 
powers.  The  people  now  avowed  him  for  their  monarch  by 
their  tr'Mierous  sorrow  ;  nor  could  they  forbear  pouriiiir  forth 
their  jiravers  for  his  preservation,  notwithstandin-i  the  rod  of 
tyranny  that  hung  over  them.     The  French  and  Dutch  am- 

•  'f'liisinvaHion  nf  parlinmcntary  privilppn  pa-ssnl  liy  the  name  of  Pn'c/cV 
Purge,  tuid  the  rfinainiiig  members  were  called  ihe  Rump. 


XVn.']  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUPOOI?  108 

bassadors  interposed  in  his  behalf;  the  Scots  exclaimed  and 
protested  against  the  intended  violence ;  the  queen  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales  wrote  pathetic  letters  to  the  Parliament.  But 
all  tlieir  solicitations  were  in  vain.  Cliarles  obtained  permis- 
sion to  take  his  last  leave  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  and  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  alone  of  his  family  remained  in  Eng- 
land. On  the  30th  January  he  was  conducted  to  the  scaffold, 
erected  in  the  sight  of  his  palace  ;  care  was  taken  to  surround 
the  place  of  sacrifice  with  a  large  body  of  soldiers,  for  fear  that 
the  victim's  voice  might  reach  the  people,  who  were  ranged 
at  a  distance  in  mournful  silence.  Charles,  perceiving  that  he 
could  not  make  himself  heard,  wished  at  least  when  he  died  to 
leave  posterity  an  awful  lesson.  He  addressed  himself  to  the 
few  persons  around  him,  and  vindicated  himself  from  the  accu- 
sation of  having  commenced  war  against  his  Parliament.  But, 
although  innocent  towards  his  people,  he  acknowledged  the 
equity  of  his  sentence  in  the  eye  of  Heaven,  and  observed  that 
an  unjust  sentence  which  he  had  suffered  to  take  effect  upon 
the  F'.arl  of  Strafford  was  now  punished  by  an  unjust  sentence 
upon  himself.*  Having  made  this  avowal,  he  resolutely  laid 
his  head  upon  the  block,  and  the  executioner  severed  it  from 
his  body  at  a  single  blow.  At  this  sight,  grief,  terror,  and 
indignation  took  possession  of  the  astonished  spectators  ;  each 
one  seemed  to  accuse  himself  either  of  active  disloyalty  to  his 
murdered  sovereign,  or  of  tamely  witnessing  so  horrid  a 
catastrophe,  which  had  fixed  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  nation,  and  must  expose  it  to  the  vengeance  of  an 
offended  Deity.  The  sufferings,  piety,  patience,  and  magna- 
nimity of  Charles,  made  all  his  errors  be  forgotten;  and 
nothing  was  now  to  be  heard  but  lamentations  and  self-reproach. 
He  was  a  sincere  admirer  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  liberal  en- 
courager  of  those  who  pursued  them.  As  a  man,  his  character 
was  unexceptionable ;  and  he  was  allowed  to  be  an  excellent 
father,  husband,  master,  and  friend.  He  suffered  in  the  48th 
year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried  at  Windsor. 

*  It  being  remarked  that  the  king,  the  moment  before  the  execution,  had 
emphatically  pronounced  the  word  remember,  the  generals  insisted  upon 
Bishop  Juxton's  informing  them  of  its  latent  meaning.  The  bishop  told  them 
that  the  king  had  frequently  charged  him  to  inculcate  on  his  son  the  for- 
giveness of  his  murderers,  and  had  taken  this  opportunity  to  reiterate  that 
desire.  This  disposition  also  appeared  in  a  work  that  was  published  in  the 
king's  name  a  few  days  after  his  execution,  called  the  Icon  Basilike,  which 
many  persons  believe  to  have  been  the  genuine  production  of  Charles. 
Chateaubriand  observes  that  the  Icon  of  Charles  and  the  testament  of  Louis 
XVI.  have  made  more  royalists  than  the  edicts  of  these  princes  would  have 
aiade  in  all  their  prosperity. 


lot  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  ^CHAF. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  PRAGUE,  IN  1035,  lO  THE  PEACH 
OF  WESTPHALIA,  IN  1648. 

While  Germany  was  a  scene  of  war  and  desolation,  Cardi- 
nal Richelieu  ruled  France  with  a  rod  of  iron.  Thouirh  uni- 
versally hated,  he  continued  to  liold  the  reins  of  o-overiuuent. 
Several  conspiracies  were  formed  against  him  at  liie  instigation 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  of  the  queen-mother ;  but  they 
were  all  defeated  by  his  vigilance  and  vigour,  and  terminated 
in  the  ruin  of  their  contrivers.  The  widow  of  Henry  IV. 
was  banished  the  kingdom  ;  her  son  Gaston  was  obliged  to 
beg  his  life;  the  Marshals  Marillac  and  Montmorenci,  tlie 
young  Marquis  de  Cinq  Mars,  and  his  unfortunate  friend  De 
Thou  were  brought  to  the  block;  and  the  gil)bets  were  every 
day  loaded  with  inferior  criminals,  condemned  by  a  court 
erected  for  the  trial  of  the  cardinal's  enemies. 

Richelieu's  jealousy  of  Gustavus  had  prevented  him  during 
the  life  of  that  monarch  from  joining  the  arms  of  France 
to  tliose  of  Sweden ;  and  Oxenstiern,  before  the  unfortu- 
nate balde  of  Nordlingen,  was  unwilling  to  n'lve  the  French 
any  footing  in  Germany.  But  after  that  overthrow,  he  ollered 
to  put  Lewis  XIII.  in  immediate  possession  of  Pliilipsburg 
and  Alsace,  on  condition  that  France  should  take  an  active 
part  in  the  war  against  the  emperor.  Richelieu  readily  em- 
braced a  proposal  that  corresponded  so  entirely  with  his  views, 
and  five  considerable  armies  soon  appeared  in  the  field.  All 
Germany  became  again  a  scene  of  war.  The  Swedes  under 
IJaniiicr,  and  the  Imperialists  under  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
met  in  the  plain  of  Wislock,  (1636,)  where  a  desperate  batUe 
was  fouirht,  in  which  tlui  Imperialists  were  defeated.  This 
battle,  which  restored  the  lustre  of  the  Swedish  arms,  raised 
Bannier  to  the  highest  degree  of  military  reputation,  and  gave 
a  signal  blow  to  the  imperial  power,  was  followed  i)y  the  de- 
mise of  Ferdinand  II.  He  died  at  Vienna,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  I'erdinand  HI.  (1637.)  The  accession  of  this 
pnnce  made  litde  alteration  in  the  state  of  the  war.  In  the 
followinir  year,  (163H.)  ibo  impi'rial  armv  was  ajjain  defeated. 
The  Duke  of  Saxe  Weymar,  after  this  victory,  besi('g(Ml  and 
look  Rhinfield,  to  which  he  granted  an  honourable  capitidation. 
Newburg,  Rottelen,  ai:d  F'riburg,  the  capital  of  IJrisgau,  were 


XVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  105 

also  reduced,  and  the  siege  of  Brisac  undertaken.  Here  tlie 
Duke  of  Lorraine  and  Goevvtz,  the  Imperial  general,  attempt- 
ed to  interrupt  Weymar's  successful  career  by  attacking  liis 
entrenchments,  but  without  eifect;  and  Brisac  was  forced  at 
last  to  surrender,  after  it  had  been  reduced  to  such  extremity 
by  famine,  that  the  governor  was  obhged  to  set  a  guard  upon 
the  burying-places,  to  prevent  the  inhabitants  from  digging 
up  and  devouring  the  dead.  While  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Wey- 
mar  thus  triumphed  over  the  Imperialists  in  Alsace,  the  Swe- 
dish general,  Bannier,  prosecuted  his  conquests  in  Pomerania. 
The  two  victorious  commanders,  in  1639,  concerted  measures 
for  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  the  Austrian  dominions. 
Bannier  crossed  the  Elbe,  entered  Saxony,  advanced  as  far  as 
the  suburbs  of  Dresden,  and  after  having  in  his  progress  cut 
in  pieces  seven  imperial  regiments  and  two  Saxon,  he  attacked 
the  Saxon  army  and  obtained  a  complete  victory.  He  then 
entered  Bohemia,  defeated  again  the  Imperialists,  pursued 
them  to  the  walls  of  Prague,  and  took  the  imperial  generals, 
Hofskirk  and  MontecucuUi,  prisoners.  But  the  Protestant 
cause  sustained  this  year  a  great  loss  by  the  immature  death 
of  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Weymar,  who  expired  at  Newburg,  in 
the  35th  year  of  his  age.  He  is  supposed  to  have  fallen  a 
sacrifice  to  the  jealousy  and  ambition  of  Richelieu,  to  whom 
he  would  not  resign  Brisac. 

1640. — At  this  time  the  house  of  Austria  suffered  in  another 
quarter.  Catalonia  revolted,  and  Portugal  threw  off  the 
Spanish  yoke.  A  plot  had  been  forming  for  upwards  of  three 
years  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  which  was  now 
carried  into  execution.  Olivarez  had  recalled  the  Spanish 
garrison  from  Lisbon,  and  ordered  the  Portuguese  to  take  up 
arms  for  the  subjection  of  Catalonia:  very  few  troops  were 
left  in  the  whole  realm  of  Portugal ;  the  oppressed  people 
were  ripe  for  an  insurrection ;  and  the  Spanish  minister,  to 
amuse  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  whose  ruin  he  meditated,  had 
given  him  the  command  of  the  arsenal.  The  Duchess  of 
Mantua,  who  had  been  honoured  with  the  title  of  Vice-Queen, 
was  driven  out  of  the  kingdom.  All  the  towns  in  Portugal 
followed  the  example  of  the  caj)ital,  and  almost  on  the  same 
day.  The  Duke  of  Braganza  was  unanimously  proclaimed 
king,  under  the  name  of  John  IV.  Ships  were  immediately 
despat(!hed  from  Lisbon  to  all  the  Portuguese  setdements,  and 
they  all,  with  one  accord,  expelled  their  Spanish  governors. 
Portugal  became  again  an  independent  kingdom  ;  and  by  the 
recovery  of  Brazil,  which,  during  the  Spanish  administration, 


106  OEXERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

had  l)een  con.]uorcd  by  tlic  Dutch,  its  forintT  hislre  was  in 
lome  measure  restored.  While  all  Europe  rung  witli  the 
news  ot'  this  singular  levoluiion,  Philip  IV.,  sluit  up  in  the 
inmost  recesses  of  the  Esciirial,  was  utterly  isrnoraiu  of  it 
The  manner  in  wliich  Olivarez  made  him  acquainted  with  his 
misfortune  is  memorable: — "  I  come,"  said  that  artful  minis- 
ter, "  to  communicate  ffood  news  to  your  majesty:  the  Duke 
of  IJraganza's  wlxde  fortune  is  become  yours.  lie  has  been 
8o  presumptuous  as  to  get  himself  declared  King  of  Portugal ; 
and  in  consequence  of  this  folly,  your  majesty  is  entitled  to 
the  forfeiture  of  all  liis  estates."  "  Let  the  sefjuestration  he  or- 
dered," replied  Philip,  and  he  continued  his  dissipation. 

IGil. — In  Germany,  Bannier,  after  repeated  success,  fell 
ill  at  Zickau,  in  consequence  of  the  fatigues  of  that  campaiirn, 
and  died  at  Ilalberstadt,  to  the  great  loss  and  ine.\pressil)le 
regret  of  his  country  and  its  allies.  The  war  continued  equally 
fierce  and  blood v  in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  to  the  detriment 
of  the  emperor,  till,  in  IG43,  conferences  were  opened  for  a 
general  peace.  This  year  was  signalized  by  the  death  of  the 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  his  master,  Lewis  XIII.  Mazarin, 
who  succeeded  the  former  in  the  ministry,  adliered  with  vi- 
gour to  his  plans,  and  a  young  hero  sprunsj-  up  tiido  Imnour  to 
France,  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  This  was  the 
celebrated  Duke  (rEngbien,  afterwards  honoured  witii  the  title 
of  the  (4reat  Conde.  In  the  year  following,  Tureniu;  retrieved 
the  affairs  of  France  upon  the  Rhine,  and  routed  the  Imperial- 
ists near  the  source  of  the  Danube.  (IfiM.)  Forstenson,  the 
Swedish  general,  passed  the  Moldaw,  and  attacked  the  Impe- 
rialists in  the  neighbourhood  of  Thal)or  :  the  Austrian  general 
and  3,000  men  were  left  dead  on  the  field,  and  the  rest  put  to 
fliirht.  The  campaiirns  of  the  two  following  years  were  sig- 
nalized by  bloody  battles  and  dcsar-bought  victories. 

Charles  Gustavus,  Count  Palatine  of  Deux  Fonts,  who 
arrived  from  Sweden,  in  16IH,  with  a  reinforcrmenl  of  8,000 
men,  undertook  the  siege  of  Old  Prague,  and  carried  on  hia 
approaches  with  such  vigour,  that  the  place  must  have  been 
taken,  had  not  the  emperor,  dreading  the  loss  of  that  capital, 
resolved  in  earnest  to  conclude  the  so  lonjj  demanded  peace  ; 
for  hitherto  the  negotiations  at  Munster  and  Osnaburg  had 
varied  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  war.  The  memo- 
rable peace  of  Westphalia,  whifli  put  an  end  to  what  is  called 
the  thirty  years'  war,  was  signed  at  Munster,  in  the  mouth 
of  October,  1048.  It  was  here  stipulated  that  France  should 
yosdess  the  sovereignly  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,   Upper 


XIX. ]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  107 

and  Lower  Alsace,  &c. ;  to  Sweden  was  granted  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Bremen,  Upper  Pomerania,  Stettin,  the  isle  of 
Rugen,  and  the  city  of  VVismar,  in  the  duchy  of  Mecklen- 
burg. The  republic  of  Switzerland  was  declared  to  be  a 
sovereign  state,  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  empire ; 
and  many  parti  !ular  provisions  were  enacted,  relative  to  the 
episcopal  sees  and  chapters  in  Germany,  highly  detrimental 
to  the  interests  of  the  Catholic  church.  War  between  France 
and  Spain  was  continued  with  various  success,  until  the  treaty 
of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1659. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

ENGLAND,  FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  COMMONWEALTH,  TO 
THE  DEATH  OF  CROMWELL,  IN  1658. 

The  death  of  the  king  was  followed  by  the  dissolution  of 
the  monarchy.  The  Commons  declared  it  high  treason  to 
acknovi^ledge  Charles  Stuart,  commonly  called  Prince  of 
Wales,  as  sovereign  of  England,  and  soon  after  set  a  price 
upon  his  head.  They  abolished  the  House  of  Peers,  as  use- 
less and  dangerous,  and  caused  a  great  seal  to  be  struck  with 
this  inscription — "The  First  year  of  Freedom,  by  God's 
blessing  restored."  Cromwell,  who  secretly  pursued  his 
schemes  of  ambition,  had  the  address  to  get  himself  appointed 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  Ormond,  a  short  time  before, 
had  been  disgracefully  defeated  by  Colonel  Jones,  the  rebel 
governor  of  Dublin ;  and  on  the  arrival  of  the  new  lieutenant,  the 
royal  party  lost  ground  on  all  quarters.  Drogheda  was  taken 
by  storm,  and  a  cruel  massacre  made  of  the  garrison.  The 
same  severe  execution  took  place  at  Wexford,  though  it 
had  made  but  a  slight  resistance.  Henceforth  every  town 
before  which  the  savage  conqueror  presented  himself,  opened 
its  gates  on  the  first  summons :  he  had  no  farther  any  thing 
to  fear,  but  what  arose  from  fatigue  and  sickness,  which  swept 
off  great  numbers  of  his  men.  Ormond,  seeing  affairs  so 
desperate  as  to  admit  of  no  remedy,  left  the  island,  and  Crom- 
well freed  himself  from  all  farther  opposition,  by  permitting 
the  Irish  officers  and  soldiers  to  engage  in  foreign  service. 
Above  40,000  Catholics  embraced  this  voluntary  banishment. 
Commissioners  were  now  sent  over  by  the  English  regicides 
for  the  final  settlement  of  the  administration  of  Ireland,  and 
Fleetwood,  the  son-in-law  of  Cromwell,  was  named  command- 


108  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAP 

er-iii-chief,  a  tillc  which  Lambert,  the  successor  of  Ireton,  had 
rejected.  His  first  act  was  to  collect  all  the  native  Irish  who 
liad  survived  the  trnioral  desolation,  and  transplant  tlieni  into 
the  province  of  Connaught,  which  had  been  depopulated  in  the 
course  of  the  rebellion.  They  were  ordered  to  retire  thither 
by  a  certain  day,  and  forbidden  to  rej)ass  the  Shannon,  on 
pain  of  death  :  and  this  sentence  of  deportation,  as  well  as 
the  penal  statute  of  the  27th  of  I'llizabcth,  was  rigorously 
enforced  until  the  restoration.  'J'lieir  ancient  possessions 
were  seized  and  given  up  to  the  conquerors  ;  tiie  rest  of  the 
kingdom  was  parcelled  out  among  the  soldiers,  and  a  colony 
composed  of  all  the  sects  that  then  infested  England,  who 
came  over  in  numbers.  Such  were  the  blessings  of  republi- 
can liberty  dealt  out  by  Cromwell.  Soon  after  he  was  made 
protector,  he  sent  Ids  second  son,  Henry,  into  Ireland,  in 
1655.  The  equitable  and  mild  administration  of  the  envoy 
conciliated  the  affections  of  the  Irish,  and  lightened  their  griev- 
ances. Cromwell,  in  the  mean  time,  had  left  Ireland,  to  reduce 
Scotland  to  obedience.  Prince  Charles,  finding  his  hopes 
blasted  in  the  former  kingdom,  was  induced  to  listen  to  the 
offers  of  the  Scottisli  Covenanters,  and  apj)ointed  a  meeting 
with  their  commissioners,  at  Breda.  (1650.)  He  there  con- 
sented to  accede  to  the  dishonourable  conditions  proposed  by 
these  fanatics,  but  not  before  he  had  received  intelligence  of 
the  utter  failure  of  his  hopes  from  the  Scottish  royalists,  in 
consequence  of  the  total  defeat  and  capture  of  the  Marquis  of 
Montrose.  That  callant  nobleman,  having  laid  down  his  arms 
at  the  command  of  tiie  late  king,  had  retired  to  France  ;  but 
no  sooner  did  he  hear  of  the  tragical  death  of  his  sovereign, 
than  his  ardent  spirit  w'as  inflamed  with  the  thirst  of  revenge ; 
and  having  ol)tained  of  young  Charles  a  renewal  of  his  com- 
mission, beset  sail  forScodand,  with  500  foreign  adventurers. 
He  was  in  hopes  of  rousing  the  royalists  to  arms ;  but  a  de- 
tachment of  the  Covenanters'  army  attacked  and  routed  his 
followers,  and  made  tlie  marquis  himself  prisoner.  The 
Covenanters  carried  their  noble  captive  in  triumph  to  Edin- 
bnrtih,  where  he  was  exposed  to  the  most  atrocious  insults, 
and  condemned  to  suffer  the  ignominious  death  allotted  to  the 
basest  felon.  Along  with  him  were  sacrificed  all  the  persons 
of  any  eminence  who  had  repaired  to  his  standard. 

('Iiarles,  in  conserpience  of  his  agreement  to  take  tlie  cove- 
nant, and  sut)mil  to  other  hard  conditions,  was  proclaimed  king, 
and  arrived  under  convoy  of  seven  Dutch  ships  of  war  in  the 
Frith  of  Cromarty.     Before  his  coronation,  it  was  proposed 


JCIX.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  109 

he  should  pass  through  a  public  humiliation  ;  but  he  was  saved 
from  this  disgrace  by  the  advance  of  an  English  army  under 
Cromwell,  who,  leaving  Ireton  in  Ireland,  had  been  invested 
with  the  principal  command  in  Scodand,  which  Fairfax  had 
declined  from  motives  of  conscience.  The  Scots  were  defeated 
at  Dunbar  ;  Charles,  finding  the  way  open,  boldly  marched  into 
England  in  1651.  Cromwell,  on  this,  leaving  Monk  to  com- 
plete the  reduction  of  Scotland,  followed  the  king  with  all 
possible  expedition.  The  prince  had  reason  to  expect  that  his 
presence  would  produce  a  general  insurrection  in  England, 
but  he  fotind  himself  disappointed.  The  English  Presbyterians, 
having  no  notice  of  his  design,  were  not  prepared  to  join  him  ; 
and  when  the  king  arrived  at  Worcester,  he  found  that  his 
forces  were  little  more  numerous  than  when  he  left  the  bor- 
ders of  Scodand.  Cromwell,  with  an  army  of  30,000  men, 
attacked  Worcester  on  all  sides  ;  and  Charles,  after  beholding 
the  ruin  of  his  cause,  and  giving  many  proofs  of  personal 
valour,  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  flight.  The  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  who  made  a  desperate  resistance,  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  the  Scots  were  almost  all  either  killed  or  taken. 
The  prisoners,  to  the  number  of  8,000  men,  were  sold  as 
slaves  to  the  American  planters. 

After  the  batde  of  Worcester,  the  king  withdrew  in  the  night 
from  Lesley,  the  Scottish  general,  and  a  party  of  horse  who 
still  attended  him,  that  he  might  the  better  effect  his  escape 
in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant.  By  the  direction  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  he  went  to  Boscobel,  a  lone  house  on  the  borders  of 
Staffordshire,  inhabited  by  one  Pendrel,  an  obscure  but  honest 
farmer.  There  he  remained  for  some  time,  employed  in  cut- 
ting wood  with  the  farmer  and  his  three  brothers.  One  day, 
for  better  concealment,  he  mounted  a  spreading  oak :  among 
the  thick  branches  of  which  he  sheltered  himself,  while 
several  persons  passed  below  in  search  of  their  unhappy 
sovereign,  and  expressed  in  his  hearing  their  earnest  desire  of 
seizing  him,  that  they  might  deliver  him  into  the  hands  of  his 
father's  murderers.  The  Catholics  were  neither  daunted  by 
the  fate  of  their  late  master,  nor  depressed  by  their  own  suffer- 
ings, but  continued  to  prove  the  same  unshaken  fidelity  to 
Charles  II.,  which  they  had  shown  to  his  royal  father.  A 
great  many  of  them  had  shed  their  blood  at  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester, and  during  the  six  following  days,  the  king's  life  was 
entirely  in  their  hands.  The  names  of  fifty-two  persons  of 
their  communion,  among  the  rest,  of  three  priests,  are  upon 
record,  who,  during  that  interval,  were  acquainted    with  the 

12 


llO  GENERAL    IIISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP 

dignity  of  the  royal  fugitive  then  in  tlieir  power;  not  one  of 
whom  was  tempted  to  betray  him,  either  by  the  immense  re 
wards  or  tlie  terrible  punishments  held  out  to  all  persons  in- 
discriminately for  this  purpose.  After  many  surprising  and 
romantic  adventures,  Charles  arrived  at  Shoreham,  in  Sussex, 
where  he  embarked,  and  landed  safely  at  Fiescham,  in  Nor- 
mandy, after  one-and-forty  days'  concealment.  During  thi» 
time,  C'romwcll,  crowned  with  success,  (1051,)  returned  to 
London,  where  he  was  received  in  triumph.  An  act  was  soon 
after  passed  for  annexing  ScoUand,  as  a  conquered  province, 
to  the  English  commonwealth  !  Every  place  now  submitted 
to  the  arms  of  the  English  ;  not  only  in  Ireland  and  the  con- 
tiguous islands,  but  also  on  the  continent  of  America,  and  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies;  so  that  the  Parliament  had  soon 
leisure  to  look  abroad,  and  to  exert  its  vigour  against  foreign 
nations.  The  Dutch  first  felt  the  weight  of  its  vengeance. 
After  the  death  of  William  II.,  who  was  carried  off  by  the 
small-pox  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  enslaving  the  people 
whom  his  ancestors  had  restored  to  freedom,  a  perpetual  edict 
was  issued  against  the  dignity  of  stadtholder.  The  English 
Parliament  thought  this  a  favourable  opportunity  of  forming 
such  a  coalition  between  the  two  republics  as  would  have  ren- 
dered their  interests  inseparable  ;  but  the  proposal  being  re- 
jected by  their  high  mifrhtinesses,  war  was  dectlared  against 
Holland  in  1051.  Through  tlie  iulluence  of  Cromwell  was 
framed  and  passed  the  famous  Act  of  Navigation,  which  pro- 
hibited foreign  goods  being  imported  into  England,  except  in 
such  vessels  as  belong  to  the  country  of  which  the  goods  are 
the  growth  or  manufacture. 

Van  Tromp,  an  admiral  of  great  renown,  with  a  fleet  of 
forty  sail,  entered  the  road  of  Dover,  where  he  met  with  the 
celebrated  Blake,  who  commanded  an  English  fleet  of  only 
fifteen  ships.  The  latter,  however,  maintained  a  desperate 
oattle  for  five  hours,  took  one  of  the  enemy's  ships,  and  sunk 
another.  Niglit  parted  tlie  two  fleets.  Several  oilier  engnge- 
ments  ensued,  without  any  decided  advantage  ;  till  Van  Tromp 
was  victorious  over  Rlake  near  Goodwin's  sands.  Hut  he  was 
not  sulTered  long  to  enjoy  his  triumph.  A  fleet  of  eighty  sail 
was  speedily  fitted  out  in  England  ;  HIake  was  again  invested 
Avith  the  chief  command;  and  with  this  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory,  after  the  most  furious  !)attl(!  that  had  yet  been  fouirht 
by  the  hostile  powt-rs.  'I'wo  days  was  the  contest  maintained 
with  the  utmost  rage  and  obstinacy ;  on  the  third  the  Dutch 
gave  way,  and  once  more  yielded  the  sovereignty  of  the  ocean 


XIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPB.  Ill 

to  its  natural  lords.  (1653.)  Overtures  of  peace  were  made  to 
the  English  Parliament,  but  they  were  treated  with  disdain. 
It  was  not,  therefore,  without  pleasure,  tliat  the  States  heard 
of  the  dissolution  of  that  haughty  assembly,  which  Cromwell 
dissolved  by  military  force  the  same  year.  He  next  sent 
summonses  to  128  persons  of  different  counties  of  England,  to 
five  of  Scotland,  and  six  of  Ireland.  On  these  illiterate  en- 
thusiasts, chosen  by  himself,  he  pretended  to  devolve  the 
whole  authority  of  the  state,  under  the  denomination  of  the 
Parliament;  and  as  one  of  the  most  active  and  illuminated 
among  them,  a  leather-seller  in  London,  bore  the  name  of 
Praise-God  Barebone,  this  contemptible  assembly  was  ludi- 
crously called  Barebone's  Parliament.  After  five  months, 
this  pretended  Parliament  was  forced  to  dissolve  itself  and 
resign  its  powers  to  the  council  of  officers,  who  proceeded,  by 
their  own  authority,  to  declare  Oliver  Cromwell  protector,  or 
supreme  magistrate  of  the  Commonwealth.  He  was  accord- 
ingly conducted  to  Whitehall  with  great  solemnity,  and  having 
taken  the  oath  required  of  him,  he  was  proclaimed  over  all  the 
three  kingdoms,  without  the  smallest  opposition.  While 
■Cromwell  was  thus  completing  his  usurpation  over  his  fellow- 
subjects,  he  did  not  neglect  the  honour  or  the  interests  of  the 
nation.  Never  did  England  appear  more  formidable  than  dur- 
ing his  administration.  Another  naval  victory  gained  over  the 
Dutch  in  1653  excited  all  the  endeavour  of  the  States  to  re- 
trieve the  honour  of  their  flag ;  and  never  on  any  occasion  did 
their  vigour  appear  more  conspicuous.  Tromp  issued  forth 
in  a  few  weeks,  with  a  fresh  fleet,  determined  again  to  fight 
the  victors,  and  to  die  rather  then  yield  the  contest.  He  soon 
met  with  the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Monk,  and  a  des- 
perate battle  ensued.  Next  day,  the  action  was  continued, 
and  the  setting  sun  beheld  the  contest  undecided.  The  third 
morning  the  struggle  was  renewed,  and  victory  seemed  still 
doubtful,  when  Tromp,  while  gallantly  animating  his  men, 
with  his  sword  drawn,  was  shot  through  the  heart  with  a 
musket-ball.  That  event  decided  the  contest;  and  the  Dutch 
were  now  glad  to  purchase  peace,  by  yielding  to  the  English 
the  honour  of  the  flag,  and  making  such  other  concessions  as 
were  required  of  them. 

1655. — Cromwell  soon  after  assembled  a  new  Parliament; 
but  not  finding  it  sufficiently  submissive,  dissolved  it,  after  it 
had  sat  five  months.  But  though  his  authority  met  with  a 
good  deal  of  opposition  at  home,  and  he  lived  in  continual  fear 
of  assassination,  yet  his  alliance  was  courted  by  the  different 


112  GENERAL    HISTOKY    OF    EUROPE  [cHAP. 

powers  of  Europe,  and  England  held  a  rank  among  tliein, 
which  she  had  not  enjoyed  since  the  days  of  Elizabeth. 
Cromwell  preserved  his  aulliority  till  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened on  the  2lM  Scptonitn'r,  1058,  about  a  year  after  he  had 
refused  the  regal  dignity,  which  his  friends  in  Parliament  h»d 
oiTered  him. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA,  IN  1618,  TO  TUB 
PVRENEAN  TREATY,  IN  1G59. 

1018. — Lewis  XIV.  was  yet  in  his  minority,  and  Anne  of 
Austria,  the  queen  regent,  reposed  her  whole  eonlidcnce  in 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  The  princes  of  the  blood  took  offence  at 
the  uncontrollable  power  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  foreigner, 
and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  declared  Mazarin  a  disturber  of 
the  public  peace  and  an  enemy  of  the  kingdom.  The  insur- 
rection became  general;  a  civil  war  ensued.  (1G5I.)  The' 
Duke  of  lionillon  and  his  brotiier  Turenne  were  detached  from 
the  malcontents,  still  headed  by  the  Great  Condc,  who  now 
threw  himself  upon  the  protection  of  Spain,  and  after  pursuing 
the  king  and  the  court  from  province  to  province,  entered  Paris 
with  a  l)ody  of  Si)anish  troops.  (1053.)  A  popular  tumult, 
in  wiiich  several  citizens  were  killed,  oblijjcd  Conde,  who 
was  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  it,  to  quit  Paris;  and  the 
king,  in  order  to  appease  his  subjects,  being  now  of  age,  dis- 
missed Mazarin,  who  retired  to  Sedan.  That  measure  had 
the  desired  effect ;  the  people  everywhere  returned  to  their 
allegiance,  and  Lewis  entered  the  capital  amid  the  acclamations 
of  his  people.  Conde  being  condemned  to  lose  his  head, 
continued  his  unhappy  engagements  with  Spain.  The  Parlia- 
ment was  huinl)le(l,  and  Mazarin  recalled  and  more  liriidy 
estal)lished  than  ever.  During  these  ludicrous  but  |)eruiciou9 
»vars,  which  for  several  years  disturbed  France,  the  Spaniards, 
thouirh  fcfrble,  were  not  inactive  :  ihev  had  reduced  (Iravelines 
and  Dunkirk,  ('ond;  and  the  Archduke  Leopold  besieged 
Arras.  Turenne  resolved  to  force  the  Spanish  lines,  and  per- 
formed it  with  success,  makinjr  himself  master  of  the  baggage, 
artillery,  and  ammunition  of  ihe  enemy.  Conde,  however, 
by  his  admirable  retreat,  gained  no  less  honour  than  his  rival. 
It  w:ls  the  udent  of  at  once  inspirin<:  confidence  into  his  troops 
and  intimidating  his  enemies  by  the  boldness  of  his  enterprises. 


XX. J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  113 

tliat  made  Turenne  superior  to  any  general  of  his  age.  Con 
scions  that  his  forces  would  be  estimated  by  the  greatness  of 
his  undertakings,  after  he  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  pru- 
dence, he  conquered  no  less  by  his  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  than  of  the  art  of  war.  Thus  for  a  time  the  balance 
was  held  even  between  France  and  Spain  ;  but  when  Mazarin 
(in  1058)  drew  England  to  the  assistance  of  France,  Spain 
was  no  longer  able  to  maintain  the  contest.  Dunkirk  surren- 
dered to  the  English.  Furnes,  Dixmude,  Oudenard,  Menin, 
Ypres,  and  Gravelines,  submitted  to  the  arms  of  France,  and 
Spain  saw  the  necessity  of  suing  for  peace.  One  great  object 
of  Mazarin's  policy  was  to  obtain  for  the  house  of  Bourbon 
the  eventual  succession  to  the  Spanish  monarchy  :  with  this 
view  he  proffered  peace  to  Philip  IV.,  by  proposing  a  marriage 
between  the  Infanta  Maria  Teresa  and  Lewis  XIV.  This  was 
agreed  to  ;  and  the  better  to  settle  the  preliminaries  of  a  treaty, 
Mazarin  and  Don  Lewis  met  on  the  frontiers  of  both  kingdoms, 
in  the  Isle  of  Pheasants,  in  the  Pyrenees.  All  things  were  ad- 
justed by  the  two  ministers.  Philip  agreed  to  pardon  the 
rebellious  Catalans,  and  Lewis  to  receive  Conde  into  favour. 
Spain  renounced  all  pretensions  to  Alsace,  and  the  long-dis- 
puted succession  of  Juliers  was  granted  to  the  Duke  of  New- 
burg. 

About  a  year  after  the  signing  of  the  Pyrenean  treaty, 
(1661,)  died  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  left  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment to  Lewis  XIV.,  who  had  become  impatient  of  a  yoke 
which  he  was  afraid  to  shake  off.  Historians  have  seldom 
done  justice  to  this  statesman,  whose  political  caution 
restrained  the  vigour  of  his  spirit,  and  the  lustre  of  whose 
genius  was  concealed  beneath  his  profound  dissimulation. 
His  leading  maxim  was,  "  That  force  ought  never  to  be  em- 
ployed but  in  default  of  other  means." 

That  tranquillity  which  the  peace  of  Westphalia  had 
restored  to  Germany,  continued  unmolested  till  the  death  of 
Ferdinand  III.,  in  1657,  when  an  interregnum  of  five  months 
ensued,  and  the  diet  was  violently  agitated  in  regard  to  the 
choice  of  a  successor.  At  last  Leopold,  son  of  the  late  em- 
peror, was  elected;  for,  though  jealousies  prevailed  on 
account  of  the  great  power  of  the  house  of  Austria,  yet,  as  the 
Turks  remained  masters  of  Buda,  the  French  in  possession 
of  Alsace,  and  the  Swedes  of  Pomerania,  a  powerful  emperor 
seemed  necessary. 

Sweden  had  been  raised  to  the  highest  pitch  of  glory  by 
the  victories  of  Gustavus  Adolphus;  and  his  daughter  Chris- 

12* 


114  OKNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAF 

Una  inimorlalizcd  licr  snort  rciirn    by  declaring  herself   the 
patroness  of  learning    and    the  line  arts.     She  drew  to  her 
court  Grolius,   Vossius,  Descartes,  and  other  eminent  men. 
She  arredi'd  to  tlie  peace  of  Westplialia,  cliiefly  from  a  desire 
of  indulging  lier  passion  for  study.     Tiiat  peace  liglitened  liie 
cares  of  governnieiU,  but  they   were    still    loo    weighty  for 
Christina.      In  IHoO  she  prevailed  upon  the  Slates  to  declare 
her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus,  her  successor;  and,  in    1654, 
finally  resigned  to  him  her  crown,  aiul,  leaving  her  capital  and 
kingdom,   travelled  into    Germany ;    en\l)raced    the  Catholic 
reliirion  at  Ikussels,  and  solemnly  renounced  Lutheranism  at 
Inspruch.     The  Catholics  considered    this  conversion    as  a 
triumph,  and  the  Proteslanls  were  not  a  little  mortified  at  the 
defection  of  so  celebrated  a  woman,  but  both  without  reason; 
as  lier  subsequent  conduct  did  little  honour  to  religion,  though 
we  may  hope  the  eccentricity  of  her  character  extenuated 
many  of  her  faults.     She  visited  Paris,  and  then  repaired  to 
Rome,  where  she  spent  the  remainder  of  her  days.     In  the 
mean  lime  her  successor,  Charles  X.,  conquered  Poland,  and 
obliged  King  Casimir    to  lake    refuge  in  Silesia.     Hut   the 
Poles  revolted  from  him,  and,  by  the  assistance  of  Russia, 
Denmark,  and    Austria,    expelled    iheir    invaders.     Charles, 
however,  suddenly  entered  Denmark,  and  laid  siege  to  Copen- 
liagen.   (1658.)      Rut  while    he    seemed    lo   be  carrying    all 
before  him,  he   was  seized  with   an  epidemical  fever,  which 
terminated    his  life.   (1659.)     The  son  of  this  warlike  and 
ambitious  monarch  being  yet  a  minor,  peace  became  neces- 
sary to  Sweden,  and  was  concluded  at  Oliva,  near  Dantzic,  in 
1660,  l)y  which  Polish  Prussia  was  restored  to  Casimir,  who 
ceded  Estonia   and    N.  Livonia    lo    Sweden.     The    Danish 
monarch  also  made  considerable  sacrifices. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

EUROPE,  FROM  1658  TO  1608. 

It  was  generally  believed  thai  CromwelTs  arts  of  policy- 
were  exhausted  with  his  life,  and  that  when  the  potent  hand 
which  had  liitherlo  coruhicled  the  trovernniciit  of  the  com- 
monwealth was  removed,  the  unwieldy  and  ill-constructed 
machine  would  f<dl  to  pieces.  All  Europe,  therefore,  beheld 
with  astoaishmeut   his  son.  Richard,  an  inexperienced  and 


XXI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  119 

unambitious  man,  quietly  succeed  to  the  protectorship.  But 
it  soon  appeared  that  the  consent  which  all  the  different 
authorities  gave  to  his  elevation,  was  only  a  temporary  acqui- 
escence, until  each  party  could  concert  measures,  and  act 
effectually  for  its  own  interest.  The  most  considerable 
officers  entered  into  a  cabal  against  Richard,  and  demanded 
of  him  the  dissolution  of  the  Parliament.  Unable  to  resist, 
aud  wanting  resolutioTPto  deny,  the  protector  granted  their 
request.  Withjhe  Parliament  his  authority  was  supposed  to. 
expire,  and  he  soon  after  signed  his  resignation  in  form.  His 
brother  Henry,  though  endowed  with  more  abilities,  also 
quiedy  resigned  the  government  of  Ireland.  XliMjelLfrom 
ail  enormous  height,  but,  by  a  rare  fortune,  without  bloodshed, 
the  family  of  the  CromweJISj.  to  that  humble  station  from 
which  they  had  risen. 

^he  council  of  officers  being  now  possessed  of  supreme 
aitthority,  agreed  to  revive  the  remnant  of  tlie  Long  Parlia- 
rrimt,  which  had  been  ex£elled  by^  Cromwell.  Thebulk  of 
the  nation  at  this  date  consisted  of  royalists  and  Presbyterians. 
To  both  these  parties  the  dominion  of  the  pretended  Parlia- 
ment, and  of  the  army,  was  become  equally  obnoxious ;  a 
Kpcrfit. reconciliation  therefore  took  place  between  them,  and 
it  was  agree^,  tliat,  burying  former  animosities  in  oblivion, 
they  should_malig.  every  possible  effort  for  the  overthrow  of 
tlTe  Rumip  Parliament,  and  the  restoration  of  the  royal  family. 
But  this  combination  was  disconcerted  by  the  treachery  of 
Sir  Richard  Willis :  many  of  the  cohspiratojS-  were  throw  a 
intoprison,  and  the  only  party  that  had  taken  arras  was  dis- 
persed by  a  body  of  troops,  under  Lambert.  This  artful  and 
able  general,  advancing  with  his  hardy  veterans  to  London, 
and  intercepting  the  members  as  they  were  coming  to  the 
House,  sent  them  home  under  a  military  escort.  By  this 
decisive  measure,  the  officer's  were  once  morein  possessioa. 
of  supreme  authority,  the  substance  of  which  they  intended 
to  retain  ;  though,  in  order  to  bestow  on  others  the  shadow, 
they  elect£d_^L.eommittee  of  twenty-three  persons,  of  whom 
seven  were  of  their  own  body.  The  most  melancholy  appre- 
hensions prevailed  among  the  nobility  and  gentry  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  of  a  general  massacre,  and  among  the  people,  of  a 
perpetual  and  cruel  servitude  under  those  tyrannical  oppress- 
ors,  who  had  already  expelled  all  public  law  and  justice  from 
the  Rrif,isli_dominions.  At  this  very  time,  however,  when 
Cliarles,  a  neglected  fugitive  oix_jthe  continent,  seemed 
abandoned  by  all  the  world.  Providence  was  paving  the  way 


116  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Ibr  him,  by  a  surprising  revolution,  to  mount  the  throne  of 
his  ancestors,  in   peace   and    triumph.   ^It  was    to    General 
Monk,  commander-in-chief  in  Scotland,  that  the  king  was  to 
owe  iiis  restoration,  and  tlic  three  kin<ifdoms  the  termination 
of    their   hlooTIy  TTissensions.     Hearing   that    Lambert   waa 
advancing  northward.  Monk   afTecled  to  treat  with  the  com- 
mittee of  safety  ;  but   Ids  oliject  seems  to  have  been  to  gain 
time.      In  the  mean  while,  the  Parliament  was  restored  ;  the 
troops  under  Lambert  were  ordered  to   repair  to  llieir  quar- 
ters, and  tlieir  generalj  being  thus  deserted  by  the  greater  ])art, 
was  tukeil4irisqner  and  sent^tp_the_J,'Qwcr.     As^Jeneral  INlonk 
advanced    towards    London,    all    parlies   eagerly  sought   his 
countenance,  but  he  kept  his  designs  an  impenetrable  secret. 
Being  introduced   into  the  House  of  Commons,  he  observed 
that  nothing  but  the  summoning  of  a  new  and  free  Parlia- 
ment could  give  content  to  the  nation.     His  speech  diffused 
universal   joy  among  the  people.     The  hope  of  peace  and 
concord  broke,  like  the  morning  sun,  through  the  darkness  in 
which   the   nation  was  involved,  and    the    memory  of  past 
calamities  disappeared.     The  Parliament  assenibiciL_OJl_ihe 
.first  of  May,  1000.     Monk,  alter  sounding  their  inclinations, 
acquainted  them  that  Sir  John  Granville  had  been  sent  over 
by  his  majesty,  and  was  now  at  the  door  with  a  letter  for  the 
Commons.     He  was  immediately  called    in    and    the    letter 
eagerly  read.     A  moment's  pause  was  scarce  allowed  :  all  at 
once  the  House  burst  into  a  universal  assent  to  tlie  king's 
proposals.     The  letter  was  pul)lishe(l  ;   the  peers  hastened  to 
reinstate    themselves  in  their  ancient  rights,  and  take   their 
share  in  the  settlement  of  the  government.     His  majesty  was 
solemnly  proclaimed  on  the  8th  of  May,  and  entered  London 
on  the  2yih,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  an  immense  concourse 
^f  people. 

No  prince  seems  to  have  had  it  more  in  his  power  to  render 
himself  the  favourite  of  his  people,  than  Charles  H.,  of  Eng- 
land, at  the  date  of  his  restoration.  'I'lie  airectionale  expres- 
.sioaSLiiLlDyalty^and  attachment  which  everywhere  saluted  his 
ears,  deinruMlcd  bis  warmest  arknowledguients.  \\"\i\]  loyalty, 
mirth  and  gayely  returned,  and  that  gloom  which  had  so  lon^ 
overspread  the  island,  gradually  disappeared  with  the  fanatical 
opinions  that  had  produced  it.  All  juridical  decrees  passed 
during  the  commonwealth  or  protectorship,  we.-c  anirmed,  and 
an  act  of  indemnity  was  passed,  confornial)le  to  the  king's 
declaration  from  l*r(;da.  'J'lie  regicides  were  excluded  from 
this  act  by  Parliament,  to  which  Charles  had  wisely  referred 


XXI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  117 

all  exceptions,  but  only  six  of  them,  together  with  four  others 
who  had  been  abettors  of  their  treason,  were  executed.  Ad- 
miral Montague,  who  had  carried  a  fleet  to  receive  his  majesty, 
was  created  Earl  of  Sandwich,  and  General  Monk,  Duke  of 
Albemarle. 

But  certain  political  measures  soon  destroyed  that  popularity 
whicli  the  king  had  enjoyed  at  his  restoration.  His  marriage 
with  Catherine  of  Portugal  was  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the 
Protestants.*  The  sale  of  Dunkirk  to  France,  occasioned 
universal  disgust ;  and  the  Dutch  war  contributed  to  increase 
the_general  dissatisfaction.  The  reasons  assigned  for  com- 
mencing hostilities  against  the  United  Provinces  were  the 
depredations  committed  by  the  Dutch  upon  the  English  traders 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.t  In  1664,  Sir  Robert  Holmes 
was  secretly  despatched  with  a  squadron  to  the'coast  of  Africa, 
where  he  not  only  expelled  the  Dutch  from  Cape  Corse,  to 
which  the  English  had  some  pretensions,  but  seized  their 
settlements  of  Cape  Verd  and  the  Isle  of  Goree,  with  many 
trading  vessels.  AnotheiLsquadron_.s^led  sopn_after--.tQJS.orth 
America,  and  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  settlement  of  New 
Netherland.  now-^jjalled  New  York,  in  honour  of  the  duke, 
W-haJiad-ahlaiued  a  grant  of  it  from  his  brother. 

Sinfifi-thfi.- death  of  William  II.,  of  Orange,  the  Dutch  had 
.elected  no  stadtholder!  The  government  had  continued  in  the 
hands  of  the  Louvestein  or  republican  party,  enemies  to  the 
house  of  Orange.  This  j^tate  of  the  affairs  of  the  United 
Provinces  was  iiot  very  agreeable  to  the  King  of  England,  who 
^sjied  to  see  his  nephew,  William  III.,  in  posses&ion  of  the 
authority  which  his  ancestors  had  enjoyed.  John  de  Wit, 
pensionary  of  Holland,  the  soul  of  the  republican  party,  and 
vested  with  almost  dictatorial  powers,  informed  of  the  hostilities 
of  England,  did  not  hesitate  how  to  act.  He  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  France,  and  sent  orders  to  De  Ruytci",  who  was 
cruising  with  a  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  to  sail  towards  the 
coast  of  Guinea,  and  put  the  Hollanders  again  in  possession 
of  those  settlements  from  which  they  had  been  expelled ;  the 
Dutch  succeeded  in  this  enterprise,  and  then,  sailing  for 
America,  insulted  Barbadoes,  committed  hostilities  in  various 
parts,    and  took  a  considerable  number  of  ships.     AJeclara- 

*  The  king's  chief  inducement  in  the  marriage  seems  to  have  been  the 
dower  of  the  infanta,  who  brought  him,  besides  £350,000  sterHng,  the  porta 
of  Tangier  in  Africa,  and  Bombay  in  India.  His  conduct  towards  her  was 
equally  destitute  of  good  feeling,  as  of  the  respect  due  to  her  station. 

■j-  In  1658,  the  Dutch  took  possession  of  the  Isle  of  Ceylon. 


118  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

tion  of  war,  in  1(H)5,  w;is  the  consequence  of  these  mulual 
hostilities.  Jsuiies,  Uiike  of  York,  Lord  Hij^h  A(hniral  of 
.EnghiiKl,  put  to  sea  wilTi  a  Heet  of  one  huiuU-ed  sail,  biisidcs 
fire-shijjs,  and  stood  lor  the  coast  of  llollaiul.  Prince  Rupert 
and  the  Earl  of  Sandwich  commanded  under  him.  'I'he  Dutch 
fleet  was  commanded  by  Admiral  Opdain,  in  conjunction  with 
Evertson  and  vounjj  Tromp,  son  to  tiie  famous  admiral  of  that 
name,  killed  in  the  former  war.  The  Duke  of  York,  in  the 
Royal  Charles,  bore  down  upon  Opdam,  and  a  furious  batUe 
be<(an.  The  contest  was  continued  for  four  hours  with  irreat 
obstinacy,  ^t  length  Opdam's  sliip  blew  up,  and  the  Dutch, 
afterjosing  near  thirty  ships,  fled  towards  the  Texel.  The 
joy  arisintf  from  the  Duke  of  York's  naval  victory  was  much 
diminished  by  the  breakinjroutof  the  Plague  in  London,  which 
carried  oft'  near  100,000  persons  in  one  year.  ^iewis  XIV. 
and  the  King  of  Denmark  joined  the  l)utch.  liT  order  to 
Balance  so  formidal)le  a  coml)ination,  Charles  attempted,  but 
without  success,  to  negotiate  an  alliance  with  Spain  :  he  was 
not  alarmed  at  the  number  of  his  enemies,  though  every  shore 
was  hostile  to  the  English  seamen,  from  the  extremity  of 
Norway,  to  the  coast  of  Bayonne.  A  formidable  fleet  of 
seventy-eight  sail  of  the  line,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
Albemarle  and  Prince  Rupert,  seemed  to  justify  the  confidence 
of  the  king.  The  Dutcli  fleet,  to  the  number  of  nini;ty  sail, 
commamJed  by  De_Rii^tej  and  Tromp,  put  to  sea  in  UJGG. 
riie  batUe  that  ensued  is  one  of  the  most  memoralfle  in  the 
annals  ofTii story.  Four  days  did  the  combat  rage,  witliout 
any  appearance  of  valour  slackening  on  either  side.  'i'he 
Dutch  had  the  advantage  in  the  action  of  the  first  day;  yet 
Albemarle,  in  engaging  DeRuyter,  had  shown  himself  worthy 
of  his  former  renown.  Darkness  parted  llie  coml)ataiits.  Next 
morning  the  battle  was  renewed  with  redoul)led  fierceness,  and 
the  Dutch  were  ready  to  give  way,  when  they  were  reinforced 
by  sixtefiu  caj)ital  shijis.  The  Entflisiv-wx;ie  now  almost  over- 
powiiUid  iiy  numbers,  yet  Albemarle  would  yiehl  to.  jio.thing  . 
but  the  interposition  of  night;  tlicn,  finding  his  forces  much 
weakcMied,  ho  resolved  to  retire.  Hut  the  Dutch  following, 
being  determined  to  perish  sooner  than  to  slrikr",  he  prepared 
lo  renew  the  action;  declaring  to  those  about  him  his  intention 
to  l)low  up  his  ship,  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  Tlie  I'hiiflish,  to  their  nnspcakaijic  joy,  descried 
Prince  Rupert's  squadron  coming  to  their  assistance  before  the 
renewal  of  the  comI)at,  and  the  next  morning  the  batlh^  raged 
with  more  intenseness  than  ever.     Through  the  whole  fourth 


XXI.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  IIP 

day  the  contest  remained  doubtful ;  and  towards  evening  both 
fleets,  as  if  weary  of  carnage,  retired  under  a  thick  fog  to  their 
respective  harbours.  But  the  English  admirals  could  not  be 
satisfied  with  less  than  victory.  While  they  sent  the  disabled 
ships  to  difterent  docks  to  be  refitted,  they  remained  on  board 
their  own.  The  whole  fleet  was  soon  ready  to  put  to  sea, 
and  a  new  engagement  was  eagerly  sought.  Nor  was  it  long 
denied.  Ruyter  and  Tromp,  with  the  Dutch  fleet,  appeared 
in  the  Channel,  and  a  terrible  conflict  ensued.  Ruyter,  who 
occupied  the  centre,  maintained  with  equal  conduct  and 
courage  the  combat  against  the  centre  of  the  English,  com- 
manded by  Rupert  and  Albemarle,  till,  overpowered  by 
numbers,  his  high  spirit  was  at  last  obliged  to  submit  to  a 
retreat,  which  he  conducted  with  the  greatest  ability.  Yet  he 
could  not  help  exclaiming,  in  tlie  agony  of  his  heart,  "  What  a 
wretch  am  I,  to  be  compelled  to  submit  to  this  disgrace ! 
Among  so  many  thousand  bullets,  is  there  not  one  to  put  an 
end  to  my  miserable  life?"  Tromp,  too,  after  great  success, 
was  obliged  to  yield;  and  the  Eiiglislv now  absolute  masters 
jvf  til  p.  sp.il,  rnric  in  triumph  along  the  coasts ;  insulted  the 
Hoilaaders  in  their  harbours,  and  burned  many  of  their  ships, 
chiefly  merchantmen.  The  Dutch  merchants,  uniting  them- 
selves wiili  the  Orange  faction,  now  violently  exclaimed 
against  the  administration  of  De  Wit,  which,  as  they  pretended, 
had  brought  disgrace  and  ruin  on  their  country.  The  firm 
and  intrepid  mind  of  De  Wit  supported  him  in  all  difilculties': 
the  fleet  of  the  republic  was  refitted  in  an  incredibly  short 
time,  and  again  put  to  sea  under  De  Ruyter ;  but  a  violent 
storm  obliged  him  to  take  shelter  in  the  road  of  Boulogne, 
whence  he  returned  home  with  his  troops  in  a  sickly  condition. 
The  same  storm,  which  by  sea  prevented  Prince  Rupert  from 
annoying  the  French  and  Dutch  fleets,  promoted  a  dreadful 
calamity  on  land.  A  fire  broke  out  in  London,  and  raged 
three  days  and  nights,  without  intermission.  Of  twenty-six 
wards,  into  which  the  city  was  divided,  fifteen  were  burned 
down :  four  hundred  streets  and  lanes,  and  thirteen  thousand 
houses,  chiefly  built  of  wood,  were  consumed.  Popular  pre- 
judice ascribed  this  calamity  to  the  Catholics,  though  without 
the  shadow  of  a  proof,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  per- 
petuate the  calumny. 

1667. — The  expense  of  the  naval  armaments  of  England 
had  been  so  great,  that  Charles  had  not  hitherto  been  able  to 
convert  to  his  own  use  any  of  the  money  granted  him  by 
Parliament.     He  therefore  resolved  to  save  the  last  supply  fof 


120  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CUXP. 

the  payment  of  his  debts,  as  a  prospect  of  a  peace  freed  him 
from  all  apprehensions  from  his  enemies.  But  De  Wit,  who 
was  apprized  of  Charles's  siij)irie  security,  hastened  the  n;ival 
preparations  of  Holland.  The  Dutch  lleet,  under  Do  Riiyler, 
took  possession  of  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  while  a  squadron, 
commanded  by  Van  Ghent,  after  reducing  Sheerness,  broke  a 
chain  which  had  been  drawn  across  the  Medway,  destroyed 
the  ships  stationed  to  guard  it,  advanced  as  far  as  Chatham, 
burned  three  tirst-rate  ships,  and  carried  off  the  hull  of  a  fourth. 
This  news  threw  the  city  of  London  into  the  utmost  consterna- 
tion ;  and  such  vigorous  steps  were  immediately  taken,  as  in- 
duced De  Ruyter  to  steer  his  course  to  the  vvestw.i.rd.  lie 
made  fruitless  attempts  upon  Portsmouth  and  IMymouUi,  but  he 
rode  triumpliant  in  the  Channel  for  several  weeks,  and  spread 
universal  alarm  along  the  coast,  Ttw^g^J^^'H'-'i  |iout^'^f''",_u/f^rp 
soon  dispelled,  byulie  signing  of  the"  treaty  at  Breda,  by  which 
England  retained  possession  of  New  York  ;  and  the  Knglisii 
settlement  of  Surinam,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  Dutch, 
was^ ceded  to  ihem. 

The  next  step  taken  by  Charles  was  to  engage  in  the  Triple 
Alliance.  Lewis  XIV.,  who  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
nearly  at  the  same  time  that  Charles  IL  was  restored  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors,  possessed  every  quality  that  could 
ilatter  the  pride,  or  conciliate  the  afTections  of  his  people. 
Dazzled  witli  the  lustre  of  his  shining  qualities,  and  proud  of 
participating  in  the  glory  of  their  young  sovereign,  the  French 
nation  submitted  without  murnuiring  to  the  most  violent 
strelc-hcs  of  his  arbitrary  power.  Colbert,  an  active  and  able 
minister,  had  put  the  finances  into  excellent  order;  enormous 
sums  were  raised  for  the  public  service  ;  a  navy  was  created, 
and  a  great  standing  army  supported,  almost  without  being  felt 
by  that  populous  and  extensive  kingdom.  Conscious  of  his 
power  and  resources,  the  French  monarch  had  early  given 
symptoms  of  that  lofty  spirit  and  insatiable  thirst  of  glory, 
which  so  long  disturl)ed  the  peace  of  I'hirope.  Tlie  first 
measure  that  gave  general  alarm,  was  the  invasion  of  the  Spa- 
nish iVetherlands.  Though  IjewiaJiad  rcjiouncejJLJiy,  liie  trea- 
ty of  the  Pyrenees,  all  title  to  the  succession  of  Spain,  wliich 
might  occur  from  his  marriage  with  the  Infanta  Maria  Teresa, 
he  still  kcjjt  in  view  the  eventual  succession.  Philip  IV. 
had  left  a  son,  Charles  IL  of  S|)ain,  a  sickly  infant;  but  as  the 
Queen  of  France  was  the  oH'spring  of  a  prior  marriage,  she 
laid  claim  to  the  Spanish  Low  Countries,  to  the  exclusion  even 
of  her  brother.       'i'his   claim  was  founded  on  a  custom  esla- 


XXI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  121 

blislied  in  some  parts  of  Brabant ;  and  was  more  likely  to  be 
adjusted  by  military  force  than  by  argument.  Lewis  entered 
Flanders  at  the  head  of  forty  thousand  men.  Turenne  com- 
manded under  him,  and  Louvois  placed  large  magazines  in  all 
the  frontier  towns.  Charleroi,  Tournay,  Furnes,  Armenliers, 
Courtray,  and  Douay  immediately  surrendered:  Lisle  capitu- 
lated after  a  nine  days'  siege.  Garrisons  were  left  in  these 
towns,  and  the  celebrated  Vauban  was  employed  to  fortify 
them.  A  progress  so  rapid,  filled  Europe  with  consternation  : 
another  campaign,  it  was  supposed,  might  put  Lewis  in  posses- 
sion of  all  the  Low  Countries.  The  Dutch  were  alarmed  at 
the  prospect  of  having  so  ambitious  a  neighbour;  and  the 
English  monarch  resolved  to  take  the  first  step  towards  a  con- 
federacy, the  ostensible  object  of  which  should  be,  the  restrain- 
ing of  the  power  and  pretensions  of  France.  In  16G8,  Sir 
Wilham  Temple,  the  English  resident  at  Brussels,  received 
orders  to  go  secretly  to  the  Hague  for  this  purpose.  Matters 
were  soon  adjusted  between  these  two  patriotic  statesmen. 
Lewis,  dreading  a  anuM-al  coinbiualion,  had  offered  to  relinquish 
ail  his_gueenls_xighls  to  Brabant,  on  condition  either  of  keep- 
iiig~tKecon£uests_h.^ad  mada-luat-campaign,  or  of  receiving 
instead  ofthem  Franche  Comte,  Aire,  and  St.  Omers.  De  Wit 
ahcLi'g5jple,Joimdm  their  treaty  upon  that  proposal,  con- 
cluded  a  defensive  alliance  betweeiij^ngland  and  Holland,  and 
engaged  Sweden  to  join  tluan.  This  treaty,  which  has  always 
been  considered  as  the  wisest  measure  in  the  reign  jjf  Charles 
n.,  restored_Engl^dto_her_  proper^statipn  in  the^  scale  of_ 
Europe,  and_  highly  exalted  tlig  consequence  of  Hplland,_ 
France  and  Spamwereegually  displeased  at  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Ee  wis  foundjiimself  stopped  in  his  career,  and  Spain  was  not 
less  dissatisfied  at  behjg  obliged  to  give  up  so  many  important 
gTacfis^joiTaccount  of  unjust  claims  and  unprovoked  hostilities. 
A^lengthj^however,  both  agreed  lo  treat,  and  tlie  plenipoten- 
tiaries^ of  all  parties  met  at  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  where  Spain, 
from  a  conscjousness  of  her  own^JVKeakness.  accepted  of  tHeJ~ 
alternative  offered  by  France.  Lewis  had  already  entjred~ 
Franclie^Comte..  and  reduced  the  jwhole^_pravijice  in  _a  few;^ 
weeks.  Spain  chose  to  recover  this  proyinae Mltl  to  abandon  all 
the  towns  conquered  in  Flanders  during  the  last  campaign. 
Other  circumstances  seemed  to  combine  to  insure  the  balance 
of  Europe.  After  a  ruinous  war  of  almost  thirty  years,  carried 
on  by  Spain  in  order  to  recover  the  sovereignty  of  Portugal,  ar. 
equitable  treaty  had  at  last  been  concluded  between  the  two 
crowns,  and  the  independence  of  Portugal  acknowledged. 

13 


122  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

While  Charles  II.  of  Engliuul,  by  an  unexpected  turn  of 
fo rUi ne ,  w ayTf-Tcentiing  the  thronc~ol  his  ancestors,  a  revolu- 
tioiT~ti)oirpTaa.'  in  Dniniark,  wliich  rciKlorf'd  tliat  crown  licre 
ditary  in  the  family  of  Oldcnburg^.  On  the  death  of  Cliris- 
tiern  IV.,  in  lt>48,  his  sjonj Frederick  IJI'i  was  fleeted  King 
of  Denmark,  and  displayed  equal  abilities  with  his  father,  in 
war  and  in  civil  administration.  The  valour  with  which  he 
defended  his  capital  against  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  anil  com- 
pelled him  to  retreat,  gained  him  the  admiration  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  disposed  them  for  a  chanffo  in  the  <rovernment.  By 
the  spoliations  of  the  clergy,  when  Lutherunism  was  introduced 
into  the  kingdom,  the  nobles  gradually  acquired  an  undue  in- 
fluence and  power,  while  the  oppressed  people  sustained  alone 
the  whole  burden  of  taxation.  The  Bishop  of  Copenhagen 
united  himself  witli  one  of  the  principal  commoners  and  othei 
associates,  in  order  to  compel  the  nobles  to  pay  their  just  pro 
portion  of  the  public  expenses.  To  efl'cct  this,  they  proposed 
to  weaken  the  senate  by  extending  the  royal  prerogative.  A 
diet  being  assembled,  soon  after  the  peace  with  Sweden  was 
concluded  in  1600,  the  members  of  it,  who  were  all  warndy 
devoted  to  the  king  and  queen,  whose  kindness  and  benevo- 
lence they  had  experienced  during  the  siege,  drew  up  a  memo- 
rial of  their  grievances  and  inability  to  raise  the  necessary 
supplies.  During  these  transactions,  Frederick,  who  was 
aj)j)rized  of,  and  had  consented  to,  the  projected  revolution  of 
the  two  orders,  quietly  waited  in  his  palace  the  turn  of  events. 
The  nobles,  unprepared  for  so  sudden  and  decisive  a  change, 
relucUmtly  aci|uiesced  in  the  determination  of  the  other  two 
orders ;  and  thus,  without  any  blootlshed,  the  crown  was  de- 
clared heredit^iry  in  the  family  of  Frederick,  his  power  abso- 
lute, and  all  the  acts  which  restricted  his  authority  were  an- 
nulled. After  which  the  king,  by  his  own  power,  regulated 
the  several  parts  of  government,  and  issued  what  is  denomi- 
nated the  Ii>t/<il  Law,  which,  since  the  epoch  of  the  revolution, 
has  Ijcen  considered  as  the  national  code.  Many  wise  ordi- 
nances were  afterwards  added  to  it  by  Frederick,  who,  by  hia 
moral  virtues,  moderation,  and  political  talents,  laboured  to 
promote  tiie  liaj)piness  of  his  subjects,  and  became  the  father 
of  his  people. 


XXII. ^  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  XXH. 

DOMESTIC     HISTORY     OF      ENGLAND,    DURING      THE      REIGN      OF 

CHARLES    II. 

On  the  accession  of  Charles,  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  created 
Earl  of  Clarendon,  father-in-law  to  the  Duke  of  York,  was 
made  chancellor  and  prime  minister,  to  the  general  satisfaction 
of  the  nation,  but  some  subsequent  disappointments  had  ren- 
dered him  unpopular;  he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons; 
and  Clarendon,  finding  that  past  services  were  not  sufficient 
to  protect  him,  retired  to  the  continent,  where  he  employed 
his  leisure  in  writing  the  history  of  the  civil  war.  The  king, 
indeed,  who  had  always  revered,  rather  than  loved  him,  was 
glad  to  be  freed  from  a  minister,  who  did  not  permit  his  mas- 
ter's licentious  conduct  to  pass  without  reprehension. 

In  Scotland,  the  king,  from  his  aversion  to  business,  had 
intrusted  his  affairs  to  his  ministers,  who,  in  order  to  establish 
episcopacy,  passed  several  severe  laws  against  conventicles. 
These  rigours,  instead  of  breaking  the  spirit  of  the  people, 
served  only  to  render  them  more  obstinate,  and  to  inflame  them 
against  the  established  religion.  To  reduce  them  to  obedience, 
an  army  of  barbarians,  unaccustomed  to  discipline,  was  let 
loose  among  them  and  committed  the  most  dreadful  havoc. 
While  Scotland  was  thus  suffering  for  nonconformity  to  the 
Protestant  church,  (which  professes  toleration,)  the  English 
Presbyterians  were  no  less  active  in  raising  apprehensions  of 
the  subversion  of  their  religion  by  popish  machinations.  We 
have  observed  before  that  Charles  was  indebted  to  his  Catho- 
lic subjects  for  his  crown  and  life  ;  but  their  loyalty  was  not 
requited  in  the  manner  they  had  reason  to  expect.  The  act 
of  indemnity  and  oblivion  passed  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
was  construed,  and  in  many  cases  too  justly,  as  an  act  of 
indemnity  to  the  king's  enemies,  and  oblivion  of  his  friends. 
On  some  few  individuals,  Charles  conferred  distinguished 
titles,  and  then  consented  to  deprive  them  of  the  most  pre- 
cious advantages  to  which  their  rank  entitled  them.  Against 
the  whole  Catholic  body,  which  he  knew  and  had  experienced  to 
be  true  and  steady  in  their  allegiance  by  principle,  he  listened 
to  the  most  atrocious  calumnies,  and  gave  his  sanction  to  penal 
Btatutes  more  degrading  than  even  the  sanguinary  laws  of 
Elizabeth.     He  connived  at  the  groundless  fictions  of  popish 


124  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  []cHAP 

plots,  maliciously  fabricated  by  a  disafTcctetl  party,  and  so 
entirely  void  of  foundation,  that  even  Hume  and  other  writers, 
who  in  hardly  any  other  instance  do  justice  to  Catholics, 
acknowlcdire  their  innocence  on  the  present  occasion.  In  a 
fit  of  political  resentnuMit,  the  unprincipled  Earl  of  Sliaftes- 
bury*  proposed  an  act  for  the  creation  of  new  oaths  and  tests, 
with  the  view  of  exchulin<^  some  of  the  most  al)le  and  trusty 
men  from  tlie  kiiifr's  service.  Besides  the  oaths  of  allci^iance, 
supremacy,  and  receiving  the  sacrament  according  to  the  rite 
of  the  Church  of  Enirland,  the  tat  moreover  requireil  a  so 
lemn  declaration  against  transubstantiation  and  the  invocation 
of  saints,  as  idolatrous.  By  this  act,  which  received  the 
royal  assent,  all  Catholics  were  incapacitated  from  holding 
any  office  under  government ;  even  the  Duke  of  York  was 
obliged  to  resign  the  command  of  the  navy,  in  which  station 
he  iiad  several  times  signalized  his  valour ;  and  it  was  only 
l)y  a  majoritv  of  two,  that  he  preserved  his  seat  in  Parliament, 
from  wliich  all  the  other  Catholics  were  excluded.  James 
professed  himself  a  Catholic  in  1671,  after  the  death  of  his  first 
wife,  Lady  Anne  Hyde,  who  herself  died  a  Catholic.  As  the 
duke  was  heir  apparent  to  tlie  crown,  his  conversion  gave 
general  umbrage  to  the  nation,  which  dreaded  nothing  more 
than  a  popish  successor;  this  discontent  was  consideral)ly 
auirmented  by  his  second  marriage,  in  1073,  with  Maria 
D'Esle,  aCatiiolic  princess  of  the  house  of  Modena.  In  tliis 
state  of  the  public  mind,  nothing  was  wanting  but  the  contriv- 
ance of  a  Walsingham  or  a  Cecil  to  invent  a  new  popish 
plot,  and  thereby  furnish  a  pretext  for  exterminating  the  whole 
race  of  Englisii  (Catholics,  and  for  involving  the  royal  family 
in  their  ruin.  Their  place  was  supplied  by  the  traitor  Sliaftes- 
bury,  who  fo\ind  associates  worthy  of  himself  in  two  infa- 
mous clergynuMi  of  the  established  church,  named  Titus  Oates 
and  Doctor  Tongue.  Oates,  who  was  the  chief  actor  in  this 
horrid  imposture,  was  one  of  the  most  profligate  of  mankind. 
By  the  advice  of  Tongue,  a  lover  of  miscliief,  and  whose 
chief  amusement  was  to  spread  scandal  and  propagate  plot.s, 
he  went  abroad,  agreed  to  reconcile  himself  to  the  (^atholic 
church,  and  to  enter  the  society  of  Jesuits,  whence  he  was 
dismissed  for  his  bad  behaviour.     Oates,  however,  setting  his 

•  It  was  Ashley  f'owpcr  who,  in  1C71,  advised  ('harlesln  shut  the  exche- 
qaer,  and  to  seize  all  the  payments  that  should  be  made  by  the  olTirers  of  the 
rcv(  niie  for  the  jmMir  service.  In  violation  of  every  rule  of  riijht  or  jui<tie«, 
this  plan  was  a<lo[)ted,  atid  Ashley  Kriincd  the  oirico  of  chancellor  and  ■ 
pec:  age,  for  what  ought  lu  have  brought  him  to  the  gallows. 


JtXII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  125 

wicked  imagination  to  work,  in  order  to  supply  the  want  of 
material  s,  returned  to  England  burning  with  resentment  against 
the  Jesuits,  with  a  full  resolution  of  forming  the  story  of  a 
popish  plot.  The  information  he  gave  the  king  was  treated 
with  due  disregard,  and  the  plot  would  have  sunk  into  oblivion, 
had  not  the  Duke  of  York,  on  learning  that  his  confessor's 
name  was  implicated  in  the  business,  insisted  on  a  thorough 
inquiry  into  the  conspiracy  before  the  council.  The  substance 
of  Oates's  evidence  was,  that  the  pope,  having  assumed  the 
sovereignty  of  England  and  Ireland,  on  account  of  the  heresy 
of  the  prince  and  people,  had  delegated  his  authority  to  the 
Jesuits,  whose  general  had  supplied  by  commission  all  the 
chief  offices,  both  civil  and  military.  Tliese  impostures  were 
delivered  by  Oates  in  a  manner  that  would  have  discredited 
the  most  consistent  story,  and  the  most  respectable  evidence. 
But  certain  collateral  circumstances  which  took  place  about 
the  same  time,  worked  up  the  public  ferment  to  a  degree  of 
frenzy.  The  murder  of  Sir  Edmonsbury  Godfrey,  an 
active  justice  of  the  peace,  who  had  examined  Oates,  which 
remained  veiled  in  mystery,  completed  the  general  illusion. 
The  Earl  of  Danby,  an  enemy  of  the  Catholics,  laid  open  the 
matter  before  the  House  of  Peers,  who  impeached  five  Catho- 
lic peers  for  high  treason,  and  passed  the  degrading  law  we 
have  before  mentioned.  It  would  be  useless  to  enter  into  de- 
tails of  this  pretended  plot,  or  of  another,  called  the  meal-tub 
plot,  invented  later  by  one  Dangerfield,  a  wretch  more  infamous , 
if  possible,  than  Oates  and  Bedloe ;  let  it  suffice  to  say  that 
the  nation  was  nearly  two  years  under  this  fatal  delirium ;  that 
the  reality  of  Oates's  plot  was  voted  by  two  different  Parlia- 
ments ;  and  that  one  peer.  Viscount  Stafford,  was  beheaded, 
and  seventeen  other  Catholic  laymen  or  priests  were  hanged, 
drawn,  and  quartered,  as  being  guilty  of  it,  besides  a  great 
many  others*  who  were  tried  and  imprisoned  on  the  same  ac- 
count, without  mentioning  seven  more  priests,  who  were  exe- 
cuted about  this  time  for  the  mere  exercise  of  their  spiritual 

•  Lord  Stafford  was  executed  in  1680.  The  populace,  who  had  exulted 
over  his  conviction,  were  softened  into  tears,  at  his  execution,  by  the  vene- 
rable siniplicity  of  his  appearance.  When  the  real  enemies  of  the  king 
and  government  became  manifest,  in  1684,  by  the  discovery  of  the  assas- 
sination or  lii/e-hnuse  plot,  the  other  four  Catholic  peers  who  had  remained 
in  the  Tower,  were  then  discharged  upon  their  bail  :  Lord  Petve  had  died 
the  month  before.  Oates,  styled  "the  saviour  of  the  nation"  was  rewarded 
by  the  Commons  with  a  pension  of  £1200  a  year.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II.,  being  convicted  of  perjury,  he  was  brought  to  condign  punish- 
ment, but  again  received  a  pension  of  £400  a  year  under  King  William. 

13* 


120  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAT. 

functions,  the  kinpf  not  darinjr  to  reprieve  them  at  sucli  a  junc- 
ture. Equally  void  of  principle  and  of  conduct,  Charles  little 
cared  to  wiiat  diniciiilit's  he  exposed  his  friends,  as  lonji  as 
he  could  free  himself  from  the  importunities  of  his  malignant 
ministers.  Composed  at  his  ease  in  the  lap  of  indolence  and 
voluptuousness,  he  has  sufiered  his  name  to  be  transmitted  to 
posterity  as  a  passive  persecutor  of  the  rcliirion  in  which  he 
chose  to  die.*  In  order  to  do  sometiiing  g^raieful  to  the  nation, 
Charles,  in  1677,  encouraged  proposals  of  marriage  from  the 
Prince  of  Orange  to  the  Princess  Mary,  his  hrotlier's  eldest 
daughter,  and  at  that  time  presumptive  heiress  to  the  crown, 
by  which  he  afforded  the  prospect  of  a  Protestant  succession, 
and  hoped  to  tranquillize  the  minds  of  his  subjects.  Two 
years  after,  he  desired  the  Duke  of  York  to  withdraw  beyond 
the  sea,  that  no  further  suspicion  of  popish  counsels  might 
remain.  Parliament,  however,  was  still  jealous  and  dissatis- 
fied, and  passed  a  bill  of  absolute  exclusion  against  the  duke  ; 
but  it  was  thrown  out  in  the  House  of  Peers,  after  a  long  and 
violent  debate.  About  the  same  time,  the  standing  army  and 
the  king's  guards  were  voted  by  the  Commons  to  be  illegal; 
and  that  bulwark  of  personal  and  national  liberty,  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act,t  which  provided  against  arbitrary  imprisonment, 
pa.ssed  the  same  session.  The  violence  of  the  Commons  in- 
creased the  number  of  the  king's  friends  among  the  people, 
and  from  this  time  he  acted  with  mure  firmness  and  resolution. 
Finding  that  no  concession  on  his  part,  except  the  absolute 
exclusion  of  his  brother  from  the  succession,  could  satisfy  the 
(-'ommons,  and  that  they  refused  him  the  necessary  supjdies, 
wiiile  they  impeached  his  minister,  tlie  Earl  of  Danby,  and 
revived  the  bill  of  exclusion,  Charles  took  the  opportunity  of 
dissolving  the  Parliament,  and  resolved  to  depend  on  economy 
and  retrenchments.  He  soon  after  proceeded  to  some  very 
ariiilrary  measures  for  repressing  the  independent  spirit  of  the 
citizens  of  London.     A   writ  of  rjuo  warranto  was   issued 

•  f'harirs  was  rpconciled  to  tho  ('alhojic  rluirrh  thr  day  before  lir  dird, 
by  Mr.  Huddlo!<tone,  the  Bencdirliiic,  who  had  Iwcii  bo  inslruinenlal  in  his 
preservation  after  the  battle  of  Worcester. 

■j-  The  HalK^aK  Corpus  .\ct  obliges  every  judge  to  (jive  his  prisoner  a  writ, 
by  which  tlic  jaiU'r  i.s  (hrected  to  produce  in  court  the  lnwly  oftlic  prisoner, 
(whence  the  writ  had  its  name,)  and  to  certify  the  cause  of  the  detainer 
■n<l  imprisonment  within  a  specil'ii-d  time,  proportionate  to  the  diHtance  of 
the  jail.  It  re.|uireK  that  he  Iw  indicted  the  first  term  afti^r  his  confinement, 
anil  liroughl  to  trial  in  the  sulx^'quent  term;  and  no  man  after  being  en- 
larged by  order  of  the  <^ourt,  can  be  rccomniilted  for  the  same  ollence.  It 
klsu  pr  ihibils  the  wading  aay  Eogliiih  subject  to  yriaoa  beyond  sea. 


XXll.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  127 

against  the  city;  that  is,  an  inquiry  into  the  validity  of  its 
corporation,  which  proving  defective,  the  king  deprived  them 
of  it,  nor  did  he  restore  it  till  he  had  subjected  the  election 
of  tlieir  magistrates  to  his  immediate  authority.  Alarmed 
by  this  precedent,  most  of  the  other  corporations  in  Eng- 
land surrendered  their  charters  into  the  king's  hands,  and 
paid  large  sums  for  such  new  ones  as  he  was  pleased  to 
frame.  (1683.) 

A  few  years  before  this  period,  (in  1679,)  Dr.  Sharp,  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  fell  a  victim  to  the  fury  of  the  Cove- 
nanters, to  whom  his  severity  had  rendered  him  obnoxious. 
An  insurrection  broke  out,  which,  though  apparently  formida- 
ble, was  soon  quelled  by  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,*  at  the  head 
of  some  English  troops.  The  Duke  of  York,  having  procured 
the  banishment  of  Monmouth,  whose  projects  were  known 
and  avowed,  obtained  leave  to  retire  into  Scotland,  and  took 
upon  himself  the  administration  of  affairs  in  that  country. 
By  his  prudence  and  well-timed  severity  towards  some  of  the 
restless  fanatics,  he  soon  restored  tranquillity,  and  acquired 
great  popularity. 

In  Ireland,  the  Duke  of  Ormond  had  recovered  all  his  for- 
mer authority,  and  preserved  the  nation  in  peace ;  but,  though 
conscious  of  his  sovereign's  secret  wish  to  favour  the  Catho- 
lics, they  alone  were  excluded  from  the  general  indemnity,  to 
the  astonishment  of  all  impartial  men,  while  the  regicides 
were  confirmed  in  the  wages  of  their  sanguinary  rebellion. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  many  mali- 
cious attempts  were  made  to  stigmatize  the  Irish  with  fresh 
insurrections,  as  a  pretext  for  enforcing  the  penal  laws  against 
the  Catholics.  Meanwhile,  a  plan  of  insurrection  had  long 
been  concerted  in  England,  though  various  causes  had  hitherto 
prevented  it  from  being  brought  to  maturity,  particularly  the 
impeachment  of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  the  framer  of  the 
plot,  and  his  unexpected  departure  for  Holland,  where  he 
soon  after  died.  A  council  of  six  was  established,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  Monmouth,  Lord  Russell,  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  Lord  Howard,  Algernon  Sidney,  and  John  Hampden, 
grandson  of  the  republican  of  that  name,  These,  together 
with  the  party  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  in  Scotland,  were  the 
leaders  of  the  conspiracy,  Avhile  another  scheme,  called  the 
Rye-house  plot,  was  projected  by  a  number  of  conspirators, 

*  James,  Duke  of  Monmouth,  natural  son  of  the  king,  was  extremely 
popular,  and  aspired  to  the  throne,  in  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  the  Duke 
cf  York. 


128  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EURdPE.  [cHAP. 

who  aimed  at  nothinjT  loss  than  the  assassination  of  the  king 
and  tlie  Duke  of  York.  This  alrorily  was  happily  prevented 
by  one  of  the  criminals,  who  turned  informer.  The  conspira- 
cy hcin^  traced  to  its  source,  several  of  the  principal  leaders 
were  immediately  ap|)rehended.  Monmouth  and  Grey  es- 
caped; Russell  and  Sidney,  with  some  inferior  conspirators, 
beiniT  convicted,  paid  the  forfeit  of  their  lives. 

Tiie  Duke  of  York  was  soon  after  recalled  from  Scotland, 
and  restored  to  the  office  of  high  admiral,  without  taking  tlie 
test.  A  few  months  before  the  death  of  Charles,  he  married 
liis  niece,  the  Princess  Anne,  to  Prince  George,  brother  to  the 
Kinir  of  Denmark.  Amidst  the  thick  cloud  of  fanaticism 
which  overspread  the  nation  during  the  Commonwealth,  the 
celebrated  Boyle  (son  to  the  Earl  of  Cork)  jnirsucd  his  philo- 
sophical researches.  lie  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  London,  established  by  a  patent  granted  by 
Charles  II.,  in  1662. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  AIX-LA-CHAPF.T.LE,  IN  1688,  TO 
THE  PEACE  OF  MMEOUEN,  IN  1078. 

The  Turks,  after  a  long  interval  of  in-'.ction,  were  airain 
become  formidable  to  F^urope.  The  (irand  Vizier  Kiipruli 
entered  Hungary,  at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  in  1664  ;  and 
allhoiiijh  lie  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  near  St.  Godard, 
upon  the  Raab,  by  the  imperial  troops,  under  Montecuculi, 
the  Turks  obtained  an  advantageous  peace  from  Leopold,  who 
was  threatened  with  a  revolt  of  the  Hungarians.  The  Hun- 
garian nobles,  whose  privileges  had  been  invaded  bv  the  empe- 
ror, flew  to  arms,  and  even  craved  the  assistance  of  the  Turks, 
their  old  and  irreconcilable  enemies.  The  rebels  were  quick- 
ly sidnhied  by  the  vigour  of  Leopold;  but  those  brave  men 
who  had  so  often  repelled  the  infidels,  and  tilled,  with  the 
sword  in  their  hand,  a  country  watered  with  the  blood  of  their 
ancestors,  were  still  dissatisfied  ;  and  Germany,  depf-ived  of 
so  strong  a  barrier  as  Hungary,  was  soon  threatened  by  the 
Turks.  In  the  mean  lime,  Kupruli  turned  the  arms  of  the 
Pr)rte  against  tin;  Venetians,  and  an  arinv  of  00, 000  .Janizaries 
had  now  i)esiesied  ('anilia  for  upwards  of  two  years.  IJut  the 
time  of  the  crusades  was  long  past,  and  the  ardour  which  had 
inspired  ihem,  extinguished.     'I'liough  this  island  was  rc^puted 


XXI1I.3  GENERAL    HISTORY   €)V    EUROPE.  129 

one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  Christendom  agains  the  infidels, 
no  general  confederacy  had  been  formed  for  its  defence.  The 
pope  and  the  knights  of  Malta,  were  the  only  allies  of  the 
Venetians,  against  the  whole  naval  and  military  force  of  the 
Ottoman  empire.  At  length,  however,  Lewis  XIV.,  in  1669, 
sent  a  fleet  from  Toulon,  to  the  relief  of  Candia,  but  these 
succours  only  retarded  for  a  short  time  the  conquest  of  the 
isle,  which  surrendered  to  the  Turks  before  the  close  of  the 
year. 

These  distant  operations  did  not  divert  the  attention  of 
Lewis  from  his  favourite  project,  the  conquest  of  the  Low 
Countries  and  the  invasion  of  Holland,  for  he  was  highly 
incensed  against  the  Dutch,  for  pretending  to  set  limits  to  his 
authority.  But  to  render  his  schemes  successful,  it  seemed 
necessary  to  detach  England  from  the  Triple  Alliance.  This 
was  no  difficult  matter.  Since  the  exile  of  Clarendon,  which 
had  been  preceded  by  the  death  of  Southampton,  and  was 
soon  followed  by  that  of  Albemarle,  Charles  IL  had  given 
himself  up  to  a  council  of  five  persons,  commonly  denomi- 
nated the  Cabal,  in  allusion  to  the  initial  letters  of  their  names:* 
they  had  encouraged  Charles  to  hope  he  might  obtain  a  more 
absolute  power  by  a  close  connection  with  France ;  and  a 
secret  treaty  to  this  effect  was  concluded  at  Paris,  in  1672. 
Never  had  Europe  beheld  such  a  naval  and  military  force,  or 
so  extensive  a  confederacy,  since  the  league  of  Cambray,  as 
was  formed  for  the  destruction  of  Holland.  Sweden,  as  well 
as  England,  was  detached  from  the  Triple  League.  The 
combined  fleet  of  France  and  England,  amounting  to  upwards 
of  one  hundred  sail,  was  ready  to  ravage  the  coast  of  Holland, 
and  a  French  army  of  120,000  choice  troops,  commanded  by 
the  ablest  generals  of  the  age,  was  preparing  to  enter  the 
frontiers.  De  Wit  attempted  to  raise  a  respectable  military 
force  for  the  defence  of  his  country,  in  this  dangerous  crisis  • 
but  his  proposals  were  opposed  by  the  Orange  faction,  whose 
power  had  become  formidable  by  the  popularity  of  the  young 
prince,  William  HL  The  whole  tenor  of  William's  behaviour 
was  suitable  to  the  genius  of  the  Hollanders.  Grave  and 
silent  even  in  youth,  destitute  of  brilliant  talents,  but  of  a 
sound  and  steady  understanding ;  greatly  intent  on  business, 
and  little  inclined  to  pleasure,  he  won  the  hearts  of  his  coun- 
trymen ;  and  the  people,  remembering  what  they  owed  to  hi? 
family,  which  had  protected  them  against  Spain,  were  desi 
rous  of  raising  him  to  the  authority  of  his  ancestors. 

*  Clifford,  Ashley,  Buckingham,  Arlington,  and  Lauderdale 


180  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CMAP 

III  consequence  of  tins  general  predilection,  William  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  tlie  forces  of  the  repiihlic, 
and  the  wliole  military  power  was  pnt  into  liis  hands;  while 
l)e  Wit  hastened  the  equipment  of  the  fleet,  and  De  Ruyler, 
the  greatest  naval  ofTicer  of  his  ai^e,  put  to  sea  with  ninety-one 
men-of-war,  l)esides  frigates  and  fire-ships.  The  English  fhuU, 
under  the  Duke  of  York  and  the  Karl  of  S;mdwi('ii,  had 
already  joined  the  French  fleet,  conimandf'd  by  ('oiuitd'Estrees. 
A  terrible  conflict  ensued.  The  Duke  of  York  bore  down  upon 
De  Ruytcr,  and  fought  him  with  such  furv  for  two  hours,  tliat, 
of  thirty-two  actions  in  which  that  hoary  veteran  had  been  en- 
gaged, he  declared  this  to  have  been  the  most  vigorously  dis- 
puted. Night  put  a  stop  to  the  doubtful  contest.  The  next 
day  the  Dutch  were  chased  to  their  own  coast. 

The  King  of  France,  having  divided  his  numerous  army  into 
three  bodies,  headed  the  first  in  person,  and,  to  the  universal 
consternation  of  the  Hollanders,  advanced  to  the  hanks  of  the 
Rhine.  Having  passed  the  river,  he  took  possession  of  Arn- 
heim,  Schench,  Nimeguen,  and  several  other  towns ;  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  unalile  to  make  head  against  the  victorious 
enemy,  retired  into  the  province  of  Holland,  with  his  small  and 
discouraged  army.  The  progress  of  Lewis,  like  the  course 
of  an  inundation,  levelled  every  thing  before  it.  The  town 
and  province  of  Utrecht  sent  deputies  to  implore  his  clemency. 
Lewis  entered  Utrcidit  in  triumph.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks  the  three  provinces  of  Guelders,  Utrecht,  and  Ovcryssel 
had  submitted  to  his  arm;  Friesland  and  Oroningen  were 
invaded  liy  his  ally,  the  Bishop  of  Munster;  the  reduction  of 
Holland  and  Zealand  was  alone  wanting  to  crown  his  triumph, 
and  these  provinces  were  a  prey  to  fa(;tion,  and  become  un- 
governable from  their  fears.  Amsterdam  alone  scemcnl  to 
retain  any  degree  of  courage  or  conduct.  Ships  were  stationed 
to  guard  the  city  I)y  sea,  and  as  a  last  resource,  the  sluices 
were  opened,  and  the  neighl)ouring  country  was  laid  under 
water,  without  regard  to  the  fertile  fi(dds,  the  numerous  villas, 
.md  flourishing  villages  which  were  overwhelmed  by  the 
inundation.  All  the  provinces  soon  followed  the  example  of 
the  capital.  Enraged  to  find  their  co\intry  enfeebled  by  party 
jealousy,  when  its  very  political  existence  was  threateneil, 
the  people  rose  at  Dort,  and  forced  their  magi«trates  to  sign 
the  repeal  of  the  j)erpeiual  edict;  other  cities  followed  the 
example,  and  the  l'iin<-e  of  Orange  was  de(dare<l  stadtholder. 
Tliis  revolution  wns  followed  by  the  barbarous  massacre  of 
De  Wit  an  1  his  brother,  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  vengeance 


XXin.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  131 

of  the  Orange  party,  now  triumphant.  The  Dutch  had  hoped 
that  the  elevation  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  dignity  of 
Btadtholder  would  inlUience  the  measures  of  his  uncle,  the 
King  of  England  ;  but  Charles  persisted  in  his  alliance  with 
France ;  and  Lewis,  finding  that  his  enemies  gathered  courage 
behind  their  inundations,  and  that  no  further  progress  could  be 
attempted  by  his  arms  during  that  campaign,  returned  to  Ver- 
sailles. 

1673. — The  other  states  of  Europe,  however,  soon  began 
to  discover  a  jealousy  of  the  power  of  France.  The  emperor 
put  himself  in  motion  ;  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  showed  a 
disposition  to  support  the  states  ;  the  King  of  Spain  sent  some 
forces  to  their  assistance,  and  a  different  aspect  of  affairs  soon 
became  visible.  The  combined  fleet  of  France  and  England 
again  appeared  off  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  three  indecisive 
batdes  were  fought.  In  the  mean  time  the  French  monarch 
took  Maestricht,  while  Naerden  was  retaken  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  the  Imperialists  under  Montecuculi  besieged  and 
took  Bonn.  The  greater  part  of  the  electorate  of  Cologue 
was  subdued  by  the  Dutch  and  Germans ;  and  the  communi- 
cations between  France  and  the  United  Provinces  being  by 
that  means  cut  off,  Lewis  was  obliged  to  recall  his  forces  and 
abandon  his  conquests  with  precipitation.  The-  house  of 
Austria  in  both  branches,  being  alarmed  at  the  steps  taken  by 
the  King  of  France,  the  emperor,  and  the  Catholic  king,  pub- 
licly signed  a  treaty  with  the  United  Provinces,  before  the 
close  of  the  year.  Forgetting  her  ancient  animosities  against 
the  republic,  in  the  recent  injuries  received  from  the  French 
monarch,  Spain  immediately  issued  a  declaration  of  war;  and, 
by  a  strange  reverse  in  her  policy,  defended  the  Dutch  against 
France  and  England,  by  whose  aid  they  had  become  independ- 
ent of  her  power. 

When  the  English  Parliament  met,  in  the  begin  ing  of 
1674,  the  Commons  discovered  such  strong  symptoms  of  dis- 
content at  the  late  measures  of  government,  that  Charles  judged 
it  necessary  to  make  peace  with  Holland  ;  apologizing  to 
Lewis  for  the  step  he  had  taken  by  representing  the  state  of 
his  affairs.  Lewis  astonished  all  Europe  by  the  vigour  of  his 
exertions  in  the  campaign  of  this  year.  He  had  three  great 
armies  in  the  field  ;  one  on  the  side  of  Germany,  another  in 
Flanders,  a  third  on  the  frontiers  of  Roussillon,  and  he  him 
self,  at  the  head  of  a  fourth,  entered  Franche  Comte,  and  sub 
dued  the  whole  of  that  province  in  six  weeks.  The  taking  of 
Besan^on  was  a  matter  of  triumph  to  Lewis.    He  loved  sieges* 


132  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

and  is  said  to  liavo  understood  them  well:  l)Ut  lie  never  be- 
sieged a  town  without  being  morally  certain  of  taking  it. 
liOuvois  ])rcj)arcd  all  things  so  ciTi'ctually,  the  troops  were 
so  well  appointed,  and  Vauban,  who  conducted  most  of  the 
sieges,  was  so  great  a  master  in  the  art  of  taking  towns,  that 
the  king's  glory  was  perfectly  safe.  Vauban  directed  the 
attacks  al  Besan^on,  which  was  reduced  in  nine  days,  and  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  province  ;  the  university  and  seat  of 
government  being  transferred  to  it  from  Dole.  In  F'landers, 
the  Prince  of  Conde  attacked  the  rear  of  the  confederates  near 
Senelle,  a  village  between  Marimont  and  INivelle,  and  took 
great  part  of  their  cannon  and  baggage.  The  Prince  of  Orange, 
liowever,  rallied  liis  disordered  forces  and  led  them  back  to  the 
cliarge,  pushed  the  veteran  troops  of  France,  and  obliged  the 
great  Conde,  though  now  advanced  in  age,  to  exert  more  des- 
perate eflorts,  and  hazard  his  person  more  than  he  had  done 
in  any  action  during  his  life,  though  he  had  been  peculiarly 
distinguished  in  his  youth,  by  the  impetuosity  t)f  his  courage. 
William  did  not  expose  his  person  less.  The  engagement 
was  renewed  diree  several  times ;  and  after  sunset  it  was 
continued  for  two  hours  by  moonlight.  Darkness  at  length 
put  an  end  to  the  contest,  and  left  the  victory  undecided. 
Twelve  thousand  men  lay  dead  on  the  field,  and  the  loss  on 
both  sides  was  nearly  equal.  IJefore  the  close  of  the  campaign, 
the  Prince  of  Orange  took  Grave,  the  last  town  which  the 
French  held  in  any  of  the  seven  provinces.  Turcnne,  on  the 
side  of  Germany,  completed  that  high  reputation  which  he  had 
already  ac(|uired,  of  being  the  greatest  general  of  his  age  and 
nation.  He  possessed  himself  of  tiie  whole  Palatinate.  In 
the  folio wiiiif  year  (1(57.'))  he  was  less  successful.  Monlecu- 
culi,  who  commanded  the  forces  of  the  empire,  attempleil  to 
pass  the  Rhine.  The  most  consummate  skill  was  displayed 
on  both  sides.  'J'hese  two  generals  had  reduced  war  to  a 
science,  and  each  was  enabled  to  discover  the  designs  of  the 
other,  by  judging  what  he  himself  would  have  done  in  like 
circumst;mccs.  Turennc  was  preparing  to  seize  a  favourable 
opportunitv  of  l)rin<ring  the  Germans  to  a  decisive  action,  and  his 
own  geiuralsliip  and  that  of  Montecuculi  to  a  final  trial,  wlien  a 
period  was  put  to  his  life  by  a  cannon-ball,  as  he  was  viewing  the 
position  of  llu!  enemy,  and  takiiiir  measures  for  erecting  a 
battery.  The  consternation  of  the  French  at  the  loss  of  their 
geneial  was  inexpressible;  they  retreated,  and  by  the  aid  of 
the  English  auxiliaries  were  enalded  to  repass  the  Hhine  with- 
out much  loss.     'I'hc  Prince  (»f  Conde  came  with  a  reinforce' 


XXIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  1 3& 

nient  to  supply  the  place  of  Turenne;  but  before  his  arrival 
the  Mareelial  de  Crequiwas  routed  by  the  Germans,  who  took 
Treves.  The  King  of  Sweden,  who  had  been  induced  to 
take  part  with  France,  was  very  unfortunate  in  this  campaign. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  whose  terri- 
tories he  had  invaded,  and  lost  all  Pomerania. 

In  1G76,  France  was  equally  successful  by  sea  and  land. 
Messina  in  Sicily  had  revolted  from  Spain,  and  a  French  fleet, 
under  the  Duke  of  Vivonne,  was  sent  to  support  the  citizens 
in  their  rebellion.  A  Dutch  and  Spanish  squadron  sailed  to 
oppose  Vivonne,  but  after  an  obstinate  combat  Messina  was 
relieved  by  the  French.  Another  engagement  ensued  near 
Augusta,  rendered  famous  by  the  death  of  the  gallant  De 
Ruyter,  in  which  the  French  had  also  the  advantage.  A  third 
battle,  more  decisive  than  either  of  the  former,  was  fought  off 
Palermo ;  this  left  tlie  French  undisputed  masters  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  endangered  the  total  revolt  of  Naples  and 
Sicily.  In  1677,  Lewis  took  several  important  places  in 
Flanders,  and  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  an  obstinate 
battle,  while  the  Marechal  de  Crequi,  who  commanded  on  the 
Rhine,  obliged  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  to  retire  from  Meutz, 
and  closed  the  campaign  by  taking  Fribourgin  Swabia.  The 
King  of  Sweden  was  still  unfortunate.  His  fleet  was  twice 
defeated  by  the  Danes,  and  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  took 
from  him  the  important  fortress  of  Stettin.  During  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  French  arms  in  Flanders,  serious  negotiations 
had  been  begun  between  Lewis  and  the  States  General.  Both 
sides  had  reason  to  wish  for  peace.  Holland  had  suffered  in 
her  commerce  and  was  overpowered  with  taxes,  and  France, 
though  victorious  in  the  field,  was  exhausted  at  home.  And 
as  the  emperor  and  Spain,  though  least  able  to  continue  tlie 
war,  seemed  resolved  to  stand  it  out,  the  Dutch  ambassador 
signed  a  separate  treaty  with  France,  (1678,)  which  occasioned 
much  clamour  among  the  confederates,  but  was  ratified  by  the 
States  ;  and  all  the  other  powers  were  at  last  obliged  to  accept 
the  terms  dictated  by  the  French  monarch.  The  principal  of 
these  were,  that  Lewis,  besides  Franche  Comte,  which  he  had 
twice  conquered,  should  retain  possession  of  Cambray,  Aire, 
St.  Omers,  Valenciennes,  Tournay,  Ypres,  Bouchaine,  Cassel, 
Charlemont,  and  other  places  :  that  he  should  restore  Maes- 
tricht  to  the  Slates  :  that  Spain  should  be  again  put  in  posses- 
sion of  Charleroy,  Oudenard,  Ath,  Ghent,  and  Limbourg. 
That  th(!  emperor  should  give  up  Fribourg  to  France,  and  re- 
tain Philipsbourg  :  that  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg   shoula 

14 


134  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

restore  to  Sweden  his  conquests  in  Pomorania,  and  that  the 
treaty  of  Wcstplialia  should  remain  in  full  force  over  Germany 
and  the  north.  The  Duke  of  Lorraine  was  the  only  prince 
who  refused  to  be  included  in  the  peace  of  Ninie^uen:  he 
chose  rather  to  be  a  soldier  of  fortune,  and  to  command  the 
imperial  armies,  than  to  accept  his  dominions  on  the  condi- 
tioni*  proposed  by  Lewis.  Tlie  Prince  of  Orange  was  so  en- 
raged at  this  peace,  that  he  took,  a  most  unwarrantable  step  to 
break  it.  He  attacked  the  quarters  of  the  Duke  of  Luxem- 
bourg, near  Mons,  in  hopes  of  cutting  off  the  French  army, 
after  the  treaty  was  signed,  and  when  the  duke  reposed  on  the 
faith  of  it;  but  this  bold  violation  of  tlie  law  of  nations  was 
attended  with  no  other  consequence  than  the  loss  of  many 
lives  on  both  sides. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

BUROPE,  FROM    THE    PEACE    OF    NIMEGITEN,  IN    1 G78,    TO     THE 
LEAGUE  OF  AUGSBURG,  IN   1G87. 

The  peace  of  Nimeguen,  instead  of  setting  bounds  to  the 
power  of  Lewis  XIV.,  left  him  more  at  leisure  to  extend  it. 
W^hile  the  empire,  Spain,  and  Holland,  disbandeii  their 
supernumerary  troops,  Lewis  still  kept  up  all  his,  and  in  the 
midst  of  profound  peace  maintained  a  formidable  army.  No 
European  prince  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne  had  acted  so 
much  like  a  master  and  a  judge.  In  1080,  the  Elector  Palatine 
and  tlie  Elector  of  Treves  were  div(;sted  of  several  places  ijy 
his  imperious  tribunals.  The  following  year  he  laid  claim  to 
the  ancient  and  free  citv  of  Strasburg,  as  cajjilal  of  Alsace. 
Louvois,  at  the  head  of  20,000,  took  possession  of  the  place, 
and  Vauban,  who  had  fortified  so  many  towns,  here  exhausted 
his  art,  and  rendered  Strasburg  the  strongest  barrier  of  France. 
In  1683  he  blockaded  Luxemburg.  Alarmed  at  these  pre- 
tensions, the  empire,  Spain,  and  ILtUand,  began  to  take 
measures  for  restraining  the  encroachments  of  France  ;  but 
Spain  was  yet  too  feeble  to  enter  upon  a  new  war,  and  the 
imperial  armies  were  called  upon  to  oppose  a  more  pressing 
danger.  The  Hungarians,  who  thought  their  privileges  had 
not  been  sufficicntlv  respected  by  Lfop(»ld,  again  broke  out 
into  rebellion  ;  and  Tekeli,  the  head  of  the  iu'surgcnts,  called 
in  the  Turks  to  the  support  of  his  countrymen.  By  the  as- 
fistaace  of  the    Bashaw  of   Buda,  he    ravaged   Silesia,  and 


XXIV,]  GENERAL    HISTOUY    OF    EUROPE.  135 

reduced  many  important  places  in  Hungary;  while  Moham- 
med IV.,  the  reigning  sultan,  was  preparing  the  most  lormi- 
dalile  force  that  the  Ottoman  empire  had  ever  sent  against 
Christendom.  Leopold,  foreseeing  that  the  gathering  storm 
would  finally  break  upon  Germany,  besides  demanding  the 
assistance  of  the  princes  of  the  empire,  concluded  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  with  John  Sobieski,  King  of 
Poland.  Meanwhile,  the  Grand  Vizier,  Kara  Mustapha, 
passing  through  Hungary,  at  the  head  of  50,000  Janizaries, 
30,000  Spahis,  and  200,000  common  men,  advanced  towards 
Vienna.  The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  commanded  the  impe- 
rial forces,  attempted  in  vain  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the 
invader.  The  Turks  under  the  grand  vizier  took  the  right 
of  the  Danube,  and  Tekeli  with  the  Hungarians  the  left.  See- 
ing his  capital  threatened  on  all  sides,  the  emperor  retired  first 
to  Lintz,  and  then  to  Passau.  The  Turks  invested  Vienna  in 
July,  and  had  not  only  destroyed  the  suburbs,  but  made  a 
breach  in  the  body  of  the  place  before  September.  The 
Duke  of  Lorraine  had  prevented  the  Hungarians  from  joining 
the  Turks,  but  was  unable  to  relieve  the  garrison ;  an  assault 
was  every  moment  expected,  when  John  Sobieski,  having 
joined  his  troops  to  those  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  made  a 
signal  to  the  besieged  from  the  top  of  the  mountain  of  Calem- 
berg,  and  inspired  them  with  new  hopes.  Kara  Mustapha, 
who,  out  of  contempt  for  the  Christians,  had  neglected  to  push 
the  assault,  and  who,  amidst  the  progress  of  ruin,  had  wanton- 
ed in  luxury,  was  made  sensible  of  his  mistake  when  it  was 
too  late  to  repair  it.  The  Christians  descended  the  mountains, 
under  the  command  of  the  King  of  Poland  and  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine.  The  Turks  were  seized  with  a  panic,  and  routed 
almost  without  resistance.  Only  500  of  the  victors  fell ;  and 
so  great  was  the  terror,  and  so  precipitate  the  flight  of  the  infi- 
dels, that  they  abandoned  not  only  their  tents,  artillery,  and 
baggage,  but  left  behind  them  the  famous  standard  of  Mo- 
hammed, which  Sobieski  sent  to  the  pope  with  the  follow- 
ing letter  : — "  I  came,  I  saw,  God  conquered."  The  Turks 
i'eceived  another  defeat  on  the  plain  of  Barcan,  and  all  Hun- 
gary on  both  sides  of  the  Danube  was  recovered  by  the  impe- 
rial arms.  The  King  of  France  had  raised  the  blockade  of 
Luxemburg,  when  the  Turks  approached  Vienna,  "  I  will 
never,"  said  he,  "  attack  a  Christian  prince,  while  Christen- 
dom is  in  danger  from  the  infidels  :"  but  the  apprehensions 
of  Christendom  being  removed  by  the  relief  of  Vienna,  and 
the  expulsion  of  the  Turks,  Lewis  returned  to  the  siege  of 


136  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  LciIAP. 

Luxemburfr,  aiul  rciUiccd,  in  a  sliort  lime,  not  only  lluit  place, 
but  also  Courlray  and  Dixinude.  (1081.)  The  glory  and 
greatness  of  the  French  monareh  were  still  farther  extended 
by  means  of  iiis  naval  power:  he  had  upwards  of  a  hundred 
ships  of  the  line,  ami  00,000  seamen  ;  the  mafrnilicent  port 
of  Toulon  was  constructed  at  an  immense  expense  ;  and  that 
of  Brest,  upon  the  oecan,  was  formed  upon  as  extensive  a 
plan.  Dunkirk  and  llavre-de-Grace  were  filled  with  ships, 
and  Rochefort,  in  spite  of  nature,  was  converted  nto  a  con- 
venient harl)our.  Nor  did  Lewis  allow  his  ships  to  lie  inac- 
tive in  these  ports.  He  sent  out  squadrons  to  clear  the  seas 
of  the  Barhary  pirates ;  he  ordered  Alj^iers  twice  to  be  bom- 
barded, and  not  only  huml)led  that  hautrjity  predatory  city, 
and  oblis^ed  the  Al^rerines  to  release  all  their  Christian  slaves, 
but  siil)jected  Tunis  and  'I'ripoli  to  the  same  conditions.  The 
Genoese  being  accused  of  having  sold  bombs  and  gunpowder 
to  the  Algerines,  and  built  galleys  for  the  Spaniards,  Lewis 
ordered  Duquene  to  sail  from  'I'oulon  with  fourteen  ships  of 
the  line,  twenty  galleys,  and  fourteen  frigates;  these  appeared 
before  Genoa,  atul  suddenly  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins  many 
of  those  magnificent  buildings,  which  have  ol)tained  for  that 
city  the  appellation  of  Proud.  Four  thousand  men  were 
landed,  and  the  sul)urb  of  St.  Peter  D' Arena  was  burned.  It 
now  became  necessary  for  the  Genoese  to  make  submissions, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  total  destruction  of  their  capital. 
Lewis  demanded  that  the  doge  and  four  of  the  principal  sena- 
tors should  eome  and  implore  his  clemency  at  Versailles. 
Tliese  humiliating  coiuiilioiis  were  comijlied  with;  tin;  doge, 
in  his  ceremonial  habit,  appeared  before  Lewis,  in  a  suppli- 
calinjj  posture.  Tiiis  doge,  who  was  a  man  of  wit  and 
vivacity,  being  asked  by  the  French  courtiers  vvliat  seemed  to 
him  most  extraordinary  at  Versailles,  very  pointedly  replied, 
"To  see  myself  there." 

In  1085,  Lewis  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  had 
been  granted  by  Henry  IV.,  in  favour  of  the  Calvinists. 
This  strong  and  decisive  measure  seems  to  have  been  dictated 
by  cautious  policy,  not  iiy  tyrannical  persecution,  as  it  is 
fepresenled  by  various  historians.*  Forty  years  of  Lewis's 
reign  had  passed,  and  no  molestation  had  been  given  U)  the 
Huguenots,  until  provoked  by  tiiemselves.  The  danger  of 
Bfeing  France  om-e  more  involved  in  civil  war,  through    the 

•  8cc  thJH  articlr  treated  At  Inrpo  in  o  memoir,  written  l)y  Lewis  Dau- 
phin, father  of  Iicwis  XVI.,  quoted  by  Feller.  Dictiunnaire  Historiijue^ 
»ol.  4,  pago  19". 


kX^,"]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  13? 

intrigues  of  democratical  innovt^tors,  (Jansenists  and  Hugue- 
nots, both  by  principle  equally  hostile  to  regal  and  episcopal 
government,)  was  visible  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other, 
no  less  visible  was  the  loss  of  so  many  industrious  mechanics. 
The  politic  monarch  of  France  judged  that  public  tranquillity 
could  not  be  secured  at  too  dear  a  rate ;  and,  therefore,  ordered 
all  the  body  of  French  Huguenots  either  to  abjure  the  doc 
trines  of  Geneva  and  return  to  the  Catholic  Church,  or  quit 
the  kingdom.  The  generality  of  them  conformed  ;  but  some 
preferred  banishment,  and  sev(  ral  of  these  exiles  fled  to  Eng- 
land, where  they  experienced  great  kindness  from  James  H. 
Thus  protected,  many  among  them  rose  to  opulence  and  con- 
sequence, which  their  posterity  still  enjoy. 

During  the  last-mentioned  transactions  in  France,  the  em- 
peror had  taken  Buda  from  the  Turks,  after  an  obstinate 
siege.  He  had  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter  at  Mohatz, 
1689:  he  had  entirely  subdued  the  Hungarian  malcontents, 
he  had  even  got  the  crown  of  Hungary  declared  hereditary  in 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  his  son,  Joseph,  proclaimed  king  of 
that  country.  He  had  now  leisure  to  turn  his  eyes  towards 
France,  nor  could  he  do  it  with  indifference.  A  league  had 
been  concluded  by  the  whole  empire  in  1686  to  restrain  the 
encroachments  of  that  power;  and  an  attempt  of  Lewis  to  get 
the  Cardinal  of  Furstersburg  made  Elector  of  Cologne,  in 
opposition  to  the  emperor,  kindled  anew  the  flames  of  war  in 
Germany  and  the  Low  Countries.  Spain  and  Holland  became 
principals  in  the  league  ;  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Savoy  were 
afterwards  gained  over,  and  the  accession  of  England  was  at 
ength  acquired. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

1685. THE    REVOLUTION   IN   ENGLAND. 

On  the  demise  of  King  Charles,  in  1685,  his  brother  James, 
Duke  of  York,  mounted  the  British  throne,  with  every  mark 
of  public  approbation  and  attachment  to  his  person,  notwith- 
standing his  open  professions  of  the  Catholic  religion ;  and 
he  might  probably  have  reigned  in  tranquillity,  and  died  in 
peace  on  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  had  he  been  less  zealous 
in  the  cause  of  religion,  or  had  he  placed  less  confidence  in 
those  who,  by  false  advice,  led  him  into  a  snare.  The  spring 
of  James's  subsequent  misfortunes  may  be  traced  to  the  choice 

14* 


188  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  ^CHAP. 

he  made  of  Cecil,  Earl  of  Sunderland,  for  his  prime  minister 
and  secretary  of  slate.  'J'liis  perfidious  and  artfid  minister 
professed  liinif^elf  a  eonvrrl  to  tlie  Catholic  reliirion,  (hat  he 
miglit  ruin  iiiin  the  more  en'tctually,  wliilc  he  svviuvd  to  exert 
his  best  endeavours  to  serve  him.  James  saw  not  througli 
the  dark  desiprns  of  the  hypocrite,  hut  blindly  pave  in  to  every 
unpopular  mea.sr.re  sntriiesied  by  him.  The  tirs<t  piil)lic  dis- 
turbance arose  from  tlie  rebellion  of  the  Diike  of  IMon'iiouth, 
who  had  long  cast  his  eyes  on  the  crown;  and,  being  (lattcred 
with  hopes  of  success,  by  tl  e  a.^surnnces  he  received  from 
Sunderland,  emiiarkcd  from  Holland,  where  he  then  was,  and 
landed  at  Lyme,  in  Dorsetshire,  June  9th,  1685.  His  stand- 
ard was  joined  by  a  raw  multitude,  amounting  toHvo  thousand 
men;  but  the  royU  army  being  encamped  williin  three  miles 
of  Bridgewater,  he  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  tJiken 
prisoner,  and  beheaded.  Before  his  execution,  he  let  the  king 
know  that  Sunderland,  and  olliers  in  his  confidence,  were  part- 
ners with  him  in  treason.  But  the  king  was  too  prepossesseil 
in  favour  of  his  confidential  minister  to  believe  him  guilty. 
A  sj)eci.al  commission  of  Oi^er  and  7\rminer  was  issued  to 
Jelferies,  the  lord  chief  justice,  for  the  trial  of  the  rebel 
prisoners.  JefTeries,  in  the  execution  of  his  commission,  is 
represented  to  have  been  bloody,  arbitrary,  and  savajje  ;  and 
llie  odium  of  his  severities  was  unjustly  cast  u])on  the  king, 
tiiough  it  does  not  appear  that  he  approved  of  them.*  In  the 
mean  time,  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  one  of  Monnioiilirs  partisans, 
had  made  a  similar  attem|H  upon  Scotland;  but  the  king's 
authority  was  too  well  eslal)lislied  there,  to  be  shaken  by  the 
duke's  forces,  which  amounted  to  two  thousand  men.  His 
arms  and  ammunition  were  seized,  and  his  followers,  after  suf- 
fering all  the  har(lshi[)s  of  famin ;  and  fatigue,  gradually  de- 
serted ;  and  he  himself,  being  made  prisoner,  was  conveyed  to 
Ediiiburirh  and  imu.rdiatelv  executed.  (IfiSO.)  Monmouth's 
rebellion  was  scarcely  sujipresscd,  when  tiie  good  understand- 
ing which  had  hitherto  subsisted  between  the  king  and  the  Parlia- 
ment Ix'^an  to  be  interrupted.  His  majesty  informed  the  C"om- 
mons  that  a  disposition  in  the  people  to  revolt,  rendered  the  in- 
crease of  a  military  force  necessary  to  preserve  the  tranquillity 
of  the  realm  ;and  that  having  in  the  time  of  danjrer  employed  offi- 
cers in  the  army  who  had  not  taken  tfir  qualifvinir  tests,  they 
eoulil  not  nosv  be  disujissed  without  disgrace.  The  king  con- 
sidered the  right  of  dispensing  with  penal  statutes  as  an  inhe- 

•  Vide  Lin'^ard. 


XXV.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  139 

rent  prerOijalive  of  his  crown,  which  he  was  resolved  not  to 
relhiquish.     Tlie  judges  of  the  law  were  consulted  upon  the 
question,  and  eleven  of  them  declared  the  claim  to  be  legal. 
The  same  dispensation  had  been  frequently  granted  by  Eliza- 
beth, James  I.,  Charles  L,  and  Charles  II.,  who  had  all  em- 
ployed Catholics  in  their  armies  and  navies ;  and  Parliament 
itself  had  more  than  once  acknowledged  this  prerogative  of 
the  crown ;  but  as  the  exertion  of  it  seemed  now  to  favour 
the  re-establishment  of  the  Catholic  religion,  it  met  with  viru- 
lent opposition.     The  treacherous  Earl  of  Sunderland  was, 
all  this  while,  furnishing  the  nation  with  subjects  of  discontent, 
by  urging  the   king  from   one  unpopular  step  to  another.  At 
his   suggestion,  the  king  formed  a  secret  council  of  Roman 
Catholics,  to  consult  upon  affairs  of  religion.     An  English 
ambassador  was  sent  to  reside  at  Rome,  and  a  pope's  nuncio 
was  publicly  received  in  England.  The  management  of  affairs 
relative  to  the  national  church  was  consigned  to  an  ecclesias- 
tical Court  of  Commission,  composed   of  seven  Protestants, 
who  were  vested  with  the  same  exorbitant  powers  as  those 
formerly  given  by  Elizabeth  to  the  like  court.  A  royal  procla- 
mation was  issued,  which  granted  to  every  British  subject  an 
entire  freedom   to  follow  that  mode  of  worship  which   con- 
science  should  dictate.     This  indulgent  grant  was  joyfully 
received  by  the  Catholics  and  by  the  Dissenters  of  every  deno- 
mination, but  loudly  censured  by  others.  The  king,  believing 
that  his  edict  gave  general  satisfaction,  published  a  new  decla- 
ration for  liberty  of  conscience,  in  April,  1688,  to  which  an 
order  was  subjoined,  that  it  should  be  read  in  every  church 
and  chapel  in  the  kingdom,  after  divine  service.     This  order 
was   considered  by  the  clergy  as  an  insult  upon  the  national 
church.     Six  of  v\e  bishops  resisted  the  mandate ;  they  were 
indicted,  for  disobedience,  and  committed  to  the  Tower.  Their 
case  was  tried  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  and  the  jury  de- 
clared them  not  guilty.     This  contest  with  the  bishops  com- 
pleted the  king's  unpopularity  ;  x  .hile  the  measures  he  had  taken 
relative  to  the  governmp.nt  of  Ireland,  were  calculated  to  in- 
crease the  jealousy  a»d  suspicions  of  the   Protestant   party. 
No  wonder  that  the    Jutholics  of  that  long  oppressed  and 
much  injured  country  should  hail  the  accession  of  a  Catholic 
prince  to  the  throne,  with  an  enthusiastic  and  even  intempe- 
rate joy.     The  turn  of  tke   scale    af  politics   was  rapid   and 
complete.     The  Earl  of  Clarendon  had  succeeded  Ormond  as 
ord  deputy;  but  he  was   probably  too  firmly  attached  to  the 
Protestant  interest,  to  gi\  e  in  as  largely  to  the  king's  measures 


140  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

as  was  t.grccahle  to  the  court.  In  obedience  to  the  instructions 
he  received,  tlie  Catholics  were  advanced  to  many  civil  and 
military  otlices,  and  the  Earl  of  Tyrconnell  a|)pointed  com- 
mander of  the  army.  (1G86.)  This  last  was  soon  after  pre- 
vailed on  to  go  over  to  England,  in  order  to  engage  the  king 
to  come  into  their  favourite  measure,  of  abolishing  tlie  obnox- 
ious act  of  settlement.  His  endeavours  were  successful,  and 
he  returned  to  Ireland  as  lord  deputy. 

Meanwhile,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  -who  was  minutely  in- 
ibrmed  by  Sunderland  of  every  thing  that  passed  in  England, 
was  active  in  forming  schemes  for  mounting  the  throne  of  his 
father-in-law.  Ever  since  his  marriage  with  the  Princess 
Mary  of  England,  he  had  always  kept  his  eye  upon  the  crown  ; 
though  he  had  a  complicated  scheme  of  policy  to  conduct, 
and  many  interfering  interests  to  reconcile  on  the  continent. 
The  league  of  Augsburg,  formed  to  break  the  power  of  France, 
could  not  accomplish  its  object  without  the  accession  of  Eng- 
land; and  as  James  refused  to  take  part  in  the  league,  the 
House  of  Austria,  in  both  its  branches,  countenanced  his  pro- 
jected expulsion,  as  the  only  means  of  lunnbling  their  common 
enemy.  All  the  German  princes  were  in  the  same  interest; 
and  it  was  agreed  they  should  protect  the  United  Provinces 
during  the  absence  of  William. 

While  one-half  of  Europe  thus  combined  against  the  King 
of  England,  while  many  of  his  own  subjects  were  determined 
to  oppose  his  power,  and  more  to  divest  him  of  his  authority, 
James,  as  if  blinded  l)y  fate,  reposed  in  the  most  supine  secu- 
rity, and  disregarded  tlie  repeated  accounts  of  the  preparations 
made  against  him.  Deceived  by  his  ambassador  in  Holland, 
and  betrayed  by  his  minister,  the  Earl  of  Sunderland,  James 
believed  the  rumour  of  an  invasion  was  only  raised  by  his 
enemies,  in  order  to  frighten  him  into  a  closer  connexion  with 
France,  and  to  complete,  by  that  means,  the  disalfection  of 
his  subjects.  The  prince,  at  length,  after  several  disajipoiiil- 
ments,  put  to  sea,  on  the  1st  of  November,  1688,  with  a  large 
fleet,  having  on  board  land  forces  to  the  amount  of  1.5,0((0 
men.  Lord  Dartmouth,  who  commanded  the  I'^nglish  lleet, 
let  thsm  pass  unmolested ;  they  sailed  down  the  Channel,  and 
un  the  tth  of  November  anchored  safclv  in  Torliay.  As  soon 
as  the  king  was  apprized  of  the  invader's  landing,  he  hasl(!ned 
to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  pnd  ordered  all  his 
forces  to  rendezvous  (ui  Salisbury  plain,  imdcr  the  command 
ol  the  Earl  of  Feversliam  ;  but  on  reviewing  them,  he  disco- 
vered su  ; ;  symptoms  of  didalTection,  that  he  was  at  a  loss  how 


XXV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OP    EUROPE.  141 

to  act.  Even  among  those  whom  he  had  most  favoured,  he 
saw  but  few  on  whom  he  could  rely.  In  a  council  ot  war, 
A  retreat  towards  the  capital  was  resolved  on.  The  enemy 
advanced  ;  James  left  the  remains  of  his  army  in  quarters, 
and  retreated  to  London  on  the  26th  of  the  same  month. 
Successive  misfortunes  were  now  daily  heaped  upon  the  un- 
fortunate monarch ;  his  nearest  friends  and  relatives  were 
among  the  first  to  desert  him,  and  the  spirit  of  revolt  spread 
from  county  to  county,  as  if  the  whole  nation  had  at  once 
combined  against  its  lawful  sovereign.  His  son-in-law,  the 
Prince  of  Denmark,  joined  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  even 
his  darling  daughter,  Anne,  secretly  withdrew,  under  the  con- 
duct of  the  Bishop  of  London,  to  join  the  rebels.  This  de- 
fection of  a  favourite  child  wrung  his  heart  with  inexpressilile 
grief,  and  subdued  the  usual  constancy  of  his  mind.  The 
terrors  of  the  queen  for  her  own,  and  her  infant  son's  safety, 
idded  to  his  distress :  he  therefore  sent  them  off  privately  to 
France,  under  the  care  of  the  Count  de  Lauzun,  a  generous 
French  nobleman.  All  hopes  of  an  accommodation  with  the 
invader  being  now  past,  and  not  knowing  on  whom  to  rely 
for  advice  or  support,  James  resolved  to  quit  a  country  which 
nad  brought  his  father  to  the  scaffold,  and  to  retire  to  France. 
With  this  design,  he  privately  left  his  palace,  at  midnight,  on 
the  10th  of  December,  crossed  the  river  in  disguise,  and  was 
met  at  Vauxhall  by  Sir  Edward  Hales,  and  another  friend. 
To  complete  his  imprudence,  he  commanded  the  Earl  of  Fe- 
versham  to  disband  the  army,  recalled  the  writs  for  the  meet- 
ing of  Parliament,  and  threw  the  great  seal  into  the  Thames ! 
At  Feversham  he  was  discovered,  and  forced  to  return  to 
Whitehall,  amidst  the  insults  of  a  militia  guard,  who  h^d 
orders  to  take  care  of  his  person.  On  the  17th,  at  night,  his 
English  soldiers  were  replaced  by  Dutch  troops,  and  the  king 
received  a  message  from  the  prince,  to  quit  his  palace  before 
ten  the  next  morning.  A  hundred  Dutch  soldiers  were  ordered 
to  escort  him  to  Rochester,  and  guard  him  as  their  prisoner. 
Several  noblemen,  the  gallant  Lord  Dundee,  and  other  officers 
of  distinction,  who  had  assembled  at  Rochester,  strenuously 
opposed  the  king's  determination  of  redring  to  France.  They 
represented  to  him  that  the  opinion  of  mankind  began  already 
to  change  ;  and  Dundee,  with  his  generous  ardour,  only  entreat- 
ed his  majesty  to  give  him  his  commission,  and  he  would 
carry  his  standard  through  England,  and  drive  before  him  the 
Dutch  and  their  prince.  James  replied,  that  he  believed  ii 
might  be  done,  but  that  it  would  occasion  a  civil  war,  and  he 


142  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CIIAP. 

would  not  do  so  much  mischief  to  a  people  who  would  soon 
return  to  their  senses.      'I'hc  animated  remonstrances  ot'  his 
friends  could  not  inspire  with  new  firmness  a  mind  l)ro!ven  l)y 
appreheusion  and  terror.     James  still   continued  to    meditate 
his  escape  ;  and  the  l)ack  door  of  the  house  in  which  lie  lodged 
being  left  unsruarded,    his    majesty  seized   the   opporiunity, 
after  three  days'  conlinemcnt ;   went  on  hoard  a  sloop  that  lay 
waitinj^  for   him  ;  got  safe  to  llic  opposite  shore  on  the  25th 
of  December,*  and  immediately  taking  post,  soon  joined  his 
queen,  at   St.  fTcrmains,    where   he   was  received   hy  liewis 
XIV.,  with  every  mark  of  cordial  affection.   The  two  Houses 
of  Parliament  met  in  January,  1689,  and  declared  the  ilisjht 
and  expatriation  of  James   equivalent  to  a  desertion  of  his 
subjects,  and  an  alnlication  of  his  crown.      In  the  m^an  time, 
the  Presbyterians  in   Scotland,  who  formed   the  bulk  of  the 
nation,  entered  warmly   into  the  interests  of  the    I'rince  of 
Orange,  who  was  of  their  persuasion,  and  deputed  thirty  noble- 
men, and  about  eighty  gentlemen,  to  request  him   to  assume 
the   administration  of  Scotland.     The   English   Convention, 
after   many  disputes  between   the   whigs   and   tories,t  at  last 
agreed,  that  the   Prince  of  Orange  shoidd  reign  jointly  with 
his  wife,  tiie  sole  administration  to   be   in  the  prince.      The 
act  of  settletnent,  moreover,  provided,  that  in  default  of  heirs 
in  the  direct  line,  the   Princess  Anne  was  to  succeed,  and  her 
posterity  after  that  of  her  sister.     To  this  regulation  was  an- 
nexed a  declaration,  which  fixed  the  bounds  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative.     Tlius  was   terminated   the   (jreat  stniffgle   between 
the  crown  and  the  people,  which  commenccel  with  the  acces- 
sion of  the   family  of  Stuart  to  the  throne  of  England,  and 
continiied   till   their  exclusion,   when   almost  a  century  had 
elapsed.     This  event,  called  the  Revolution,  forms  a  remark- 
able epoch  in  the  English   history. 

Long  before  James  left  England,  the  Protestants  in  the 
North  of  Ireland  were  up  in  arms  ;  ihov  had  a])pointed  coun- 
cils and  eommillces  to  carry  on  tiieir  business,  and  all  this 
was  done  without  the  authority  of  James,  at  that  time  King  of 
England.    Tyrconnel,  imdcr  these  embarrassments,  summoned 

•    Uo  was  nccom[>anied  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  his  natural  son. 

+  Various  otvrnoloirios  have  Iwon  (jivrn  to  thpse  notcil  terms.  They 
«werr  ii**-.!  a«  epitholx  of  rniitiinl  rP(iroiirh  durini;  t\w  roiRn  of  (Jhnrlrs  If. 
Tho  Wliiirs  wore  «trom;ly  uttaclicd  to  tho  lilx-rlics  of  the  pcojilo,  wliile  the 
Tories  w«to  ri|ually  z«'alou'*  for  ihc  j)rt'ro;;,itivc  of  the  crown.  .Xflcr  the 
abdication  of  James  IF.,  the  latter  was  supposed  to  favour  the  Sluart  fuc- 
ceiwion,  and  the  roproarhful  appellation  of  Jnrnhlle  waa  bestowed  on  those 
who  were  attached  to  the  person  or  family  of  the  dethroned  monarch. 


XXV.]  (JENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  143 

all  the  loyal  part  of  the  nation  to  arm  in  defence  of  the  rights 
of  their  lawful  sovereign ;  and  an  army  of  about  30,000  men 
was  at  length  formed  by  him,  and  officered  chielly  with 
Catholics.  James  gave  constant  assurances,  that  he  would 
come  over  to  lead  thetn  in  person ;  he  was  then  at  the  court 
of  Lewis  XIV.,  who,  commiserating  his  fallen  state,  and  envy- 
ing the  rising  power  of  William,  his  inveterate  enemy,  offered 
Aim  a  French  armj-  to  regain  his  rights,  which  he  declined, 
saying,  "  that  he  would  recover  his  dominions  by  the  assistance 
of  his  own  subjects,  or  perish  in  the  attempt."  James  sailed 
from  Brest  with  a  strong  armament,  having  on  board  1300  of 
his  own  subjects,  who  were  then  in  the  pay  of  France,  and  a 
hundred  French  officers.  He  landed  at  Kinsale,  in  March, 
1689,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Dublin,  and  was  received  as 
king  with  great  pomp  and  solemnity.  The  Protestant  revolu- 
tionists defended  themselves  in  Derry  and  Enniskillen,  till  the 
arrival  of  an  English  army  of  40,000  men,  under  Schomberg, 
m  August,  the  same  year.  William  afterwards  landed  to  head 
his  army  in  person,  and  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  was  fought  cfti 
the  1st  of  July,  1690.  In  this  action  William  distinguished 
himself  by  his  intrepidity  and  vigilance ;  while  James,  on  the 
contrary,  stood  at  a  secure  distance,  and  when  he  saw  his  Irish 
troops  repulsing  those  of  the  enemy,  exclaimed,  "  O  spare  my 
English  subjects."  His  chief  concern  before  the  battle  was 
to  provide  for  his  personal  safety.  Resolved  to  insure  it, 
when  matters  took  an  unfavourable  turn,  he  fled  precipitately 
to  Dublin,  and  thence  to  Waterford,  where  he  took  ship- 
)ing  for  France.  The  route  of  William  and  his  victorious 
army  was  marked  with  cruelty  and  devastation.  They  met 
with  a  vigorous  resistance  from  the  army  under  Tyrconnel,  till 
October,  1691,  when  the  Irish  surrendered  their  last  hold,  the 
city  of  Limerick,  on  honourable  conditions.  By  the  treaty, 
concluded  on  this  occasion,  all  who  wished  to  quit  the  country 
were  permitted  to  retire  with  their  families  and  effects.  The 
number  of  voluntary  exiles,  who  chose  rather  to  forfeit  all 
natural  advantages  than  fail  in  the  allegiance  they  conceived 
due  to  their  lawful  prince,  amounted  to  upwards  of  19,000 
men.  The  trenty  of  Limerick  secured  to  William  the  undis- 
puted possession  of  Ireland  ;  in  return,  he  promise  1  liberty  of 
conscience.  The  stipulation  was  observed  just  two  months  ; 
during  that  period  the  flower  of  the  Irish  army  followed  James 
to  Fiance,  and  the  rest  disbanded. 


»44  OENERAI     HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

EUROPE,  FROM   1689,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  CARLOAVITZ,  IN   1099. 

The  League  of  Augsburg  was  completed  by  tlie  adhesion 
of  England,  in  1689.  The  French  monarrh,  trusting  to  his 
great  resources,  prej)ared  himself  to  repel  the  storm,  with  a 
vigour  proportioned  to  the  occasion.  He  assembled  two  armies 
in  Flanders;  he  opposed  a  third  to  the  Spaniards  in  Catalonia  ; 
and  to  form  a  barrier  on  the  side  of  Germany,  he  laid  waste 
the  Palatinate  with  fire  and  sword.  The  Germanic  body, 
united  under  the  emperor,  assembled  three  formidable  armies, 
besides  that  opposed  to  the  Turks  ;  namely,  one  under  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Upper  Rhine  ;  the  main  army,  under 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  on  the  Middle  Rhine;  and  a  third,  con- 
ducted by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  appeared  on  the  Lower 
Rliine.  The  Uuke  of  Lorraine  laid  siege  to  INlentz,  while  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  invested  Bonn.  Both  places  were 
taken  ;  and  the  French  were  worsted  in  an  engagement  in 
Flanders.  Nor  was  Lewis  more  successful  in  Cataloni.-". :  his 
troops  were  driven  l)ack  to  their  own  frontiers. 

The  same  year  the  Prince  of  Baden,  who  commanded  for  the 
emperor  on  the  side  of  Hungary,  defcaled  the  Turks  in  three 
successive  engagements.  About  the  same  time  an  alarming 
attempt  was  made  in  ScoUand  to  assert  the  rights  of  James. 
But  Lord  Dundee,  who  headed  the  Highlanders,  having  l)ocn 
killed  by  a  random  shot,  the  restsubiuilted.  In  the  mean  wiiilc, 
the  English  Parliament,  though  divided  on  every  other  point, 
■was  unanimous  in  seconding  the  inimical  designs  of  William 
against  France,  and,  accordingly,  war  was  declared  this  same 
year.  (1689.) 

In  1690,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  having  joined  the  allies,  it  be- 
came necessary  for  Lewis  to  send  an  army  into  Italy.  This 
army  was  rommitled  to  Catinat,  who  united  the  lire  of  a  hero 
to  the  coolness  of  a  philosopher.  He  completely  defeated 
Victor  Amadeus,  at  Staffarada  ;  and  all  Savoy,  excc|it  Mont- 
melian,  was  soon  after  reducjMl.  Equal  succens  attended  the 
arms  of  France  in  this  campaign  on  the  frontiers  of  Spain  and 
in  Flanders,  where  Luxembnrg  gained  a  complete,  but  bloody 
victory,  over  the  Dutch  and  Sj)aniar<Is  at  I'leurus,  near  Char- 
leroy.  Nothing  memorable  lia|)peiied  on  the  side  of  Germany, 
owing,  perliaps,  to  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.     Thia 


KXVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  14& 

gallant  prince,  whose  high  spirit  induced  him  to  abandon  his 
dominions,  and  become  a  soldier  of  fortune,  rather  than  sub 
mit  to  the  conditions  offered  by  Lewis  at  the  peace  of  Nime- 
guen,  was  become  a  consummate  general.  His  injuries  seem 
always  to  have  been  uppermost  in  his  mind,  except  while  en- 
gaged against  the  infidels,  when  religion  was  predominant. 
He  threatened  to  enter  Lorraine  at  the  head  of  40,000  men 
before  the  end  of  the  summer,  but  died  before  that  date.  His 
letter  to  the  Emperor  Leopold,  his  brother-in-law,  stror.gly 
marks  his  character.  "  I  am  going,"  says  he,  "  to  give  an 
account  to  a  more  powerful  master  of  a  life  which  I  have  de- 
voted chiefly  to  your  service.  Remember  that  I  leave  behind 
me  a  wife  who  is  nearly  related  to  you  ;  children  who  have 
no  inheritance  but  my  sword,  and  subjects  who  lie  under  op 
pression." 

1690. — The  Turks  this  year  took  Nissa  Widin,  and  even 
Belgrade,  which  was  carried  by  assault  after  a  bloody  siege. 
All  Upper  Hungary,  beyond  theTibiscus,  fell  into  their  hands, 
and  they  took  up  winter-quarters  in  that  country.  To  add  to 
tlie  misfortune  of  the  allies  during  this  campaign,  the  combined 
fleet  of  England  and  Holland  was  defeated  by  the  French 
under  Tourville. 

1G91. — The  progress  of  the  French  during  the  next  cam- 
paign, was  not  equal  to  what  might  have  been  expected  from 
their  late  victories.  Though  Lewis  in  person  took  Mons,  in 
defiance  of  King  William,  who  had  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  confederate  army,  yet  the  summer  passed  without  any 
memorable  event.  Meanwhile  the  Turks  lost  all  they  had 
gained  the  former  year,  and  were  totally  routed  by  the  Prince 
of  Baden,  with  the  loss  of  20,000  men. 

A  cruel  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  vale  of  Glenco, 
in  Argyleshire,  contrary  to  the  faith  of  a  royal  proclamation, 
roused  once  more  the  resentment  of  the  Jacobites,  and  was 
made  use  of  by  the  dissatisfied  whigs  to  render  the  government 
of  William  odious.  An  insurrection,  in  favour  of  the  dethroned 
monarch,  was  projected  both  in  England  and  Scotland  ;  and 
Lewis,  encouraged  by  favourable  accounts  from  Britain,  began 
to  prepare  for  an  invasion.  A  considerable  body  of  French 
forces,  joined  by  many  fugitive  Irish  and  Scots,  assembled  for 
the  purpose,  between  Cherbourg  and  La  Hogue,  commanded 
by  James,  while  sixty-three  ships  of  the  line  were  appointed 
to  favour  the  descent.  To  oppose  this  formidable  armament, 
a  fleet  of  99  ships  was  fitted  out,  under  the  gallant  Admiral 
Russel.    On  the  19th  of  May,  1  f^92,  the  hostile  fleets  met  off 

15 


/4(l  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPB.  [cHAf 

La  Iloijiic  A  bloody  contest  ensued  ;  victory  declared  in 
favour  of  tlie  Enfflish,  and  all  the  expectations  of  James 
vanished.  Diiriiit^  ihc  coiillici,  the  exilctl  monarch  repeatedly 
exclaimeii,  with  a  mixture  of  admiration  and  rcirret,  "See  my 
brave  Enjrlish,"  conscious,  nevertheless,  that  he  was  viewing 
the  extinction  of  his  lioj)cs.  The  projected  invasion  thus 
proving  unsuccessful,  James  returned  to  St.  (icrmain's  iu 
101)4,  where  he  spent  the  few  remaining  years  of  his  life,  in 
the  unostentatious  practice  of  die  most  exemplary  piety.  In 
awarding  to  this  well-meaning  but  misguided  monarch  the 
praise  due  to  his  many  good  qualities,  and,  above  all,  his  un- 
shaken fidelity  to  the  religion  he  had  conscientiously  embraced, 
we  are  free  to  admit  that  the  rash  zeal,  or  secret  treachery  of 
his  advisers,  often  betrayed  him  into  unconstitutional  measures, 
the  extreme  unpopularity  of  which  led  to  his  expulsion  from 
the  throne.  His  sulisequent  life  in  exili;  was  marked  by  every 
virtue,  and  he  closed  his  career,  still  honoured  by  all  as  a 
aovereign,  and  reverenced  by  many  as  a  saint. 

In  th.e  spring  of  1G92,  William  and  Lewis  set  out  on  the 
same  day  to  join  their  respective  armies.  Lewis  sat  down 
before  Namur  witii  an  army  of  30,000  men,  while  Luxem- 
bourg, with  another  army,  covered  the  siege  of  that  important 
place,  which  is  situated  at  the  conflux  of  the  Saml)re  and 
Maese.  William  advanced  to  the  relief  of  the  place  with  aij 
army  of  80,000  men,  but  failed  in  his  attempt,  and  the  town 
was  obliged  to  surrender.  To  wipe  off  this  disi{race,  Wil- 
liam endeavoured  to  surprise  the  F'ren(;!i  army,  under  Luxem- 
bourg, at  Steinkcrk.  'I'he  attack  was  chiefly  made  by  the 
British  troops.  William  and  his  Dutch  generals  failed  to 
second  the  etforls  of  those  brave  battalions.  The  English, 
thus  neglected,  and  left  to  sustain  the  whole  shock,  were 
obliged  to  uive  ground,  and  were  almost  all  cut  to  pieces. 
AI)ove  10.000  men  fell  on  both  sides  in  the  space  of  two 
hours.  William's  military  character  sutfcrcd  greatly  by  this 
batUe,  and  the  hatred  of  the  English  against  the  Dutch  became 
violent  in  llu'  hi<rhcst  dcirree.  "  Let  us  see  what  sport  these 
English  bull-dogs  wUI  make,"  was  the  cool,  sarcastical  reply 
of  (Jount  Solmes,  when  ordered  to  advance  to  the  support  of 
the  British  troops. 

In  the  mean  while,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  entered  Dauphine  ; 
ravaged  the  coimtry,  and  reduced  die  fortified  towns.  No- 
thing of  any  consequence  happened  on  the  Rhine.  Hanovei 
was  this  year  made  an  electorate  In'  the  emperor.  In  lOOSy 
Lewif^  ijx-ned  the  campaign  with  great  pomp,  in  Flanders,  a 


XXVI. 3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OP    EUR3PE.  147 

the  head  of  an  army  of  120,000  men.  He  sent  part  of  hia 
troops  into  Germany,  under  the  dauphin,  and,  leaving  to 
Luxembourg  the  conduct  of  the  military  operations  in  Flan- 
ders, returned  to  Versailles.  Luxembourg,  finding  the  allies 
unwilling  to  come  to  an  engagement,  resolved  to  attack  them 
in  their  camp.  A  desperate  batUe  was  fought  at  Neerwinden, 
(1694,)  in  which  the  French  obtained  a  signal  but  bloody 
victory.  They  were  again  victorious  on  the  side  of  Savoy, 
and  on  the  ocean.  The  glory  and  greatness  of  Lewis  XIV. 
were  now  not  only  at  their  height,  but  verging  towards  a  de- 
cline. His  resources  were  exhausted ;  his  minister,  Louvois, 
who  knew  so  well  how  to  employ  them,  was  dead ;  and 
Luxembourg,  who  had  made  France  the  terror  of  Europe, 
died  before  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign.  Lewis 
therefore  determined  to  act  merely  on  the  defensive  in 
Flanders. 

This  year  was  signalized  in  England  by  the  act  for  trien- 
nial Parliuments,  which  passed  both  Houses,  and  received 
the  royal  assent  in  November,*  also  by  the  death  of  the 
queen,  after  a  short  illness,  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  her 
age,  and  the  sixth  year  of  her  reign.  She  was  possessed 
of  a  good  understanding,  and  of  conciliating,  amiable  manners. 
Her  attachment  to  the  Protestant  religion,  and  to  the  princi- 
ples of  liberty,  gained  her  the  good-will  of  the  whigs,  who, 
on  those  considerations,  were  ready  to  overlook  the  ingratitude 
and  breach  of  filial  duty  with  which  her  character  is  stained. 

The  military  reputation  of  William,  which  had  suffered 
greatly  during  the  three  foregoing  campaigns,  was  much 
raised  by  the  retaking  of  Namur.  But  the  allies  had  litUe 
success  in  other  quarters.  On  the  side  of  Hungary  the  acces- 
sion of  Mustapha  H.  to  the  Ottoman  throne  gave  a  new  turn 
to  affairs.  He  passed  the  Danube,  stormed  Lippa,  seized  Itul, 
attacked  and  killed  Veterani,  and  dispersed  his  forces.  The 
next  campaign  produced  no  signal  event.  France  was  ex- 
hausted by  her  great  exertions,  and  most  of  the  other  powers 
seemed  heartily  tired  of  the  war.  A  congress  for  a  general 
peace,  under  the  mediation  of  Charles  XL  of  Sweden,  was  at 
last  opened  at  the  Casde  of  Ryswick,  between  Delft  and  the 
Hague.  The  taking  of  Barcelona  by  the  Duke  of  Vendome, 
induced  the  King  of  Spain  to  listen  to  the  proposals  of 
France;  and  the  emperor,  after  reproaching  his  allies  with 
deserting   him,  found  it  necessary  to  accede   to  the  treaty. 

*  A  similar  bill  had  been  extorted  from  Charles  I  ,but  repealed  soon  aftei 
the  restoration,  in  rorn')liment  to  P/horlos  IT 


148  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    ECROPE.  [cHAP 

(1697.)  The  concessions  made  by  Lewis  XIV.  were  very 
considerable,  but  the  pretensions  of  the  lioiise  of  Bourbon  to 
the  Spanish  succession  were  left  in  full  force.  It  was  stipu- 
lated that  the  French  monarch  should  acknowledge  William 
to  be  lawful  sovereign  of  England,  and  mak.e  no  further  at- 
tempt to  disturb  him  in  the  possession  of  his  kingdoms ; 
that  the  duchy  of  Luxemliourg,  Charleroy,  Mons,  &c.,  as 
well  as  the  places  taken  in  Catalonia  during  tiio  war,  should 
be  restored  to  Spain  ;  that  Fribourg,  Brisgau,  and  Philii)sbourg 
should  1)0  given  up  to  the  emperor,  and  the  duchies  of  Lor- 
raine and  liar  be  restored  to  their   native   prince. 

Scarcely  had  the  emperor  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Rys- 
wick,  when  he  received  intelligence  of  the  total  defeat  of  the 
Turks,  by  his  arms,  at  Zciila,  a  small  village  on  the  banks  of 
the  Theisse,  in  Hungary.  The  celebrated  Prince  Eugene,  of 
Savoy,  had  succeeded  the  Elector  of  Saxony  in  the  command 
of  the  Imperialist-s,  and  to  his  consummate  abilities  they  were 
indebted  for  their  extraordinary  success.  Mustapha  II.  com- 
manded his  army  in  person.  The  battle  was  of  short  dura- 
tion, but  uncommonly  bloody.  About  20,000  Turks  were 
left  dead  on  the  field,  and  10,000  were  drowned  in  the  river, 
in  endeavouring  to  avoid  the  fury  of  the  sword.  This  victory 
broke  the  spirit  of  the  Turks  ;  and  the  haughty  Musia[)ha, 
after  attempting,  during  another  campaign,  to  recover  the 
laurels  he  had  lost  at  Zcnta,  agreed  to  listen  to  proposals  of 
peace.  The  plenipotentiaries  of  the  belligerent  powers  ac- 
jordingly  met  at  (Jarlowitz,  (1090,)  and  signed  a  treaty,  in 
whii-h  it  was  stipulated  that  all  Hungary  on  this  side  thi'  Save, 
with  Transylvania  and  Sclavonia,  should  be  ceded  to  the 
house  of  Austria. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  AFFAIRS  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  RYSWICK,  TO 
THE  GRAND  ALLIANCE,  1701. 

1097. — The  first  object  which  engaged  the  general  atten- 
tion of  Europe,  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  was  the  settlement 
>f  the  Spanish  succession.  The  declinintj  health  of  Charles 
H.  gave  new  spirit  to  th(!  competitors  for  his  crown,  'i'hesc 
were  Lewis  XIV.,  the  Emperor  Leopold,  and  the  Elector  of 
IVivaria.  Lewis  and  the  emperor  were  in  the  same  deirree  of 
»nsanguinity  to  Charles  II.,  being  both  grandsons  of  Philip 


XX-Vn.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  149 

III.  The  dauphin  and  the  emperor's  eldest  son,  Joseph, 
King  of  the  Romans,  had  moreover  a  double  claim,  their 
mothers  being  two  daughters  of  Philip  IV.  Priority  of  birth 
was  claimed  by  the  house  of  Bourbon,  Lewis  and  his  son  be- 
ing descended  from  the  eldest  daughters  of  Spain ;  the  impe- 
rial family,  on  the  other  hand,  alleged  the  solemn  renunciation 
made  by  Lewis  and  his  father  to  the  Spanish  succession,  and 
their  descent  fr(  m  Maximilian,  the  common  parent  of  both 
branches  of  the  house  of  Austria.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria 
claimed  as  the  husband  of  an  archduchess,  the  only  surviving 
child  of  the  Emperor  Leopold,  by  the  Infanta  Margaret, 
second  daughter  of  Philip  IV.,  who  had  declared  Aer  descend- 
ants heirs  of  his  crown,  in  preference  to  those  of  his  eldest 
daughter,  Maria  Teresa.  The  general  interests  of  Europe 
seemed  to  require  that  the  Prince  of  Bavaria  should  succeed 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  but  his  two  competitors  were  obsti- 
nate in  their  claims.  The  body  of  the  Spanish  nation  favour- 
ed the  lineal  succession  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  ;  but  the 
queen,  who  was  a  German  princess,  supported  the  preten- 
sions of  the  emperor.  Lewis  XIV.,  sensible  that  any  attempt 
to  treat  with  the  emperor  would  be  ineffectual,  proposed  to 
the  King  of  England  a  partition  of  the  Spanish  dominions. 
To  carry  this  design  into  effect,  a  treaty  of  partition  was 
signed,  in  1698,  by  England,  Holland,  and  France.  Intelli- 
gence of  the  secret  convention  was  privately  conveyed  from 
Holland  to  Madrid.  The  Spanish  ministers  were  filled  with 
indignation,  at  finding  a  division  of  their  monarchy  made 
by  foreigners,  during  the  life  of  their  sovereign.  Charles  II 
immediately,  by  will,  constituted  the  electoral  Prince  of  Ba- 
varia his  sole  heir,  agreeably  to  the  testament  of  Philip  IV.; 
but  the  sudden  death  of  this  prince,  the  following  year,  re- 
vived all  the  former  contentions. 

While  these  disputes  agitated  the  south  and  west,  two 
extraordinary  men  were  rising  into  notice  in  the  north  of 
Europe, — Peter  I.,  of  Russia,  and  Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden. 
Peter  had  already  rendered  himself  formidable  by  the  defeat 
of  the  Turks,  in  1696,  and  the  taking  of  Asoph,  which 
opened  to  him  the  dominion  of  the  Black  Sea.  This  acqui- 
sition led  to  more  extensive  views.  He  I'esolved  to  make 
Russia  the  centre  of  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia ;  he 
projected  a  junction  of  the  Dwina,  the  Wolga,  and  the  Don 
or  Tanais,  by  means  of  canals,  thus  to  open  a  passage  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas,  and  from  these 
seas  to  the  Northern  Ocean.     He  resolved  to  build  a  city  on 

15* 


& 


150  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

•he  Ilaltic,  wliich  sliouUl  become  the  magazine  of  the  North, 
and  the  capital  of  his  extensive  empire.  Animated  by  the 
n()l)!('  anibilion  of  iiitnxhuMiiir  amont:  his  people  the  improv(>- 
niciU:>  of  other  nations,  he  (iiiillcd  iiis  doniinions  in  lO'.l?, 
laboured  as  a  journeyman  in  the  dockyards  at  Amsterdam, 
slinhed  navigation,  fortification,  and  all  the  sciences  necessary 
for  the  sovereign  of  a  liarbarous  people.  From  Holland  he 
passed  over  to  Enjrland,  wlicrc  he  was  honourably  received 
and  assisted  in  his  literary  pursuits  by  Kin^  William.  'I'he 
peace  of  Carlowitz,  cimchidod  soon  after  the  return  of  thc- 
c/ar,  alforded  him  leisure  to  prosecute  his  plans.  As  he 
wanted  a  port  on  the  Baltic,  he  resolved  to  make  himself 
master  of  llif  province  of  In^ria,  N.  E.  of  Livonia,  which 
had  Ibrmerly  been  in  the  possession  of  his  ancestors.  With 
this  view  he  entered  into  a  league  against  Sweden,  with  Fre- 
deric Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  succeeded 
the  famous  Sobicski  on  the  throne  of  Poland.  The  war 
was  begun  by  the  King  of  Denmark,  who,  contrary  to 
the  faitli  of  treaties,  invaded  the  territories  of  the  Duke  of 
Holstein  Gottorp,  brother-in-law  to  Charles  XII.,  and  after 
taking  sonic  incoiisiderai)lc  jdaces,  invested  Toimingen,  in 
1705,  while  the  Russians,  Poles,  and  Saxons  entered  Livonia 
and  Inirria.  The  moment  f/liarlcs  was  inff)rme(l  of  the  inva- 
sion of  llolslein,  he  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  Denmark. 
He  accordingly  left  his  capital,  never  to  return  thither,  and 
embarked  with  his  troops  at  ('arlscroon,  having  appointed  a 
coun<-il  from  among  the  senate,  to  regulate  his  afl'airs  during 
his  absence.  The  Swedish  fleet  was  joined,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  soun<l,  by  a  squadron  of  English  and  Dutch  men-of 
war.  The  Danish  fleet,  unalile  to  face  the  eneiiiv,  retired 
umler  the  guns  of  C'oj)enhagen,  which  was  Ijondiarded,  and 
the  King  of  Denmark,  who  had  failed  in  his  attempt  upon 
Tonniniifen,  was  cooped  »ip  in  Holstein  by  the  Swedish  fri- 
gates. In  this  critical  season,  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the 
young  King  of  Sweden  suggested  to  him  the  means  of  finish- 
ing the  war  at  a  blow.  He  proposed  to  besiege  Copenhagen  by 
land,  while  the  coinliined  fleet  blocked  it  up  by  sea.  Impatient 
to  reach  the  shore,  he  leaped  into  the  sea,  sword  in  hand,  and 
being  followed  by  all  his  officers  and  soldiers,  quickly  put  to 
flight  the  Danish  troops  who  alteinpted  to  opjxtse  their  land- 
ing. Charles,  who  bad  never  before  l)een  present  at  a  getier:il 
iliscnarge  of  musketfl  loaded  with  ball,  asked  Major  Stuart 
what  occasioned  the  whistling  which  he  henrd  :  "It  is  the 
iound  of   the    bullets,"   said   the    major,   "which    they   fire 


XXVII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  151 

against  your  majesty."  " 'Tis  well,"  said  the  rAng;  "this 
shall  henceforth  be  my  music."  The  citizens  of  Copenhagen, 
filled  with  consternation,  sent  a  deputation  to  Charles,  be- 
seeching him  not  to  bombard  the  town.  In  the  mean  time 
the  King  of  Denmark  was  in  the  most  perilous  situation ; 
pressed  by  land  on  one  side,  and  confined  by  sea  on  the 
other.  Tlie  Swedes  were  in  the  heart  of  his  dominions,  and 
his  capital  and  fleet  were  both  ready  to  fall  into  their  hands. 
He  could  derive  no  hopes  but  from  submission.  The  King 
of  England  ofl'ered  his  mediation,  and  a  treaty  highly  honour- 
able to  Charles  was  concluded  at  Travendal,  between  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Holstein,  to  the  exclusion  of  Russia  and 
Poland. 

In  1700  died  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  last  king  of  the  eldest 
Austrian  branch,  after  having,  by  a  second  will,  appointed  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  the  dauphin,  his  successor  in 
all  his  dominions.  Lewis  XIV.  accepted  the  will,  and  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  with  the  universal  consent  of  the  Spanish  na- 
tion, was  crowned  at  Madrid,  under  the  name  of  Philip  V. 
War  was  now  become  inevitable.  The  securing  of  commerce 
and  of  barriers,  the  preventing  a  union  of  the  two  powerful 
monarchies  of  France  and  Spain  in  any  future  period,  and  the 
preserving  in  some  degree  an  equilibrium  of  power,  were  mat- 
ters of  too  much  importance  to  Europe  in  general,  to  be  rested  on 
the  moderation  of  the  French.  The  vigorous  steps,  however, 
taken  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  induced  William  to  come 
to  an  accommodation  with  Lewis,  but  the  emperor  continued 
to  dispute  the  title  of  Philip  V.  He  sent  an  army  of  30,000 
men  into  Italy  under  Prince  Eugene,  to  take  possession  of  the 
Duchy  of  Milan  as  a  fief  of  the  empire :  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
favoured  the  Imperialists,  and  the  French  were  repulsed  with 
great  loss.  Leopold  had  already  secured  the  concurrence  of 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  by  dignifying  him  with  the  title 
of  King  of  Prussia.  Such  was  the  posture  of  afl^airs  when  the 
famous  treaty  called  the  Grand  JlUiaace  was  signed  by  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  emperor,  the  King  of  England,  and 
the  States-Cxeneral  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  avowed 
objects  of  the  treaty  were,  to  procure  satisfaction  to  the 
emperor ;  to  obtain  security  to  the  English  and  Dutch,  for  their 
dominions  and  commerce  ;  to  prevent  the  union  of  France  and 
Spain,  and  to  hinder  the  French  from  possessing  the  Spanish 
dominions  in  America.  WhUe  this  confederacy  was  forming, 
the  nortli-east  quarter  of  Europe  was  deeply  involved  in  blood. 
Charles  XII.  no  sooner  raised  the  siege  of  Copenhagen,  than 


152  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  fcHAP. 

he  turned  his  arms  ajrainst  the  Russians,  wlio  had  undertaken 
the  siege  of  Narva  with  80,000  men.  (,'harles  advanced  to 
its  relief,  forced  the  enlrencliinents  of  tlu;  Russians  with  only 
8000  men,  and  entered  Narva  in  triumph.  The  followinf^ 
spriuff,  1701,  lie  entered  liivonia,  and  ap|)eare(l  in  llie  neigh- 
bourhood of  l{i<ia,  which  the  Kins^  of  Poland  had  in  vain  be- 
sieged the  preceding  campaign.  The  Poles  ami  Saxons  were 
posted  along  the  Uwina,  which  is  very  broad  in  that  place, 
and  Charles  was  under  the  necessity  of  forcing  a  passage. 
This  he  effected,  ihouirh  with  much  difhculty,  tiie  Swedes  i)e- 
in<j  driven  back  into  the  river  after  they  liad  formed  themselves 
upon  the  land :  their  young  king  rallied  them  in  the  water, 
and  led  them  into  the  plain,  where  a  general  enuagement  en- 
sued, and  tlie  Swedes  obtained  a  complete,  l)ul  bloody  victory. 
He  next  advanced  to  Mittau,  the  capital  of  Courland,  which, 
with  all  the  towns  of  that  duchy,  submitted  at  discretion. 
From  Courland  he  passed  into  Lithuania,  conquering  every 
thing  in  his  progress.  He  is  said  to  have  expressed  a  particu- 
lar satisfaction,  when  he  entered  in  triumph  the  town  of  iJirzen, 
where  Auirustus,  King  of  Poland,  and  tlie  Czar  Peter  had 
planned  liis  destruction  but  a  few  months  before.  It  was  here 
that,  under  the  stimulating  influence  of  resentment,  he  formed 
the  irreat  project  of  dethroning  Augustus,  by  means  of  his  own 
subjects 


CHAPTER  XXVHI. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  BEOINMNO  OF  THE  GENERAL  WAR,  IN  1701, 
TO  TIIE  UNION  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND,  IN   1706. 

1701. — Soon  after  the  signing  of  the  Grand  Alliance,  James 
H.  died  at  St.  Germain,  and  Lewis  XIV,,  in  violation  of  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick,  acknowledged  the  son  of  that  unfortunate 
monarch  Kin^  of  Great  llritain  and  Ireland,  under  the  tide  of 
James  III.  The  Marquis  dc  Torcy  attempted  to  apoloijize  to 
the  King  of  F%nLrland  for  this  step  of  his  master,  bit  VV^illiam 
thought  the  alfrout  too  great  to  l>e  borne.  He  recaMed  his  am- 
bassador from  France,  and  ordered  the  French  envoy  to  quit 
his  dominions.  The  f-'uLdish  Parliament  entered  warmlv  into 
his  views,  and  voted  forty  thousand  men  for  land  service 
agreeably  to  the  terms  of  the  (irand  Alliance.  William  was 
m  iking  vast  preparations  for  opening  the  ensuing  campaign, 
when  a  fall  from  his  horse  threw  him  into  a  fever,  which  put 


XXVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    ETTROPE.  153 

a  period  to  his  life.  (1702.)  His  rei^n,  though  lenient  in 
many  respects,  was  nevertheless  distinguished  by  several  very 
severe  acts  passed  against  the  Catholics.  Banishment  was 
inflicted  upon  all  priests  and  schoolmasters,  and  perpetual  im- 
prisonment in  case  of  a  return.  No  Catholic  born  after  March, 
1700,  could  inherit  either  tide  or  estate,  purchase  lands?,  &c.* 

The  quiet  accession  of  Anne,  only  surviving  daughter  of 
James  II.,  and  the  early  declaration  of  her  resolution  to  pur- 
sue the  objects  of  the  Grand  Alliance,  revived  the  spirits 
of  the  confederates.  Lord  Godolphin  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  treasury;  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  was  appoint- 
ed commander-in-chief  of  the  English  forces  in  Flanders, 
and  immediately  despatched  to  Holland.  All  the  allies  en- 
gaged with  alacrity  to  furnish  their  several  quotas,  and  war 
against  France  was  declared  on  the  same  day  at  London,  the 
Hague,  and  Vienna.  The  first  campaign,  however,  Avas  not 
distinguished  by  any  great  event.  In  the  beginning  of  1703, 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Peter  II.  of  Portugal,  united  themselves 
to  the  confederates.  To  the  defection  of  these  two  princes 
the  French  ascribed  their  subsequent  misfortunes  in  the  war. 
Lewis  XIV.,  however,  made  great  preparations  for  opening  the 
next  campaign,  and  was  by  no  means  wanting  in  success. 
Marshal  Villars  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Imperialists 
in  the  plains  of  Hockstedt.  The  victorious  army  put  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  in  possession  of  Augsburg,  and  the  road  to 
Vienna  being  thus  laid  open,  the  emperor  trembled  in  his 
capital.  In  Italy,  where  Staremburg  commanded  for  the  em- 
peror, the  Duke  of  Vendome  reduced  Barsillio  and  took 
possession  of  the  duchy  of  Modena.  The  allies  were  more 
successful  in  the  Netherlands,  but  their  acquisitions  by  no 
means  balanced  the  advantages  of  the  enemy  in  other  quarters. 
The  emperor,  however,  emboldened  by  the  alliance  of  Portu- 
gal, from  which  a  passage  might  be  opened  into  the  disputed 
kingdom,  made  his  second  son,  Charles,  assume  the  title  of 
King  of  Spain,  and  the  archduke  immediately  set  out  for  the 
Hague  ;  from  thence  he  passed  into  England,  and  was  con- 
ducted to  Lisbon  by  a  powerful  fleet,  having  on  board  a  con- 
siderable body  of  land  forces. 

While  the  Queen  of  England  was  exerting  herself  with  so 
much  vigour  in  a  foreign  quarrel,  in  which  her  subjects  were 
little  interested,  the  greatest  disorders  prevailed  in  her  own 
dominions.     The  ferment  in  Scotland,  occasioned  by  the  mis- 

*  The  first  act  of  indulgence  showed  to  Catholics  in  the  reign  of  George 
III   was  the  repeal  of  this  act.   (1778.) 


154  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  [CUAP 

carriaire  of  the  settlcinenl  at  Darirn,*  had  iievor  yot  fully  sub- 
sided ;  and  allhouijh  that  kiimdoin  readily  ackuowiedfjed  the 
queen's  authority,  tlie  hottest  jealousies  tliere  prevailed,  among 
all  ranks  of  men,  respectinir  the  independency  of  their  crown, 
and  the  freedoni  of  their  commerce.  Nor  was  the  Euiiflish 
nation  free  from  discontents.  'I'iie  tpieen  had  roused  the  re- 
sentment of  the  whiijs  hy  throwint,';  liersclf  into  tlie  hands  of  the 
lories,  who,  conjeclurinif  that  she  must  naturally  be  disposed 
to  favour  the  succession  of  her  brollier,  held  a  secret  corres- 
pondence with  the  court  of  St.  Germain,  where  hopes  were 
even  entertained  of  a  repe:d  of  the  act  of  settlement. 

1704. — As  the  success  of  the  two  foreijoing  campaigns,  hy 
making  the  allies  masters  of  the  Maese  and  Spanish  (Judder 
land,  had  provided  a  stronjr  harrier  for  the  United  Provinces 
Marll)orought  proposed  to  march  into  the  heart  of  Germany, 
in  order  to  protect  the  emperor,  now  almost  besieged  in  Ins 
capital  bv  the  Hunirarian  malcontents  on  one  side,  and  by  ihe 
French  and  Bavarians  on  the  other.  lie  ordered  the  Confe- 
derates to  advance  towards  Coblcntz,  where  he  joined  them. 
Crossing  the  Rhine  at  that  place,  and  successively  the  .Maine 
and  Nei^ker,  he  was  met  by  i'rince  Eugene,  at  Mondelsiieim. 
After  the  junction  of  the  two  armies,  they  proceeded  towards 

•  The  Scots,  agreeably  to  powers  cjranted  by  William  HI.  to  his  com- 
missioner, and  confirmed  by  letters  patent,  had  i)lanled,  in  IG89,  a  colony 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  founded  a  settlement,  to  which  they  ijave 
the  name  of  New  Edinliursh.  Its  vicinity  to  I'orto  Hello  and  (.'arlh;ii;etia, 
alarmed  the  court  of  Madrid,  wh^i  made  warm  remonstrances  to  the  LIni;lish 
government  on  the  subject.  VVillinin,  therefore,  ordt'red  the  governors  of 
the  English  settlements  to  hold  no  communication  with  them ;  and,  thus  de- 
prived of  provisions,  ami  all  sup[iort  in  .\merica,  the  Scottish  settlers  were 
obliged  to  surrender  to  the  Spanish. 

-f  (Jf'neral  ("liurchill  was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  .lames  II.,  and  created 
Earl  of  .Vlarlbonmgh  by  William,  but  was  afterwards  confine*!  to  the  Towor 
on  a  HURpicion  of  Jacobitism.  Under  Anne,  he  may  be  said  to  have  go- 
verned the  kingdom,  through  the  influence  of  his  countess,  a  woman  of  a 
bold,  intriguing  spirit;  she  was  afterwards  sup|ilanted  in  the  (|ueen's  alTec- 
tionn  by  .Mrs.  .Masham,  a  relative,  who  had  been  raised  by  her  l"rom  a  state 
of  dejKnidencc.  Marlborough  was  created  a  duke,  by  Queen  .\niie,  and 
after  gaining  the  bailie  of  HIerdieim,  was  presented  by  her  majesty  with 
the  manor  of  Woodstock,  in  which  she  ordered  HIenheim  castle  to  l)e  built 
for  him.  He  received  ihe  thanks  of  I'arliament,  during  ten  victorious  cam- 
paigns, yet  lived  to  liecomc  the  object  of  jealousy  and  parliamentary  cen- 
burc;  and  <m  the  change  of  ministry  wasdismi.'sed  from  all  his  employments. 
After  his  disgrace  he  retired  to  the  Low  C'oui. tries,  where  he  was  received 
with  the  grealest  honours.  He  relumed  to  England  some  months  Iwfore 
the  queen's  death,  and  again  enjove^l  royal  favoui  on  the  accession  of 
Ucorge  I.     He  died  in  17'J2,  aged  73. 


JCXVII1.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  155 

Ingolstcult.  The  opposing  forces  were  now  nearly  equal, 
each  consisting  of  about  80,000  men.  The  French  and  Ba\a- 
rians  were  advantageously  posted  near  the  village  of  Blenheim. 
A  desperate  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  French  and  Bavarians 
lost  near  40,000  men,  including  killed  and  taken.  Every 
trophy  that  can  distinguish  a  complete  triumph,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors.  No  modern  victory,  between  disci- 
plined armies,  was  ever  more  decisive  than  that  of  Blenheim: 
none  could  be  followed  by  more  important  consequences. 
The  emperor  was  relieved  from  his  fears,  the  Hungarian  mal- 
contents were  overawed,  and  the  conquests  and  dominions  of 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria  fell  at  once  into  the  hands  of  Leopold. 
Broken,  ruined,  and  dispersed,  the  forces  of  Lewis  XIV.  left 
an  uninterrupted  march  to  the  confederates  from  the  Danul)e 
to  the  Rliine ;  and  the  remnant  of  that  army,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season  had  spread  terror  to  the  gates  of  Vi- 
enna, was  obliged  to  take  shelter  within  the  frontiers  of  France. 
The  victors  crossed  the  Rhine,  they  entered  Alsace ;  and  the 
important  fortresses  of  Landau  and  Trierbach  surrendered  to 
them  before  the  close  of  the  campaign.  On  the  side  of  Portu- 
gal, the  archduke,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III., 
was  unable  to  make  any  progress  ;  but  Philip  V.  carried  the 
war  into  Portugal,  and  took  several  places.  The  operations 
at  sea,  this  memorable  year,  were  of  great  importance.  Tlie 
combined  fleet  of  England  and  Holland,  which  carried  the 
archduke  to  Lisbon,  having  failed  in  an  attempt  upon  Barcelo- 
na, appeared  before  Gibraltar;  and  that  strong  fortress,  hi- 
therto deemed  impregnable,  was  taken  at  the  first  assault. 
Astonished  at  the  intrepidity  of  the  English  sailors,  who 
ascended  the  mole  sword  in  hand,  the  governor  immediately 
surrendered  the  place. 

1705. — Lewis  XIV.  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree  that 
Christian  fortitude  which  enables  the  soul  to  bear  misfortunes 
with  composure  and  resignation.  Though  accustomed  to 
victory,  he  received  the  intelligence  of  the  ruin  of  his  army 
at  Blenheim  without  any  marks  of  confusion,  and  took  the 
most  vigorous  steps  for  repairing  his  loss,  as  well  as  for  check- 
ing the  progress  of  the  victorious  enemy.  Understanding 
that  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  intended  next  campaign  to 
carry  the  war  by  the  Moselle,  into  the  heart  of  his  dominions, 
he  assembled  on  that  side  an  army  of  70,000  men,  under 
Villars,  whose  conduct  was  so  masterly,  that  he  prevented 
Marlborough  from  eff'ecting  any  enterprise  of  consequence 
during  the  whole  campaign.    The  death  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 


150  OENKRAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

pi)l(l  iiiadi!  no  rliaiii^c  in  iIk?  oporalions  of  the  war,  tlioiiirh 
his  son  ami  successor,  Joseph,  was  considered  as  a  j)rince  of 
frreatcr  viponr  and  al)ilities.  In  Italy  the  French  maintained 
theirsupcriority.  The  Duke  of  Vendoine  took  V  lUa  Franca  and 
Veru  ;  he  rei)ulse(l  tlie  Iniperialisls  uniier  Prince  Kufrene,  and 
Victor  Aniadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  obliged  to  shut  himself 
up  in  Turin.  The  Confederates  were  more  successfid  in  Spain. 
Ttie  fortresses  of  Lerida  and  Torlosa  were  yielded  wiUiout  a 
hlow  ;  Barcelona  was  oblifred  to  surrender,  with  almost  the 
whole  kiuLi^dom  of  Valencia,  as  well  as  the  province  of  Catalo- 
nia. In  17(t(),  the  allied  army,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  gained  the  celebrated  battle  of  Kami- 
lies.  The  total  conquest  of  Brabant,  and  almost  all  Spanish 
Flanders,  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  this  victory. 
Louvain,  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Client,  Oudenarde,  and  other 
places,  surrendered  at  discretion.  Ostend,  so  famous  for  its 
lonijsien-o  in  the  last  century,  put  the  first  stop  to  the  progress 
of  the  Confederates.  It  was,  however,  forced  to  capitulate,  after 
a  siege  of  ten  days.  To  repair  these  losses,  Lewis  ordered  the 
Duke  of  Feuillade  to  besiege  Turin  ;  but  Eugene  advanced  to  its 
relief,  routed  and  dispersed  the  whole  army,  ami  the  house  of 
Bourlxm  lust,  at  one  blow,  the  duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua, 
the  principality  of  Piedmont,  and  eventually  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  In  Spain,  the  English  and  Portuguese  armies  j)ene- 
trateil  even  to  Madrid  ;  and  Philip  V.  was  obliged  to  remove 
with  his  court  to  Burgos. 

During  these  transactions  in  the  south  and  west  of  Europe, 
the  all'airs  of  the  north  and  east  had  undergone  a  considerable 
change.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  burning  with  revenge, 
oi)stinately  refused  to  listen  to  any  accommodation,  and  an- 
swered the  Polish  deputies  that  he  would  colder  with  tlu^m 
at  Warsaw.  He  accordingly  marched  towards  that  capital, 
and  declared  he  would  never  grant  peace  to  the  Poles  till  they 
had  elected  a  new  kinti.  Auiiust\is,  on  receiving  this  intelli- 
gence, saw  he  must  either  relin(iuish  his  crown,  or  preserve 
it  by  force  of  arms.  The  contending  kings  met  in  a  spacioui 
plain  near  Clissaw,  between  Warsaw  and  Oacow.  Charles 
gained  a  comi)lel«;  victory,  with  all  the  honours  that  could  at- 
tend it.  He  halted  not  a  moment  on  the  field  of  battle,  but 
ujarched  direct  to  ('racow,  which  surrendered  without  firing  a 
gun.  Havinir  received  a  strong  reinforcement  from  Pomcra 
nia,  he  marched  against  the  remains  of  tiie  Saxon  army,  came 
tip  with  them  ntiar  Pnllansh,  and  soon  roul«'il  and  dis|)ersed 
them.      Augustus    retired    to   Thorn,   an   aiirieut   cit}    on   the 


XXVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  157 

Vistula.  Cliarles  followed  him  and  " besieged  the  place;  i* 
surrendered  witliin  a  month,  but  Augustus  liad  found  means 
to  escape  into  Saxony.  It  was  the  intention  of  the  King  of 
Sweden,  and  the  wish  of  the  diet,  to  raise  to  the  throne  James 
So])ieski,  eldest  son  of  the  late  king ;  but  that  prince  being 
taken  prisoner,  together  with  his  second  brother,  Constantine, 
by  a  party  of  Saxon  dragoons,  the  crown  of  Poland  was  of- 
fered to  a  younger  brother,  named  Alexander,  who  generously 
rejected  it.  Nothing,  he  said,  should  ever  induce  him  to 
take  advantage  of  the  misfortune  of  his  elder  brothers  ;  and  he 
entreated  Charles  to  employ  his  victorious  arms  in  restoring 
liberty  to  the  unhappy  captives.  This  circumstance  having 
disconcerted  the  measures  of  the  Swedish  monarch,  his  mi- 
nister. Count  Piper,  advised  Charles  to  take  the  crown  of  Po- 
land to  himself;  but  that  romantic  hero  answered,  that  he  had 
more  pleasure  in  giving  away,  than  in  conquering  kingdoms. 
He  accordingly  recommended  to  the  Polish  diet  Stanislaus 
Leczinski,  Palatine  of  Bavaria,  who  was  immediately  raised 
to  the  throne. 

While  Charles  XII.  was  thus  imposing  a  king  on  the  van- 
quished Poles,  and  the  Danish  monarch  durst  not  presume  to 
create  any  disturbance  ;  while  the  new  King  of  Prussia  court- 
ed his  friendship,  and  his  antagonist,  Augustus,  was  forced  to 
take  refuge  in  his  hereditary  dominions,  the  Czar  Peter  was 
growing  every  day  more  formidable.  He  had  made  a  power- 
ful diversion  in  favour  of  Augustus.  He  took  Norva  by  as- 
sault, in  1704,  after  a  regular  siege.  He  was  at  the  same 
time  carrying  on  the  building  of  his  future  capital,  Petersburg 
That  city  is  situated  between  Finland  and  Ingria,  in  a  marshy 
island  around  which  the  Neva  divides  itself  into  several 
branches  before  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  In  1703, 
Peter  had  drawn  thither  300,000  men  to  labour  in  this  greai; 
work  While  the  czar  was  employed  in  creating  as  it  were 
a  new  people,  he  still  held  out  a  helping  hand  to  the  fugitive 
Augustus,  who  had  again  found  his  way  into  Poland,  had 
retaken  Warsaw,  and  been  obliged  a  second  time  to  aban- 
don it. 

In  1705,  Peter  sent  60,000  Russians  to  his  assistance :  but 
the  King  of  Sweden  was  attended  by  his  usual  good  fortune, 
the  effect  of  his  active  and  enterprising  spirit.  The  Russian 
armies  were  attacked  and  defeated  so  fast,  that  the  last  was 
routed  before  it  had  heard  of  the  defeat  of  the  first.  Nothing 
could  stop  the  progress  of  the  Swedes,  or  equal  their  celerity 
If  a  river  inte/posed,  thev  swam  across  it;  and  Charles,  at  the 

16 


168  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAH. 

head  of  his  cavalry,  marclieil  lliirtv  Irajnios  in  twontv-four 
hours.  Struck  with  terror,  the  Ru-sians  retired  heyoiid  tho 
Boristhenes,  leaving  Augustus  to  his  fate.  In  the  mean  time, 
Schiillemhurg,  having  repassed  the  Oder,  olTcred  battle  to  Ma- 
rcschal  Uenchild,  who  was  reckoned  the  King  of  Sweden's 
best  general,  and  called  the  Parmenio  of  the  Alexander  of  the 
North.  The  Russians,  though  double  the  number  of  the 
Swedes,  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  To  relieve  Po- 
land, Charles  now  desired  to  remove  the  scene  of  war  into 
the  hereditary  dominions  of  Augustus,  and  accordingly  direct- 
ed his  march  towards  Silesia,  passed  the  Oder,  entered  Saxony, 
and  pitched  his  camp  at  Alt  Ramsladt,  near  the  j)lains  of  Lut- 
zen.  Augustus,  unable  any  longer  to  contend  with  such  an 
adversary,  sued  for  peace,  but  could  only  olitain  it  on  proniis 
ing  to  renounce  forever  all  |)retensi(ui.s  to  the  crown  of  I'oland, 
and  acknowledging  Stanislaus  lawful  sovereign  of  that  king- 
dom. 

In  1706,  Lewis  XIV.  madevcry  advantageous  offers  of  peace, 
but  they  were  rejected ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  conclude  no  treaty 
with  the  house  of  Bourbon  while  a  prince  of  that  family  sai 
on  the  throne  of  Spain.  'J'his  year  was  siirnalized  by  the 
union  of  England  and  Scotland  under  one  legislature  ;  a  union 
which  had  been  often  attempted  in  vain,  and  was  at  last  ac- 
complished after  lont;  and  warm  dcliates  between  the  commis- 
sioners of  the  two  kingdoms.  In  consequence  of  this  famous 
treaty,  both  kingdoms  were  to  form  but  one,  by  the  name  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  succession  to  the  United  Kinjjdom  was 
fixed  to  the  person  and  successors  of  the  Princess  Sophia, 
Duchess-dowager  of  Hanover,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the 
Catholic  descendants  of  the  house  of  Stuart. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  1706,  TO  TMF,  CONFER- 
ENCES HELD  AT  GERTRUVDENBKRO,  IN  1710. 

1707. — Tin:  French  troops,  to  the  number  of  l.^),000,  being 
obliged  to  evacuate  IiOml)ardy,  by  a  capitulation  signed  in  the 
beginning  of  March,  were  despatched  to  the  assistance  of 
Pliilip  v.  ."Miidcna  and  Milan  surrendi'red  successively  to  the 
alli(;s  ;  the  whole  kingdom  of  Naples  was  reduced,  and  the  few 
places  still  held  by  tlie  French  or  Spanish  garrisons,  fell  one 


XXIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  159 

by  one  before  the  close  of  the  campaign.  In  Spain,  the 
fortune  of  the  war  was  very  different:  the  allies  received  a 
dreadful  overthrow  at  Alnianza,  from  the  united  armies  of 
France  and  Spain,  under  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  who,  follow- 
ing up  the  advantage  thus  obtained,  soon  recovered  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Valencia,  and,  marching  into  Arragon,  took  the 
cities  of  Saragossa  and  Lerida.  Nor  did  the  affairs  of  the 
confederates  wear  a  more  favourable  aspect  in  Germany. 
Marsl  al  Villars  laid  the  duchy  of  Wirtemberg  under  contri- 
bution, and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Danube :  nor  was  the 
superiority  of  the  French  the  only  thing  the  empire  had  to 
fear.  Charles  XII.,  who  had  remained  in  Saxony  during  the 
winter,  found  some  pretence  for  quarrelling  with  the  court  of 
Vienna.  From  complaints  he  proceeded  to  demands,  which 
he  continued  to  urge  with  an  obstinacy  suitable  to  his  charac- 
ter. The  Queen  of  England,  afraid  that  the  pride  of  Joseph 
might  overcome  his  attention  to  the  interests  of  the  allies, 
ordered  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  to  repair  to  Saxony,  and 
attempt  to  soothe  the  King  of  Sweden.  Marlborough,  who 
was  no  less  a  statesman  and  courtier  than  a  general,  and  who 
had  acquired  by  a  long  course  of  experience  the  art  of  diving 
into  the  character  of  men,  soon  discovered  the  inclinations  and 
views  of  the  King  of  Sweden.  In  the  pleasure  with  which  he 
talked  of  the  views  of  the  allies,  Marlborough  perceived  his 
aversion  to  France;  while  the  kindling  of  his  eye  at  the  name 
of  the  czar,  and  a  map  of  Russia  lying  on  the  table,  made  this 
politician  acquainted  with  the  designs  of  Charles.  He  there- 
fore took  leave  without  making  him  any  proposals,  sensible  that 
his  disputes  with  the  emperor  could  be  easily  accommodated, 
as  all  his  demands  would  be  granted.  England  and  Holland 
accordingly  guarantied  the  promises  of  the  court  of  Vienna; 
and  tiie  czar  having  entered  Poland,  the  King  of  Sweden  re- 
passed the  Oder  in  quest  of  new  victories. 

In  1708,  the  allies  gained  the  battle  of  Oudenarde ;  took 
Lisle,  after  an  obstinate  siege;  as  also  Ghent  and  Bruges,  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  campaign.  A  variety  of  circumstances,  a 
famine  ir,  France,  discontent  and  disunion  among  the  servants 
of  the  crown,  induced  Lewis  to  offer  terms  of  peace,  at  once 
adequate  to  the  success  of  his  enemies,  and  suitable  to  the 
melancholy  situation  of  his  own  affairs.  He  agreed  to  yield 
the  whole  Spanish  monarchy  to  the  house  of  Austria;  to  give 
a  barrier  to  Holland ;  to  acknowledge  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg as  King  of  Prussia,  the  Duke  of  Hanover  as  ninth  elector 
of  the  empire  ;  to  own  the  right  of  Queen  Anne  to  the  British 


160  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAP. 

throne,  ami  to  restore  every  thing  taken  in  the  war.  Hut  these 
terms,  thou<rh  so  aclvanlaireous,  were  rf^ected  l)y  Ma.lborough, 
Eugene,  and  the  pensionary  Ileinsius.  Lewis  tl:en  threw 
himself  upon  his  peoph*,  and  exphiined  his  own  ample  con- 
cessions, and  the  haughty  terms  proposed  by  tlic  allies.  The 
pride  of  the  French  nation  was  rotised.  'I'hey  resolved  to 
make  new  efTorts  in  support  of  their  huml)led  monarch.  In 
the  following  cainpaiiin,  1709,  the  allies  took  Tournay  and 
Mons,  and  boasted  of  the  victory  of  Malplaqiiet,  althoujrh  m 
effect  they  gained  litde  beside  the  field  of  battle,  and  that  they 
pnrchased  with  the  lives  of  20,000  men.  The  French  did  not 
lose  above  half  the  number.  Though  the  misfortunes  of 
France  during  this  campaign  were  by  no  means  so  depressing 
as  she  had  reason  to  apprehend,  Lewis  XIV.  renewed  his  ap- 
plications for  peace,  and  conferences  were  appointed  at  (Jer- 
truydenburg,  to  adjust  the  terms.  Hut  before  we  enter  into 
the  particulars  of  that  neirotiation,  it  will  be  proper  to  carry 
forward  the  story  of  Charles  XIL  and  his  antagonist,  Peter 
the  Great. 

The  King  of  Sweden  liaving  quitted  Saxony,  in  1707,  and 
returned  at  the  head  of  13,000  men,  to  Poland,  forced  die  czar 
to  retire,  on  his  approach,  towards  the  Boristhenes  or  Nieper. 
Charles  being  determined  to  come  to  an  engagement,  followed 
him  by  forced  marches  to  the  borders  of  his  own  dominions. 
Peter  then  sent  serious  proposals  of  peace  to  Charles.  "I 
will  treat  at  Moscow,"  said  the  Swedish  monarch.  "  My 
brother  ('harles,"  replied  the  czar,  when  informed  of  thi;* 
haughty  answer,  "always  afFecls  to  play  the  Alexander;  bu» 
he  will  not,  I  hope,  find  in  me  a  Darius."  The  czar  imme- 
diately destroyed  all  tlie  roads,  and  desolated  the  country  lead- 
ing to  Moscow.  Charles,  thus  thwarted  in  his  favourite 
projectof  proceeding  thither  straight,  resolved  to  make  himself 
a  passage  through  the  Ukraine.  In  this  mad  march,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  see  2.000  of  his  men  perish  of  cold  and  hun- 
ger; yet  he  still  pressed  forward,  and,  after  a  variety  of 
obstructions  and  delays,  occasioned  by  the  hovering  parties 
of  the  enemy,  and  the  most  intcsnse  frost  ever  known  in  those 
northern  regions,  he  arrived,  in  1709,  in  the  n(Mghl)ourhood  of 
Pultowa,  a  small  Russian  town,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  Ukraine,  on  the  river  Worshlau.  Pidtowa  was  strongly 
garrisoned,  and  the  czar  lay  at  no  irreat  distance,  with  an  army 
of  70,000  men;  yet  ('harles  obstinately  persisted  in  his  desiirn 
of  investing  the  town  with  his  half-famish('d  army,  mow  reduced 
to  27.000  men.      The  garrison  bravelv  re|ielled  the  assault,  and 


XXX.^  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  161 

the  King  of  Sweden  was  wounded  as  he  was  viewing  the 
works.  Meanwhile,  the  czar  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Pultowa ; 
Charles  could  not  bear  the  thought  of  waiting  for  his  enemy  ;  he 
rashly  advanced  to  meet  him,  and  ordered  his  army  to  attack  the 
Russian  camp.  The  Swedes  charged  with  incredible  fury,  but 
after  a  desperate  combat  of  two  hours,  they  were  utterly  routed 
and  dispersed:  9000  of  the  vanquished  were  left  dead  in  the  field, 
600O  were  taken,  together  with  the  king's  military  chest,  contain- 
ing the  spoils  of  Poland  and  Saxony.  The  remaining  12,000 
men  were  obliged  to  surrender  on  the  banks  of  the  Boristhenes, 
for  want  of  boats  to  carry  them  over  the  river.  Charles  him- 
self, accompanied  by  300  of  his  guards,  with  difficulty  escaped 
to  Bender,  a  Turkish  town  in  Moldavia.  No  victory  could 
be  attended  with  more  important  consequences  than  that 
gained  by  Peter  the  Great,  at  Pultowa.  The  King  of  Sweden 
lost  in  one  day  the  fruits  of  nine  years'  success  in  war,  and 
that  veteran  army,  which  had  spread  terror  over  Europe,  was 
totally  annihilated.  The  czar  was  not  only  relieved  of  his 
apprehensions,  but  enabled  to  forward  his  plans  of  improve- 
ment, by  means  of  the  industry  and  ingenuity  of  his  Swedish 
prisoners,  whom  necessity  obliged  to  exert  their  talents  in  the 
most  remote  parts  of  Siberia.  The  Elector  of  Saxony,  hear- 
ing of  the  defeat  of  his  conqueror,  protested  against  the  treaty 
of  Alt  Ranstadt,  as  having  been  extorted  from  him  by  force, 
and  re-entered  Poland.  Peter  revived  the  ancient  pretensions 
of  the  czars  to  Livonia,  Ingria,  Carelia,  and  part  of  Finland ; 
Denmark  laid  claim  to  Scania  ;  the  King  of  Prussia  to  Pomera- 
nia ;  and  had  not  the  emperor  and  the  maritime  powers  inter- 
posed, the  Swedish  monarchy  would  have  been  rent  to  pieces. 
During  these  transactions  Charles  XII,  remained  at  Bender, 
where  he  endeavoured  to  engage  the  Turks  in  a  war  with 
Russia. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE  AFFAIRS  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  1710,  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  QUEEN 

ANNE, 1714. 

1710. — The   confederates    rising  in  their   demands   upon 
Lewis  XIV.,  he  judged  it  impossible  to  submit  to  their  insoleni 
terms,  and  yet  was  unwilling  to  break  off  ;,he  treaty.     The 
conferences  at  Gertruydenberg  were  therefore  idly  protracted 
while  the  armies  on  both  sides  took  the  field.     The  campaigi. 

16* 


162  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CJIAP. 

of  1710  was  distinguislied  only  by  the  capture  of  some  towns 
in  I'landers  by  the  allies,  and  by  a  battle  in  Spain,  in  uhidi 
both  sides  clainicd  the  advaiilage. 

In  1711,  died  the  Kniperor  Joseph;  and  his  brulher,  die 
archduke,  who  had  so  long  contended  for  the  crown  of  Sj)ain, 
and  even  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.,  was  unanimously 
raised  to  the  imperial  dignity,  by  the  name  of  ('harh^s  VI. 
This  event,  which  entirely  changed  the  face  of  all'airs,  together 
with  the  success  of  Marshal  Villars,  in  Flanders,  where  he 
comi)lelely  routed  a  detachment  of  1  1,000  English,  under  the 
command  of  the  Earl  of  Allx-marle,  inspired  the  house  of 
Hourbon  with  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of  peace.  General 
conferences  were  aecordiiiirly  lield  at  Utrecht,  in  the  begiiining 
of  1712,  for  restoring  tranquillity  to  Euroi)e.  The  i)auj)iiiii 
of  France,  surnamed  the  Great,  having  died  the  preceding 
year,  was  succeeded  in  his  tide  by  his  eldest  son,  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy;  that  amiable  and  virtuous  prince  died  in  1712, 
to  the  inexpressible  grief  of  the  nation,  and  three  weeks  after 
was  followed  to  the  grave  by  his  son,  the  Duke  of  13ritti\ny ; 
so  tliat  there  now  stood  only  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  a  sickly 
infant,  between  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  throne  of  France. 
The  first  care  of  the  confederates,  therefore,  was  that  Pliilip 
V.  should  transfer  to  his  younger  brother,  tlic  Duke  of  IJerry, 
all  right  to  the  crown  of  France;  that  the  isle  of  Sicily  should 
be  ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  wiUi  the  tide  of  king;  that 
Spanish  (Juelderland  should  be  given  to  the  King  of  Prussia, 
in  exchanire  for  the  priiu-ipality  of  Oranire,  and  that  his  regal 
title  sluMild  be  acknowledged  ;  that  the  Kliine  should  form 
tlie  boundary  of  the  German  emjdre  on  die  side  of  France; 
that  the  kingdom  of  Naf)les,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  &.C.,  should 
be  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria,  as  also  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands ;  that  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  should  be  put  in  possession 
of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  with  the  tide  of  king  ;  that  certain 
places  in  North  America  and  the  West  Indies  shoidd  be  ceded 
or  restored  by  France  to  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  island  of 
Minorca  and  fortress  of  Gibraltar,  conquered  from  Spain, 
should  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  English.  Charles  VI. 
was  olistiuate  in  refu>ing  to  i<igu  die  general  pacification  ;  but 
fimliiiir  himself  iinable  to  bear  alone  the  weight  of  a  disastrous 
war,  his  armv  umler  Prince  Eugene  not  having  born  in  a  con- 
dition duriuir  the  w  hole  campaign  to  face  the  French  under 
Marshal  Vdlars,  who  took,  successively,  Worms,  Spire,  and 
the  fortress  of  I/iurlau,  he  canw  to  an  agreement  in  si)ring, 
'714,  to  wh''"l«  •'•«  King  of  Spain  also  assented.     The  terntfl 


XXX.]  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  163 

of  this  treaty  signed  at  Radstadt,  were  less  favourable  to  the 
emperor  than  tliose  he  had  refused  at  Utrecht. 

Pliilip  V,,  though  now  freed  from  the  arms  of  the  con- 
federates, was  by  no  means  in  quiet  possession  of  his  king- 
dom. The  Catalans  were  still  in  arms.  Vast  preparations 
were  made  for  the  reduction  of  Barcelona,  and  the  Duke  of 
Berwick  besieger^  it  by  land  and  by  sea.  After  a  vigorous 
and  diisperate  resistance,  the  town  was  taken,  and  all  Catalonia 
submitted  :  thus  was  extinguished  the  last  spark  of  that  great 
fire,  kindled  by  the  will  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  which  had 
so  long  laid  waste  the  finest  countries  of  Europe. 

In  1714  died  Queen  Anne  of  England,  in  the  fiftieth  year 
of  her  age.  The  character  of  this  princess  is  neither  striking 
nor  complicated  ;  her  capacity  was  extremely  limited,  nor  were 
her  manners  or  person  prepossessing.  Her  conduct  towards 
her  father  was  a  stain  upon  her  private  character,  which,  in 
other  respects,  was  blameless.  She  was  continually  governed 
by  favourites,  but  her  popularity  concealed  the  weakness  of 
her  personal  authority,  and  the  great  abilities  of  her  principal 
servants,  to  whom  she  was  indebted  for  it,  threw  a  veil  over 
her  own  feeble  qualities.  According  to  the  act  of  settlement, 
on  the  demise  of  Queen  Anne,  the  Elector  of  Hanover  was 
proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  George  I.  He  was  then  in 
the  fifty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  It  has  been  observed  of  him, 
that  in  contradistinction  to  the  impolitic  maxim  too  frequently 
embraced  by  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  of  trusting 
to  the  attachment  of  their  friends,  without  rewarding  them, 
and  attempting  by  favours  to  make  friends  of  their  enemies, 
he  made  it  a  rule  not  to  forget  his  friends,  and  to  set  his  ene- 
mies at  defiance.  He  soon  found  that,  of  all  the  parties  in 
the  kingdom,  the  Whigs  alone  were  attached  to  his  cause. 
The  Tories  in  general  were  inclined  to  Jacobitism  ;  and  a 
small  body  of  foreign  troops  was  only  wanting  to  have  made 
the  contest  doul)tful  between  the  house  of  Hanover  and  that 
of  Stuart,  Such  a  body  of  troops  the  Duke  of  Orraond  and 
other  zealous  Jacobites  in  England,  eagerly  solicited  from 
Prince  James,  then  known  in  France  by  the  name  of  Cheva- 
lier de  St.  George.  The  Duke  of  Berwick  used  all  his  influ 
ence  to  procure  a  few  regiments  from  Versailles ;  but  Lewis 
XIV.,  now  broken  by  years  and  infirmities,  and  standing  on 
the  verge  of  the  grave,  was  unwilling  to  engage  in  a  new  war, 
or  hazard  any  measure  that  might  disturb  the  minority  of  his 
great-grandson.  He  therefore  declined  taking  openly  any 
part  in  favour  of  the  excluded  family ;  and  the  vigilance  of 


164  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

Ihe  Earl  of  Stair,  the  British  ambassador  in  France,  efTcctually 
prevented  any  secret  aids  from  operating  to  the  disadvantage 
of  )iis  master. 

Tlic  <lealh  of  Lewis  XIV.,  which  happened  soon  after,  was 
a  fresh  blow  to  the  Jacobites.  He  died  September  Ist,  1715, 
aged  seventy-seven  years,  after  a  vigorous  and  sploiKHd  reign 
of  seventy-two  years.  No  prince,  says  the  Duke  of  Berwick, 
was  ever  so  little  known  as  Lewis  XIV.  lie  was  born  with 
an  air  of  majesty,  which  struck  every  one  so  much,  that  noliody 
could  approach  him  without  being  seized  with  awe  and  respect. 
He  was  llie  most  polite  man  in  liis  kingdom;  and  his  answers 
were  accompanied  with  so  many  obliging  expressions,  that  if 
he  granted  a  reijuest,  the  oI)liixation  was  doubU-d  I)y  tlie  man- 
ner of  conferring  it;  and  if  he  refused,  it  was  difficult  to  com- 
plain. It  was  thai  air  of  majesty,  mentioned  by  the  Duke  of 
Berwick,  which  so  disconcerted  an  old  olhcer  who  came  to 
ask  a  favour  of  Lewis  XIV.,  that  he  could  only  say,  in  a  fal- 
tering voice,  "  I  hope  your  majesty  will  believe  I  do  not  thus 
tremble  before  your  enemies."  The  character  of  this  prince 
is  variously  represented  ;  all  anree  that  he  held  the  reins  of 
government  with  a  degree  of  firmness  bordering  on  despotism  ; 
but  this  the  necessity  of  the  times  seemed  to  require.  A 
inisunderstamrmg  bi'twecn  this  king  and  Pope  Iniioceiit  XI., 
was  productive  of  unhappy  consequences  to  relisrion  duriiiij  n 
part  of  his  reign.  Tlie  contest  arose  on  the  subject  of  privi- 
leges, respecting  the  nomination  to  ecclesiastical  benefices, 
claimed  by  Lewis  and  refused  by  Innocent.  As  both  parties 
refused  to  abandon  their  respective  claims,  many  i)islio|)ric8 
in  France  remained  without  pastors  for  a  considerable  space 
of  time.  In  order  to  mortify  the  pope,  Lewis  asseiiil)le(l  a 
council  of  the  French  clergy  in  1632,  at  which  the  celebrated 
and  learned  Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  presided.  The  famous 
declaration,  made  in  this  assembly,  in  the  name  of  the  (Jal- 
lican  church,  (though  only  thirty-two  bishops  were  present,) 
was  deroijaiory  to  the  authority  of  the  pope,  scandalized  the 
faithful,  and  adorded  a  subject  of  joy  to  the  Jansenisls.*  The 

•  Jiinsonism,  thoimh  it  takes  its  name  from  Jansf-niuR,  Hishopof  Yprch, 
owrs  its  cxiKtciirc  to  five  other  innovators  who  were  linketl  v/'ah  hitn  to 
overthrow  rcli^^ion,  while  they  proferiiipil  tliemnelvca  its  most  ilevoted  friends. 
The  two  most  notcil  mernhers,  hesiiles  Jansenius,  were  the  Abl)u  St.  Cyrran 
ami  the  Hiciir  .Xntiiine  .\rnaui|.  Their  errors  were  r>unilcil  on  erroneous 
conclusions  from  the  writini;s  of  !St.  ,\in{iisline ;  each  chief  hud  his  '.auk 
■sHii;ne(l  him;  nn  excessive  severity  of  moriiU  was  the  lesion  he  had  to 
teach,  and  its  ohvious  clfcct  was  to  deter  men  from  the  praclire,  and,  !>y  de- 
grees, from  the  iHrlief  of  a  reliijion  which,  according  to  these  new  teacher^ 


MX.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  165 

four  propositions  it  contained  were  condemned  b)  the  Pope, 
and  peace  was  not  restored  during  the  life  of  Innocent,  or  that 
of  his  successor,  Alexander  VIII.,  till,  in  1692,  under  Innocent 
XII.,  Lewis  solemnly  relinquished  the  Galilean  propositions, 
and  the  Pope,  on  his  side,  granted  canonical  institution  to  those 
whom  the  king  had  nominated  to  fill  the  vacant  sees.  But, 
though  Lewis,  by  the  unhappy  bent  of  human  nature,  occa- 
sionally swerved  from  his  duty,  and  disgraced  his  private 
character  by  licentiousness  and  immorality,  yet  he  loved  and 
respected  religion.  Infidelity,  which  since,  like  an  impetuous 
torrent,  has  swept  away  in  its  course  the  altar  and  the  throne, 
dared  not  then  appear.  Had  he  been  less  zealous  for  the  pre- 
servation of  the  true  faith,  he  would  have  found  admirers 
among  those  who  decry  him,  and  panegyrists  among  his  cen- 
sors. Having  lost  his  queen,  Maria  Theresa,  in  1683,  he 
soon  after  married  the  celebrated  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
whose  exalted  qualities  have  been  the  theme  of  many  eloquent 
pens.  To  her  influence  over  the  king  is  ascribed,  in  great 
measure,  the  wonderful  change  that  took  place  in  his  senti- 
ments and  conduct,  during  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  The 
death  of  Lewis  was  that  of  a  Christian  and  a  hero.  But  what 
particularly  immortalizes  the  name  of  Lewis  XIV.,  is  the 
protection  he  granted  to  the  sciences  and  the  fine  arts,  which 
caused  his  reign  to  be  styled  the  Jiugustan  <Age,  and  to  form 
an  era  in  the  annals  of  France.  To  name  the  great  men, 
whose  talents  he  knew  how  to  appreciate,  as  well  as  to  stimu- 
late into  action,  would  alone  fill  a  volume.  The  chief  gene- 
rals who  commanded  his  armies,  were  the  great  Conde,  the 
Marshals  de  Turenne,  Luxembourg,  Crequi,  Catinat,  and 
Villars  ;  his  chief  ministers  were  Colbert  and  Louvois.  Among 
the  literati  who  adorned  this  period,  we  discover  the  names 
of  Racine  and  Corneille,  tragic  poets,  who  attained  a  high 
reputation ;  Moliere  excelled  in  comedy,  Boileau  in  works  of 
satire  and  criticism  ;  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Flechier,  and  Mas- 
sillon,  carried  pulpit  eloquence  to  the  highest  degree  of  per- 
fection ;  De  Tillemont,  Pere  Daniel,  and  Rollin,  were  eminent 

exacted  duties  above  their  strength.  The  principles  of  the  sect  were  com- 
piled by  Jansenius,  and  compose  a  large  folio  volume,  entitled  Aiigustinus, 
This  book  the  author,  on  his  death-bed,  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the 
See  of  Rome.  It  was  accordingly  examined  and  condemned  by  Urban 
VIII.,  1641.  Five  propositions,  extracted  fron^  it,  were  afterwards  juridi- 
cally denounced  by  Pope  Innocent  X.,  the  successor  of  Urban,  in  a  formal 
instrument,  signed  by  eighty-tive  bishops  of  France,  and  solemnly  proscribed 
and  condemned  by  him  as  heretical,  in  a  dogmatical  bull,  May  31st,  1653 


166  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUUOPE.  ([cHAF 

historians. *  Montesquieu  has  acquired  a  fatal  celebrity  as 
the  leirislator  of  nations,  hy  the  pul)lifalion  of  "('onsid  ra- 
tions on  the  causes  of  the  trrantleur  and  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire,"  and  " 'Die  Spirit  of  liie  Laws."  Pascal  abused  his 
splendid  talents,  by  employing  them  in  the  support  of  the 
errors  of  Jansenism  ;  but  the  incomparable  Frn»'lon  claims  all 
the  admiration  thai  is  due  to  threat  abilities  and  eloquence, 
when  united  with  the  most  exalted  virtue.  He  rendered  eshen- 
tial  service  to  the  Duke  de  Rouriiotjne,  who  became  a  model 
of  learning  and  piety,  and  his  labours  were  rewardcjd,  in  lOoi), 
wiUi  the  archbishopric  of  Candiray.  He  died  in  the  exercise 
of  his  pastoral  fuiKUions,  1716.  England,  at  the  same  time, 
produced  many  eminent  men.  Dryden,  celebrated  for  his 
translation  of  Virgil,  died  in  1701.  Addison,  who  wrote  the 
most  admired  papers  in  the  Spectator,  Taller,  and  (luardian, 
was  noted  for  the  elegance  of  his  diction  ;  he  died  171;").  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  the  prince  of  philosophers,  died  1727,  and 
Dr.  H alley,  a  famous  astronomer,  17i2.  Prior,  Congreve, 
lilackmore.  Philips,  Garth,  and  Rowe,  arc  names  which 
should  not  be  omitted.  In  Ireland,  Dr.  Parnell,  a  poet  and 
divine,  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Pope,  Swift,  Gay, 
Arbulhuol,  and  other  eminent  wits  of  this  period,  who  nou- 
rished later  than  those  we  have  already  named,  as  included  in 
the  luography  of  the  seventeenth  century.  'J'he  Rev.  John 
Golher  was  the  wiost  noted  Catholic  writer,  and  Dr.  Hurnet, 
and  Dr.  ('ave,  were  eminent  Protestant  divines  and  historians, 
'i'he  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  apj)ointc;d  Regent  of 
France  during  the  minority  of  Lewis  XV.,  in  contradiction 
to  the  will  of  the  deceased  monarch,  affected  privately  to 
espouse  the  interests  of  the  house  of  Stuart;  but  the  exhaust- 
ed state  of  France,  and  the  dilFiculty  of  maintaining  his  own 
authority  against  the  other  princes  of  the  blood,  induced  liim 
pui)licly  to  cultivate  a  good  understanding  with  the  Enirlish 
governnu'iit;  ami  even  to  adopt,  though  with  seeming  reluct- 
ance, such  measures  as  it  suggested  for  defeating  the  designs 
of  the  house  of  Stuart.     Nevertheless,  the  partisans  of  tiie 

•  De  Thou,  first  prc«ident  of  tho  Parliament  of  Paris,  may  more  proper- 
ly be  ri'ckonni  an  hiMtoriral  wrilrr  of  the  KixtoiMilh  century.  Hi-  ilii-d  in 
lfil7,  and  8Uind!<  foromost  anion i;  tin;  nnxliTn  I'lirruptcrt:  of  liistory,  in  which 
h<'  has  been  too  succcHsfiilly  fidlowcd  liy  Hunic,  Vullaire.  ami  many  otlicr 
inferior  imitators  in  Frnnre  anil  Hni;lan(l.  Among  this  crowd  of  writers, 
whoH<>  worliH  are  only  proper  to  nUHlead  yoiuh.aiid  render  ri  lit^iun  o<lioii», 
Aiay  tie  |>nrtirularly  named  the  .\bLK;8  liuynal  and  Millul,  b'>tli  hisluriaiu 
o(  ihe  laJit  oinlury. 


KXX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EITROPE.  167 

fallen  dynasty,  who  were  still  very  numerous,  thought  this  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  raise  tlie  standard  of  insurrection. 
The  Earl  of  Marr,  assembling  300  of  liis  vassals,  proclaimed 
the  accession  of  James  VIII.,  and  being  joined  by  several 
Highland  chiefs  and  their  clans,  attacked  the  Duke  of  Argyle 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dunblane,  in  September,  1715. 
After  an  engagement  of  several  hours,  the  armies  separated, 
both  sides  claiming  the  victory.  This  battle,  though  so  little 
decisive,  proved  fatal  in  its  consequences  to  the  Jacobite 
cause.  Lord  Lovat,  the  chief  of  the  Erasers,  who  seemed  dis- 
posed to  join  in  the  insurrection,  now  declared  in  favour  of 
the  established  government ;  while  the  Marquis  of  TuUibar- 
dine  withdrew  from  the  army,  and  the  clans,  disgusted  at  their 
want  of  success,  dispersed  on  the  approach  of  winter.  In 
England  the  insurrection  wore  for  a  time  a  more  formidable 
aspect.  The  Earl  of  Derwentwater,  and  other  Jacobite 
leaders  took  up  arms  in  considerable  numbers ;  but  dissen- 
sion arising  in  their  councils,  they  separated  in  various 
directions ;  and  the  main  body,  being  surrounded  by  the 
king's  troops,  surrendered  at  discretion.  The  officers  were 
shot  as  deserters,  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen  were  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  and  the  others  imprisoned  at  Carlisle. 
In  this  unfavourable  position  of  his  affairs,  James  landed  in 
Scotland,  was  again  proclaimed  king,  made  his  public  entry 
into  Dundee,  in  January,  1716,  and  fixed  on  the  23d  of  the 
same  month  for  the  day  of  his  coronation.  But,  receiving  in- 
telligence of  the  near  approach  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  who 
had  been  reinforced  by  6000  Dutch  auxiliaries,  and  seeing 
no  prospect  of  fortune  proving  favourable  to  his  arms,  he 
withdrew  with  the  Earl  of  Marr  to  Montrose,  and  shordy 
after  took  sliip  for  France.  The  main  body  of  the  insur- 
gents moved  northward  so  rapidly  as  to  elude  pursuit. 
All  who  thougiit  they  could  not  hope  for  pardon,  embarked 
at  Aberdeen  ;  the  clans  dispersed  among  their  native  hills,  and 
the  whole  country  submitted  to  Argyle.  Such  was  the  issue 
of  an  insurrection  which  proved  fatal  to  so  many  noble  fami 
lies,  and  cost  the  lives  of  so  many  brave  men.  The  Earls  of 
Derwentwater  and  Nairn,  with  several  other  noblemen,  suffer- 
ed the  death  of  traitors.  Lord  Nithisdale,  who  had  been 
sentenced  to  a  similar  fate,  owed  his  safety  to  the  affectionate 
ingenuity  of  his  countess,  who  contrived  his  escape  from  the 
Tower  in  female  attire,  which  she  had  carried  thither  for  the 
purpose,  when  admitted  to  pay  him  a  farewell  visit.  Many 
of  the  lower  classes  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  cause  they  had 


I88  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EI'nOPE.  [cHAP 

embraced,  and  about  a  thousand  were  transported  to  North 
America.  The  danircr  of  the  slate  was  made  a  jth'a  for 
lenjrihening  the  period  of  I'ariiameut,  wliich  was  extended  to 
seven  years,  by  the  exertions  of  Walp()U%  now  first  lord  of 
llie  treasury,  and  i-hancellor  of  the  exche(juer.  Some  years 
afterwards,  (1722,)  when  a  new  plot  was  set  on  foot  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Stuart  family,  (but  discovered  in  its  birtli,) 
the  celebrated  Atterbury,  Ilishop  of  Rochester,  was  l)anished 
on  suspicion  of  guilt ;  the  Iiahras  corpus  act  was  suspended 
for  a  whole  year,  and  vigorous  measures  taken  for  preventing 
a  rebellion. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

RUSSIA,  TIIRKEV,   AND  THE  NORTH,  FROM  THE    HATTLE  OF    PHE- 
TOWA,  IN    1709,  TO  THE   DEATH    OF     PETER    THE     GREAT,   IN 

1725. 

The  KinjT  of  Denmark,  havinof  declared  war  aorainst 
Sweden,  soon  after  the  defeat  of  the  Swedish  monan-li  at 
Pultowa,  invaded  Scania,  or  Sclionen  ;  but  his  army  was  di!- 
feated  v/ith  <i;reat  slaughter,  near  Elsenberg,  by  CJcncral  Sleeii- 
bock.  Charles  XII.  was  so  much  delighted  witli  the  news  of 
this  victory,  that  he  exclaimed,  "  My  brave  Swedes,  should 
I  once  more  join  you,  we  will  l)eat  them  all."  Tlie  Kin^  of 
Sweden  was  honourably  received  at  Hender,  and,  tliough  des- 
titute of  resources,  still  his  mind  was  occupied  with  the  thought 
of  delhronint:  the  czar.  With  this  view,  his  envoy  at  ('on- 
stantiuo[)le  delivered  memorials  to  the  grand  vizier,  and  his 
friend,  Poniatowsky,  supported  these  solicitations  by  his  in- 
trigues. Achmet  IK.,  the  rciiruing  sultan,  presented  Pi)iiiatow- 
sky  with  a  purse  of  11)00  ducats,  and  tlie  grand  vizier  jiromised 
him  to  take  his  king  in  one  hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other,  and 
conduct  him  to  Moscow  at  the  head  of  200,000  men.  Hut  the 
czar's  money  soon  changed  the  sentiments  of  the  Turkish 
minister.  'I'be  military  chest,  which  Peter  had  taken  at 
Pultowa,  furnished  liim  with  new  arms  to  wound  the  van- 
quished ('harles,  whose  blood-earned  treasures  were  turned 
against  himself.  Wliile  the  ol)stinacy  of  tl.t;  King  of  S\veii(  n, 
in  refusing  to  return  to  his  own  dominions  in  any  other  cha- 
racter than  that  of  a  contiueror,  madir  his  fate  depend  upon  the 
caprice  of  viziers;  whih-  he  was  alternately  receiving  favours 
»nd  alfronLs  from  the  great  enemy  of  Christianity  ;  the  Russian 


XXXI. 3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  169 

monarch  was  exhibiting  to  his  people  a  spectacle  not  un- 
worthy of  ancient  Rome.  To  inspire  his  subjects  witli  a 
taste  for  magnificence,  and  to  impress  them  with  an  awful 
respect  for  his  power,  he  made  his  public  entry  into  Moscow, 
under  seven  triumphal  arches,  adorned  with  every  thing  that 
the  climate  could  produce  or  a  thriving  commerce  furnish. 
First  marched  the  guards,  followed  by  the  artillery  taken 
from  the  Swedes,  the  colours  and  standards  won  from  the 
same  enemy,  carried  by  those  who  had  captured  them  ;  the 
litter,  in  which  Charles  XII.  was  carried  at  the  batde  of  Pul- 
towa,  all  shattered  with  cannon-shot,  appeared  in  a  chariot 
made  on  purpose  to  display  it.  Behind  the  litter  marched  all 
the  Swedish  prisoners,  two  and  two  ;  among  whom  were 
Count  Piper,  the  prime  minister,  the  famous  Marshal  Ken- 
child,  the  Count  de  Lenenhaupt,  and  several  officers  and 
generals,  who  were  afterwards  dispersed  through  Great  Rus- 
sia. Last  in  procession  came  the  triumphant  conqueror, 
mounted  on  the  same  horse  he  rode  at  the  battle  of  Pultowa, 
and  followed  by  his  generals  who  had  shared  in  the  victory. 

Tiiis  magnificent  spectacle  furnished  Charles  v/ith  new 
arguments  for  awakening  the  jealousy  of  the  Porte;  and 
Achmet  gave  orders  to  the  grand  vizier  to  attack  the  domi- 
nions of  the  czar  with  200,000  men.  The  first  step  of  the 
Ottoman  court  was  to  arrest  the  Russian  ambassador,  and 
commit  him  to  the  castle  of  the  seven  towers.  The  czar,  as 
soon  as  informed  of  this  insult,  ordered  his  army  in  Poland  to 
march  towards  Moldavia,  and  made  every  preparation  for  war. 
He  mustered  his  forces  on  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  and  planned 
his  route  through  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  the  country  of  the 
ancient  Dacii,  but  now  inhabited  by  Greek  Christians,  who  are 
tributary  to  the  grand  signior.  Having  concluded  a  secret 
treaty  with  their  prince,  Cantemir,  Peter  passed  the  Niester, 
and  reached  at  length  the  northern  banks  of  the  Pruth,  near 
Jassi,  the  capital  of  Moldavia.  Meanwhile,  the  grand  vizier 
advanced  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pruth,  at  the  head  of  250,000 
men.  The  Russians  were  destitute  of  forage  and  provisions, 
and  the  sfrand  vizier  was  determined  to  reduce  the  czar  and  his 
exhausted  army  by  famine.  In  this  extremity,  the  Czarina 
Catherine*  obtained  of  Peter  leave  to  negotiate  with  the  grand 
vizier;  she  sent  to  him  the  vice-chancellor,  and  a  negotiation 
took  place.  The  vizier  at  first  demanded  that  Peter  and  his 
whole  army  should  surrender  prisoners  of  war;  the  chancellor 
replied,  that  the  Russians  would  all  perish  to  a  man,  soone* 

•   Catherine  v?as  a  liivonian  captive  whom  he  had  raised  to  the  throne. 

17 


170  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  (]cHAP 

than  submit  to  such  conditions ;  that  his  master's  irsolulion 
was  alroaily  taken,  to  oi)en  a  |)a.s.sa<re  wilh  tlie  point  of  tli6 
bayonet.  The  vizier  was  sensible  of  the  (hniirer  ol  driving  to 
despair  a  body  of  ;{;"), 000  brave  and  diseiplined  troops,  headed 
by  a  gallant  prince  ;  and  an  agreement  ensued,  that  tlie  czar 
should  restore  the  city  of  Asoph  ;  destroy  the  harbour  of 
Tangaroh,  and  demolish  the  forts  built  on  tlie  I'alus  IVheotis, 
or  sea  of  Zeback  ;  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland  ;  give  no 
further  disturbance  to  the  (Cossacks,  and  permit  the  Swedish 
monarch  to  relurn  to  his  own  kingdom.  On  these  conditions 
Peter  was  allowed  to  retire  wilh  his  army,  and  was  supplied 
with  provisions. 

Charles  arrived  at  the  tent  of  the  grand  vizier,  just  as  Peter 
was  marching  olT,  happy  in  the  thought  of  having  his  enemy 
in  his  power;  enraged  to  find  a  treaty  concluded,  he  burst 
into  the  keenest  reproaches.  "I  have  a  right,"  said  the  vizier, 
"  to  make  eiUier  peace  or  war.  Our  laws  command  us  to 
grant  peace  to  our  enemies,  when  they  implore  our  clemency." 
"  Did  not  fortune,"  replied  Charles, "  afl'ord  you  an  ojiportuuity 
of  leading  the  czar  in  chains  to  Constantinople?"  "  And  who," 
said  the  vizier,  "  would  have  governed  his  empire  during  his 
absence?  It  is  not  proper  that  all  crowned  heads  slioidd  leave 
their  dominions."  Charles,  swelling  with  indignation,  threw 
himself  on  a  sofa,  and,  stretching  out  his  leg,  entangled  his 
sj)ur  in  the  vizier's  robe,  and  purjjosely  tore  it.  IJallagi  took 
no  notice  of  this  sjjlenelii;  insult,  and  the  King  of  Sweden, 
further  mortilicd  by  that  neglect,  sprung  up,  mounted  his  horse, 
and  returned  with  a  sorrowful  heart  to  Bender.  All  his 
atlemjits  to  kindh;  anew  a  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
proved  inelb.ctual ;  aiul  the  divan,  weary  of  his  importunities, 
nssolved  to  send  him  home,  attended  by  a  sufllcient  guard. 
The  sultan  presented  him  wilh  1200  purses  of  money  to  pay 
his  debts,  and  the  Hashaw  of  Bender  informed  him  of  the  orders 
of  the  court;  but  Charles,  in  spite  of  the  earnest  entreaties 
of  his  friends  and  servants,  resolved  to  defend  himself  against 
an  army  of 'I'urks  and  Tartars.  After  fiirhting  like  a  desjierado, 
he  was  seized  and  carried  to  the  bashaw's  (juarters.  The 
bashaw  gave  him  his  own  apartment,  and  ordered  him  to  be 
served  as  a  king,  though  a  prisoner.  N(!xt  day  he  was  con- 
ducted towards  Adrianoplc.  On  his  way  he  was  informed  by 
Baron  Fabricius,  aml)assador  from  the  Duke  of  Ilolstein,  that 
Stanislaus,  having  come  to  share  his  fortunes,  had  been  taken 
into  cnstodv,  ami  was  (roiMU  to  Bender  un<lera  truard  of  soldiers. 
"Run  to  hiiu,  iny  dear  Fabricius,"  cried  Charles;  "desire  him 


XXXI. J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  171 

never  to  make  peace  with  Augustus,  and  assure  him  that  our 
affairs  will  soon  take  a  more  flattering  turn."  This  idea  con- 
tinued to  occupy  him  during  iho  whole  time  of  liis  confinement. 
He  was  at  first  committed  to  the  castle  of  Demirlash,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Adrianople,  but  afterwards  allowed  to  reside 
at  Demotica,  a  little  town  about  six  leagues  distant  from  that 
city,  near  the  famous  river  Hebrus,  now  called  Merizza. 
There  he  renewed  his  intrigues ;  and,  lest  the  Turks  should 
not  pay  him  the  respect  due  to  his  royal  person,  he  resolved 
to  keep  his  bed  during  his  captivity,  under  pretence  of  sick- 
ness. 

1713. — While  the  naturally  active  and  indefatigable  Charles, 
who  had  set  even  the  elements  themselves  at  defiance,  was 
wasting  his  time  and  health  in  bed,  the  northern  princes,  who 
had  formerly  trembled  at  his  name,  were  dismembering  his 
dominions.  General  Steenbock  defended  his  master's  posses- 
sions in  Germany  as  long  as  possible.  He  defeated  an  army 
of  Danes  and  Saxons  with  great  slaughter,  at  a  place  called 
Gatesbush,  in  Mecklenburg;  but,  though  victorious,  he  could 
not  prevent  the  junction  of  the  Russians,  Danes,  and  Saxons, 
who  obliged  him  and  his  army  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Tonningen, 
a  fortress  in  the  duchy  of  Holstein.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
czar  was  pushing  his  conquests  in  Finland.  Having  made  a 
descent  at  Elsingford,  the  most  southern  part  of  that  cold  and 
barren  region,  he  took  possession  of  the  town.  He  afterwards 
made  himself  master  of  Abo,  Borgo,  and  the  whole  coast ;  de- 
feated the  Swedes  near  Tavestius,  a  post  which  commanded 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia;  penetrated  as  far  as  Vasa,  and  reduced 
every  fortress  in  the  country.  In  1714,  he  gained  a  complete 
victory  by  sea,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  isle  of  Oeland. 
These  successes  furnished  him  with  a  new  occasion  of  tri- 
umph: he  entered  Petersburgh,  as  he  formerly  had  Moscow, 
in  procession,  under  a  magnificent  arch,  decorated  with  the 
insignia  of  his  conquests.  Meanwhile,  the  regency  of  Stock- 
holm, driven  to  despair  by  the  desperate  situation  of  their  af- 
fairs, and  the  absence  of  their  sovereign,  came  to  a  resolution 
no  longer  to  consult  him  in  regard  to  their  proceedings  ;  and 
the  senate  entreated  Ulrica  Eleanora,  the  king's  sister,  to  take 
the  government  into  her  own  hands,  till  the  return  of  her  bro- 
ther. She  agreed  to  the  proposal ;  but,  finding  their  purpose 
was  to  force  her  to  make  peace  with  Russia  and  Denmark,  she 
resigned  the  regency,  and  wrote  a  full  account  of  the  matter 
to  the  king.  Roused  from  his  affected  sickness,  by  what  he 
considered  a  treasonable  attempt  upon  his  authority,  Charles 


173  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

signifud  his  desire  to  the  ^rand  vizier  of  returning  tlirouirh 
Gcrnianv  to  his  own  doniinions.  The  'J'liikiali  minister 
notrlectcd  nolhini;  which  might  I'acihiate  that  event ;  and,  ail 
tilings  being  prepared  for  his  departure,  he  set  out  with  a  con- 
voy of  sixty  loaded  wagons  and  three  hundred  horse.  The 
emperor  gave  orders  that  he  shoidd  i)e  received  in  every  [':irt 
of  the  imperial  dominions  with  tlie  respect  due  to  ills  rank; 
but  Charles  had  no  inclination  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  pomp  and 
ceremony.  lie;  therefore  took  leave  of  his  'I'urkisli  convoy, 
as  soon  as  he  arrived  at  Targowitz,  on  the  coniines  of  Tran- 
sylvania; and,  assembling  his  attendants,  desired  them  to  give 
themselves  no  further  concern  about  him,  but  to  proceed  with 
all  expedition  to  Stralsund,  in  Pomerania.  Tiie  king  himself, 
in  disguise,  attended  only  by  two  officers,  arrived  at  that 
place  in  November,  1714,  and  employed  the  winter  in  recruit- 
ing his  armies.  In  order  to  strengthen  his  interest,  he  gave 
his  only  survivintr  sister,  Ulrica  Eleonora,  in  marriajje  to 
Frederic,  Prince  of  Hesse  Cassel,  who  was  esteemed  a  good 
general. 

1715. — Charles,  on  the  opening  of  tiie  campaign,  found 
himself  environed  with  so  many  enemies,  that  valour  and 
conduct  alone  were  of  very  little  service.  The  German  troops 
of  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  now  King  of  Great  Hritain,  invested 
the  strong  town  of  Wismar;  while  the  coml)iued  army  of 
Prussians,  Danes,  and  Saxons,  marched  towards  Stralsund  to 
besiege  it.  The  czar  was  in  the  Hahic  with  a  numerous  (leet 
and  army,  and  Sweden  was  in  daily  expectation  of  an  invasion. 
Stralsund,  the  strongest  place  in  Pomerania,  is  situated  be- 
tween the  TVdlic  sea  and  the  Lake  of  Franken,  near  the  Straits 
of  Gella.  To  deprive  the  King  of  Sweden  and  his  little  army 
of  all  succours,  the  allies  chased  the  Swedish  fleet  from  the 
coast,  and  took  possession  of  the  isle  of  Usedom,  and  then 
attacked  Kugen,  which  serves  as  a  bulwark  to  Stralsund. 
(Jharles  hastened  to  its  relief  with  4000  chosen  men  ;  but  tlic 
Prince  of  Anhalt,  who  had  effected  a  landing  with  20,000, 
liad  ordered  a  deep  fosse  to  be  sunk  as  soon  as  he  landed,  and 
fortified  it  wiUi  chevaux-de-frize.  The  King  of  Sweden,  who 
marched  on  foot,  sword  in  hand,  was  not  a  little  surprised, 
wlien.  plucking  up  some  of  the  chevaux-de-frize,  he  discovered 
a  ditch.  He  was  not,  however,  disconcerted;  he  leaped  into 
the  fosse,  accompanied  by  the  boldest  of  his  men,  and  at- 
tempted to  force  tFie  enemy's  camp.  The  impetuosity  of  the 
attack  threw  the  Danes  and  Prussians  into  some  confusion, 
but  the  contest  was  unequal;  the  Swedes  were  repul.-ed,  and 


XXXI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  173 

obliged  to  repass  the  fosse.  The  Prince  of  Anhalt  pursued 
them  ;  the  battle  was  renewed ;  the  greatest  part  of  the  Swedes 
were  cut  to  pieces :  Charles  saw  liis  secretary  and  two  gene- 
rals fall  dead  at  his  feet,  and,  being  himself  wounded,  he  was 
put  on  horseback  by  Poniatowsky,  who  had  saved  his  life  at 
Pultowa,  and  shared  his  misfortunes  in  Turkey;  he  was  now 
constrained  to  make  the  best  of  his  way  to  the  sea-coast,  and 
abandon  Rugen  to  its  fate.  Stralsund  was  now  reduced  to  the 
last  extremity.  'I'he  bombs  fell  as  thick  as  hail  upon  the 
houses,  and  half  the  town  was  reduced  to  ashes.  Charles, 
however,  still  preserved  his  firmness.  It  happened,  as  he  was 
dictating  a  letter,  that  a  bomb  burst  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
his  apartment;  his  secretary  dropped  his  pen.  "What  is  the 
matter?"  said  the  king.  "The  bomb,"  sighed  the  intimidated 
scribe.  "  Write  on,"  cried  Charles,  "  what  has  the  bomb  to 
do  with  the  letter  I  am  dictating?"  The  grand  assault  was 
now  every  minute  expected,  when  his  friends  forced  him  on 
board  a  small  vessel,  which  landed  him  in  Sweden,  and  Stral- 
sund surrendered  next  day.  The  king,  not  choosing  to  visit 
his  capital  in  his  present  unfortunate  circumstances,  passed 
the  winter  at  Carlscroon,  from  whence  he  had  set  out  fifteen 
years  before. 

In  1716,  when  all  Europe  expected  Sweden  to  be  invaded, 
and  even  overrun  by  her  numberless  enemies,  Charles  passed 
over  into  Norway,  and  made  himself  master  of  Christiania. 
Meanwhile,  Wismar,  the  only  town  that  remained  to  him  on 
the  frontiers  of  Germany,  had  surrendered  to  the  Danes  and 
Prussians;  who,  jealous  of  the  Russians,  would  not  allow 
them  to  be  present  at  the  siege.  This  jealousy  alienated  the 
czar's  mind  from  the  confederates  ;  and  Goertz,  taking  advan- 
tage of  it,  obtained  leave  from  Charles  to  negotiate  for  peace. 
Peter  proceeded  cautiously ;  but  conferences  were  at  last 
appointed  to  be  held  in  the  isle  of  Oeland.  In  October,  1718, 
Charles,  having  undertaken  a  second  expedition  into  Norway, 
sat  down  before  Fredericshall  in  December,  when  the  ground 
was  as  hard  as  iron,  and  the  cold  so  intense  that  the  soldiers 
on  duty  frequently  dropped  down  dead.  To  animate  them, 
he  exposed  himself  to  all  the  rigour  of  the  climate,  as  well 
as  to  the  danger  of  the  siege,  sleeping  even  in  the  open  air, 
covered  only  with  a  cloak.  One  night,  as  he  was  viewing 
them  carrying  on  their  approaches  by  starlight,  he  was  killed 
by  a  cannon-ball.  Though  he  expired  without  a  groan,  the 
moment  he  received  the  blow,  he  instinctively  grasped  the  hilt 
of  his  sword,  and  was  found  in  that  position  so  truly  charae- 

17* 


174  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [[cHAP. 

teristic  of  his  mind.  The  dcatli  of  Cliarles  was  ponsidei-eJ 
as  a  signal  f(ir  a  ircnrral  eossatioii  of  arms.  The  l^riiice  of 
llissc,  wlio  rommiiiiili'il  uiulcr  tlie  kiiitj,  immrdiatclv  raised 
the  siege  of  Fredcricshall,  and  led  the  Swedes  hack  into  their 
own  country  ;  nor  did  llic  Danes  attempt  to  molest  them  on 
their  niairli. 

1719. — Hy  a  free  and  voluntary  choice,  the  states  of  the 
kinijdom  elected  Ulrica  Eleonora,  sister  of  Charles  XII.,  for 
their  queen,  and  she  soon  after  relin<iuisl)ed  the  crown  to  her 
husband,  the  Prince  of  Hesse.  'I'he  Swedes  now  lurneil  llieir 
views  to  peace,  which  was  procured  l)y  different  treaties. 
'I'hat  with  the  czar  was  not  concluded  till  1721.  He  was  left 
in  jiossession  of  l>ivonia,  Estonia,  and  Ingria,  with  part  of  Carc- 
lia  and  part  of  Finland,  Peter  henceforth  took  the  tide  of  em])e- 
ror,  which  was  soon  acknowledged  hy  all  the  European  powers. 
In  1722,  Persia  ijeincr  distracted  by  civil  wars,  he  marched  to 
the  assistance  of  Sha  Thatnas,  and  in  return  for  iiis  seasonable 
protection,  the  new  sophi  put  him  in  possession  of  three  pro- 
vinces bordering  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  composed  the 
greater  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Medes.  His  son, 
Alexis,  having  discovered  an  inclination  to  ohstruct  his  favour- 
ite plans  of  civilization,  was  made  to  sign,  in  1718,  a  solemn 
remmiiation  of  the  crown;  and  soon  after  condemned  to  die. 
The  death  of  the  czarowitz  was  soon  lollowed  hy  that  of 
Peter's  infant  son.  (1724.)  As  a  prelude  to  the  eventual 
succession  of  the  czarina,  Peter,  after  his  return  from  his 
Persian  e.vptiditioii,  assisted  in  jierson  at  liersolemn  coronation  ; 
and  upon  the  death  of  the  emperor,  in  1725,  she  quietly  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne. 


CHAPTER  XXXH. 

EUROPE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  LEWIS  XIV.,  IN  171. *>,  TO  THE 
DEATH  OF  THE  EMPEROR  CHARLES  VI.,  1710. 

The  Turks  had  happily  remained  quiet,  while  the  Christian 
princes  were  most  deeply  embroiled  among  themselves  ;  hut 
no  sooner  was  the  general  peace  of  Utrecht  concluded,  than 
Achmet  HI.  commenced  hostilities  against  tln^  Venetians,  and 
made  liimHclf  master  of  the  Morea.  or  ancient  Peloponnesus. 
Tiie  Emperor  ('harles  VT,,  as  guarantee  of  the  treaty  of 
Carlowilz,  liy  which  this  territory  had  been  assi<^ned  to  the 
repuh'ic  of  Venice,  was  bound  in  honour  to  declare  war  againnl 


XXXII. J  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  176 

the  Turks  for  infringing  it:  and  the  Pope,  alarmed  at  the  pro- 
gress of  the  infidels,  urged  his  imperial  majesty  to  stand  forth 
in  defence  of  Christendom.  (1716.)  Charles  accordingly 
assembled  a  powerful  army,  under  the  celebrated  Prince 
Eugene,  who  passed  the  Danube,  and  defeated  the  Grand 
Vizier  Ali,  at  Peterwaradin.  (1717.)  The  year  following,  tlie 
same  general  undertook,  the  siege  of  Belgrade.  The  Turks 
besieged  him  in  his  camp.  His  danger  was  imminent ;  but 
military  skill  and  disciplined  valour  triumphed  over  numbers 
and  savage  ferocity.  He  sallied  out  of  his  entrenchments,  fell 
upon  the  enemy,  entirely  routed  them,  with  great  slaughter, 
and  Belgrade  surrendered  immediately  after.  The  consequence 
of  these  two  victories  was  the  peace  of  Passarowitz,  (1718,) 
by  which  the  Porte  ceded  to  the  emperor  Belgrade  and  all  the 
Bannet  of  Temeswar ;  but  the  Venetians  never  recovered  their 
possessions  in  Greece. 

Meanwhile,  Phdip  V.  of  Spain,  having  lost  his  first  queen, 
Maria  Louisa  of  Savoy,  had  married,  in  1714,  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  presumptive  heiress  to  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Pla- 
centia,  and  Tuscany.  The  jealousy  occasioned  by  this  alli- 
ance, and  the  great  projects  of  the  Spanish  minister.  Cardinal 
Alberoni,  induced  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France  for 
Lewis  XV.,  to  enter  into  a  league  with  England  and  Holland, 
in  1716;  and  in  1718,  these  three  powers,  in  conjunction 
with  the  emperor,  formed  the  famous  Quadruple  Alliance. 
After  the  articles  which  provided  for  the  maintaining  of  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  the  principal  stipulations  of  this  treaty 
were,  that  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  consideration  of  certain 
places  in  Italy,  should  exchange  with  the  emperor  the  island 
of  Sicily  for  that  of  Sardinia,  of  which  he  should  take  the 
regal  title,  and  that  the  emperor  should  confer  on  Don  Carlos, 
eldest  son  of  the  young  Queen  of  Spain,  the  investiture  of 
the  duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Tuscany,  on  the  death 
of  the  present  possessors  without  issue.  The  Spanish  court 
rejected  these  proposals  with  scorn ;  they  had  already  taken 
possession  of  Sardinia,  and  great  part  of  Sicily,  and  the 
consequence  of  these  hostilities,  was  a  declaration  of  war 
against  Spain,  by  France  and  England.  George  L  sent  a 
powerful  fleet  into  the  Mediterranean,  under  Sir  George 
Byng,  who  engaged  the  Spanish  fleet  near  the  coast  of  Sicily, 
and  took  or  destroyed  twenty-one  ships  out  of  twenty-seven. 
He  next  recovered  the  town  and  citadel  of  Messina,  and  the 
Spaniards  made  overtures  for  evacuating  the  island. 

1719. — The  recovery  of  Sicily  was  followed  bj    the  sur 


178  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

render  of  Sardinia,  In  the  mean  time,  the  Duke  of  Borwick 
conducted  a  I-Voncli  army  towards  the  frontiers  of  Spain,  and 
made  himself  master  of  St.  Sebastian  and  Funlarabia;  and 
havinir  prepared  to  open  the  next  eampai>rn  by  the  siege  of 
Roses  and  Pampehina,  IMiilip  V.  acceded  to  tlie  terms 
prescribed  by  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  and  All)eroni  was 
disfrraeed. 

During  these  political  transactions,  great  changes  wero 
eflected  in  the  commercial  world,  the  finances  of  nations, 
and  fortunes  of  thousands  of  individuals,  liy  a  Scottish 
adventurer,  named  John  Law.  He  undertook  to  repair  the 
finances  of  France,  which  were  then  in  a  deplorable  condition. 
Law's  scheme  was,  by  speedily  paying  off  tlie  national  debt,* 
to  clear  the  public  revenue  of  the  enormous  interest  that 
absorbed  it:  the  introduction  of  paper  credit  could  alone  effect 
this  revolution,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  state  seemed  to 
require  such  an  expedient.  But  the  delusion  soon  vaiii.-ihe(l  : 
even  Law  himself,  deceived  by  his  own  calculations,  and 
intoxicated  with  the  pulilic  folly,  had  fibricated  so  many  notes, 
that,  in  171'J,  the  cliimerical  value  of  the  funds  exceeded  four- 
score times  the  real  value  of  the  current  coin  of  the  kingdom, 
wliich  was  nearly  all  in  the  hands  of  government.  Pui)lic 
credit  sunk  at  once.  Upwards  of  500,000  iieads  of  families 
presented  their  whole  f(jrtuiie  in  paper,  and  government  was 
under  the  necessity  of  contributing  to  their  relief.  The 
elTects  of  this  famous  scheme  w(!re  not  confined  to  France  ; 
the  contagion  of  stock-jol)bing  infected  other  nations.  Hol- 
land received  a  slight  shock,  but  its  violence  was  peculiarly 
reserved  for  England,  where  it  exiiausted  its  fury. 

Li  1723  died  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  Kegent  of  France; 

•  The  National  Debt  is  the  residue  of  those  immense  sums,  which 
government  has,  in  tinies  of  cxJRi'ncy,  been  ol)lif^ed  to  raise  hy  wny  of 
voluntary  loan  for  tlic  public  service,  beyond  what  the  annual  revenue  of 
the  crown  could  supply,  and  which  the  state  has  not  yet  paid  olT.  The 
Pii/ilic  Fundi  ciinsist  of  certain  masses  of  the  money  thus  deposited  in 
the  hands  of  jjovernment,  toijcthcr  with  the  (general  |>roducc  of  the  taxes 
njipriipriated  by  Parliament  to  [)ay  the  interest  of  that  money  ;  and  the 
surplus  of  the  taxes,  which  have  always  been  more  than  sutricient  to 
answer  the  charjje  upon  ihi'tn,  composes  what  was  called  the  Sinki/iq 
Fund,  lu'causc  it  was  ori|>inally  intended  to  be  ap(ilied  towards  the  reduc- 
tion, or  sinkio(T  nf  ihe  t)iitional  d'iit.  The  Slnc/cn  arc  the  whole  of  this 
pi.blir  and  funded  debt,  which  beini;  divided  iiUo  many  shares,  l>earin(r  a 
known  interest,  but  dilTerent  in  the  diirerent  funds,  may  be  easily  transferred 
from  o!ie  |MTson  to  another,  ainl  wliich  rise  or  fall  in  value,  according  to 
the  plenty  or  scarcity  of  money  in  the  nation,  or  the  opinion  the  proprioi 
tors  havo  of  llic  security  of  j)ublic  credit. 


XXXII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  177 

under  the  auspices  of  this  prince,  Jansenism  acquired  new 
strength,  vice  and  irreligion  increased  to  an  alarming  extent; 
yet  tlie  politic  duke,  though  himself  a  monster  of  libertinism, 
feeling  the  necessity  of  religion  to  the  state,  would  not  siifter 
it  to  be  publicly  impugned.  This  audacity  commenced  after 
his  death,  when  deism,  under  the  delusive  name  of  reason  and 
enlightened  philosophy,  threw  off  all  disguise,  both  in  practice 
and  profession,  and  attacked  the  whole  substance  of  revealed 
religion.  At  the  head  of  these  free-thinkers  was  Voltaire,  a 
vain,  aspiring  youth,  who  sought  to  raise  to  himself  an  ever- 
lasting monument  on  the  ruins  of  Christianity.  "  I  am  tired," 
he  used  to  say,  "of  hearing  it  repeated,  that  twelve  men  were 
able  to  establish  Christianity.  I  will  show  the  world  that  one 
man  will  be  enough  to  effect  its  ruin."  Proud  was  his  boast 
and  impotent  his  endeavour ;  deplorable,  however,  was  the 
change  that  his  writings  wrought  in  the  principles  of  his 
numerous  readers. 

The  Duke  of  Orleans  was  succeeded  in  the  administration 
(but  not  in  the  regency,  the  king  being  now  of  age)  by  the 
Duke  of  Bourbon.  This  minister  was  soon  supplanted  by 
Cardinal  Fleury,  who  had  been  preceptor  to  Lewis  XV.,  and, 
at  the  advanced  age  of  seventy-three,  took  upon  him  the  cares 
of  government.  About  the  same  time,  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
whose  disposition  was  no  less  pacific  than  Fleury's,  became 
prime  minister  of  Great  Britain.  A  treaty,  signed  at  Vienna 
this  year,  (1725,)  between  the  emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,* 
excited  the  jealousy  of  George  I.,  who  was  under  apprehen- 
sions for  his  German  dominions,  as  well  as  of  some  secret 
article  in  favour  of  the  Stuart  femily.  It  also  gave  umbrage 
to  the  French  and  Dutch.  In  order  to  counteract  the  treaty 
of  Vienna,  another  was  concluded  at  Hanover,  between  the 
three  offended  powers,  and  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden.  (1736.)  The  King  of  England  fitted  out  three 
squadrons,  one  of  which  he  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  to  block 
up  the  Spanish  galleons,  in  the  harbour  of  Porto  Bello.  The 
Spaniards,  in  resentment  of  this  insult,  laid  siege  to  Gibraltar, 
but  without  success ;  and  a  reconciliation  was  soon  after 
effected,  through  the  mediation  of  France.  During  these 
negotiations  died  George  I.,  being  suddenly  seized  with  a 
paralytic  disorder,  on  the  road  from  Holland  to  Hanover ;  he 
was  conveyed  to  Osnaburgh,  where  he  expired,  on  the  11th 

*  Philip  V.  had  abdicated  the  crown  the  preceding  year,  in  favour  of  his 
son,  Don  Lewis;  but  this  prince  dying  about  six  months  after,  Philip  again 
resumed  the  sceptre. 


178  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  (^CHAF 

of  June,  1727,  in  the  sixly-eighth  year  of  liis  a^e,  and 
tliirtetMith  of  his  reiirn.  Hy  his  consort,  Sophia  Dorothea, 
hfircss  of  ZcU,  he  U*ft  a  son,  (ieorire,  who  sncccctk'd  to  the 
throne,  and  a  ihiii<rhler,  married  to  FrecU'iic  William,  Kinij  of 
Prussia.  George  I.  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  have  the 
merits  of  his  reiijn  attributed  to  himself,  whiU;  its  (h-fects 
were  thrown  upon  the  corruption  and  false  principles  of  his 
ministers.  The  accession  of  George  II.  made  no  alteraliou 
in  the  svstfin  of  British  pcdicv. 

1731. — in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Seville,  confirmed 
by  another  at  Vienna,  Don  Charles  took  quiet  possession  of 
the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Plncentia,  when  the  succession 
devolved  upon  him  ;  hy  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  emperor 
also  agreed  that  the  Oslend  Company,  which  had  given  so 
much  umbrage  to  France,  England,  and  Holland,  should  be 
toUiUy  dissolved,  on  condition  that  the  contracting  powers  ia 
the  treaty  of  Seville  should  guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Saiu'tion, 
or  domestic  law,  iiy  which  the  succession  to  the  hereditary 
dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria  was  secured  to  the  heirs 
female  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  in  case  he  should  die 
without  male  issue.  The  proposal  was  acceded  to,  and  the 
peace  of  Europe  continued  undisturbed  till  the  death  of 
Aug\istus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  in  1733.  On  this  event, 
Stanislaus  Leczinski,  whom  ('harles  XIl.  had  invested  with 
the  sovereignty  of  Poland,  in  1704,  and  whom  Peter  the  Great 
had  dethroned,  now  become  father-in-law  to  Lewis  XV.,  was 
a  second  time  chosen  king.  IJut  the  emperor,  assisted  hy  the 
Russians,  obliged  the  Poles  to  proceed  to  a  new  election:  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  son  of  the  late  Kin^r  of  I'nhmd,  wlio  had 
married  the  emperor's  niece,  was  raised  to  the  throne,  under 
the  name  of  Augustus  III.,  and  Stanislaus,  as  formerly,  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  crown.  Lewis  XV,  thought  himself 
injured  in  the  person  of  that  prince,  and  determined  to  be 
revenired  on  the  emperor:  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia,  and  war  was  begun  in  Italy 
and  on  the  frontiers  of  (Jcrmany  :  tlie  imperial  courts  of  Vienna 
and  I'cU-rsburgh  warndy  espoused  the  pretensions  of  Augustus. 
Philipsburg  was  invested  by  the  French,  uiuler  the  Duke  of 
Hcrwick;  and  though  this  experienced  commander  was  killed 
by  a  cannon-ball,  in  visiting  the  trenches,  the  place  was  taken 
by  the  Marquis  d'Asfeld,  who  succeeded  Berwick,  in  spite 
nf  the  efforts  of  I'ri nci-  l]ugenc  to  prevent  its  surrender. 

The  French  were  not  less  successful  in  Italv,  while  the 
Spaniaids,  in  two  campaigns,  became  masters  of  Naples  and 


XXXII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  179 

Sicily.  Discouraged  by  so  many  losses,  the  emperor  signified 
a  desire  of  peace,  which  was  finally  adjusted,  in  1735.  By 
this  treaty  it  was  stipulated,  that  Stanislaus  should  renounce 
his  pretensions  to  Poland,  in  consideration  of  the  cession  of 
the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  which  he  should  enjoy  during  his  life, 
and  which,  after  his  death,  should  be  reunited  to  the  crown 
of  France ;  that  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  should  have  Tuscany 
in  exchange  for  his  hereditary  dominions ;  and  that  Lew  is  X  V 
should  insure  to  him  an  annual  revenue  of  3,500,000  livres 
till  the  death  of  the  grand  duke  ;*  that  the  emperor  should 
acknowledge  Don  Carlos  king  of  the  two  Sicilies,  and  accept 
the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia  as  an  indemnification  for 
those  kingdoms ;  that  he  should  cede  to  the  King  of  Sardinia 
the  Novarese,  Torlonese,  and  the  fiefs  of  Langes ;  in  consi- 
deration of  these  cessions,  the  King  of  France  agreed  to 
restore  all  his  conquests  in  Germany,  and  to  guarantee  the 
Pragmatical  Sanction.  Scarcely  was  this  peace  negotiated, 
when  a  new  war  broke  out  on  the  confines  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  in  which  the  emperor  found  himself  involved.  Pro- 
voked at  the  ravages  of  the  Crim  Tartars,  as  well  as  at  the 
neglect  of  the  Ottoman  Porte  to  her  repeated  remonstrances, 
Anne,  Empress  of  Russia,  resolved  to  do  herself  justice.  She 
accordingly  ordered  Lasci,  one  of  her  generals,  to  attack 
Asoph,  which  he  reduced;  M'hile  the  Count  de  Munich, 
entering  the  Crimea  with  another  army,  forced  the  lines  of 
Precop,  made  himself  master  of  the  place  itself,  took  Banie- 
sary,  and  laid  all  Tartary  waste  with  fire  and  sword.  Next 
campaign,  Munich  entered  the  Ukraine  and  invested  Ocza- 
kow,  which  was  carried  by  assault,  though  defended  by 
a  garrison  of  3000  Janizaries,  and  7000  Bosniacs.  The 
powder-magazine  having  taken  fire,  the  Russian  general  took 
that  opportunity  to  storm  the  town,  and  the  Turks  soon  sur- 
rendered. 

The  emperor,  who  was  bound  by  treaty  to  assist  the  court 
of  Petersburg  against  the  Porte,  resolved  to  attack  the  Turks 
on  the  side  of  Hungary,  while  the  Russians  conti'.med  to 
press  them  on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea;  but  the  imperial 
generals  were  repeatedly  defeated,  several  important  places 
were  lost,  and,  in  1739,  Belgrade  was  besieged.  Discou- 
raged by  his  misfortunes,  Charles  VL  had  recourse  to  the  me- 
diation of  France  ;  and  the  Empress  of  Russia,  though 
recently  victorious  at  Choczim,  afraid  of  being  deserted  by 

•  John  Gaston,  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  Medicis,  who  died  in  1737 


iSO  OENKRAL    HISTOKY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

liiT  j.Uy,  li:ul  :ilso  recourse  to  negotiation.  Tlie  Turks 
obiaiiioii  an  advBiUagcous  peace.  Hy  tlial  treaty,  tlic  empe- 
ror ceded  to  the  graiul  .seiiiuior  Ik-lj^iade,  Sahalz,  tlie  isle  and 
fortress  of  Orsova,  with  JServia  and  Austrian  Wahicliia;  and 
llie  contracting  powers  agreed  that  the  Danube  and  tlie  Save 
should  in  future  be  the  boundaries  of  the  two  empires. 

Tiie  Euipretis  of  Russia  was  h'ft  in  possession  of  Asoph,  on 
condition  that  its  fortitications  siiouKl  be  duinohshed  ;  and  tiie 
ancient  limits  between  the  Russian  and  Turkish  empires  were 
re-established. 

Soon  after  this  peace  was  signed,  died,  in  1740,  the  Em- 
peror Charles  VI.,  the  last  prince  of  the  ancient  and  illustrious 
house  of  Austria  ;  the  disputtid  succession  to  whose  hereditary 
dominions,  kindled  anew  the  flames  of  war  in  Eurojje.  The 
same  year,  the  English  took  Porto  Hello  from  the  Spaniards, 
and  Commodore  Anson  began  the  circumnavigation  of  the 
globe. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  i'HARLES 
VI.,  IN  1740,  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  DRESDEN,  IN  1745. 

1740. — The  death  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  without 
male  issue,  awakened  the  ambition  of  many  potentates,  the  ad- 
jusliuL'' "if  whose  j)rct('nsioMs  threw  all  lCuroi»e  into  a  fernu'ut. 
Hy  virtue  of  the  Praj^uiatic  Sanction,  as  well  as  the  rights 
of  blood,  the  succession  to  the  whole  Austrian  dominions 
belonged  to  the  Arch-dufhess  Maria  Teresa,  the  emperor's 
eldest  daughter,  married  to  Francis  of  Lorraine,  (irand  Duke 
of  Tuscany.  The  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Holiemia,  the 
provinces  of  Silesia,  Austrian  Swabia,  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria,  Stiria,  ('arinthia,  Carniola  ;  the  four  forest  towns, 
Hurgaw,  Hrisgaw,  the  Low  Countries,  Eriuli,  Tyrol,  the 
duchies  of  Milan,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  formed  that  immense 
inheritance. 

Almost  all  the  European  powers  had  guarantied  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction;  but,  as  Prince  Eugene  remarked  very  judi- 
ciously, "a  hundred  thousand  men  would  have  guarantied  it 
better  than  a  hundred  th(>\isand  treaties."  Charles  Albert, 
Elector  of  Havaria,  laid  claim  to  the  kitiffdom  of  Hobemia,  on 
the  strength  of  an  article  in  tin;  will  of  the  Emperor  l'"erdi- 
Uiind  1..  brother  to  Charles  V.  :  Augustus  III.,  Kirigof  Poland 


XXXIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  181 

and  Elector  of  Saxony,  exhibited  pretensions  to  the  whole 
Austrian  succession,  in  virtue  of  the  rights  of  his  wife,  daugh 
ter  of  the  Emperor  Joseph,  elder  brother  of  Charles  VI. 
The  Catholic  king  deduced  similar  pretensions  from  the 
rights  of  the  daughter  of  Maximilian  II.,  wife  to  Philip  II., 
from  whom  he  was  descended  by  females  ;  and  the  King  of  Sar  • 
dinia  revived  an  obsolete  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Milan.  The  King 
of  France  had  also  his  pretensions,  as  being  descended  in  a  riglu 
line  from  the  eldest  branch  of  the  house  of  Austria,  by  two  prin- 
cesses married  to  his  ancestors,  Lewis  XIII.  and  Lewis  XIV. 
In  the  mean  time,  Maria  Teresa  took  quiet  possession  of  that 
vast  inheritance,  which  was  secured  to  her  by  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction.  She  received  the  homage  of  the  states  of  Austria 
at  Vienna  ;  and  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  swore 
allegiance  to  her  by  their  deputies,  as  did  the  Italian  posses- 
sions. By  a  popular  affability,  which  her  predecessors  had 
seldom  displayed,  she  gained  the  hearts  of  her  subjects,  with- 
out diminishing  her  dignity.  But,  above  all,  she  ingratiated 
jierself  with  the  Hungarians,  in  voluntarily  accepting  the  an- 
rient  oath  of  their  sovereigns,  by  which  the  subjects,  should 
their  privileges  be  invaded,  are  allowed  to  defend  themselves 
tvithout  being  treated  as  rebels. 

The  first  alarm  given  by  Maria  Teresa's  enemies  was  by  a 
formidable  but  unexpected  pretender.  Frederic  II.,  King  o. 
Prussia,  had  lately  succeeded  his  father,  Frederic  William 
This  enterprising  monarch  revived  certain  antiquated  claims 
of  his  family  to  four  duchies  in  Silesia,  and  began  his  march 
at  the  head  of  .30,000  choice  troops  to  establish  his  right. 
When  he  found  himself  in  the  heart  of  that  rich  province,  and 
in  possession  of  Breslaw,  its  capital,  he  showed  a  disposition 
to  negotiate.  He  offued  to  supply  the  Queen  of  Hungary  (as 
Maria  Teresa  was  then  generally  called)  with  money  and 
troops  ;  to  protect  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  the  rest  of  her 
dominions  in  Germany,  and  to  use  all  his  interest  to  place  her 
husband  on  the  imperial  throne,  provided  she  would  cede  to 
him  the  Lower  Silesia.  But  tlie  queen  was  sensible  that  by  yield-* 
ing  to  the  claims  of  one  pretender,  she  should  only  encourage 
those  of  others  ;  she  therefore  rejected  the  offers  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  and  sent  Count  Newperg,  with  a  strong  body  of 
troops,  into  Silesia,  to  expel  the  invaders.  The  two  armies 
met  at  Molwitz,  a  village  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Neiss,  and 
within  a  league  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  There  a  des- 
perate battle  was  fought.  The  Austrians  lost  4,000  men,  and 
were  obliged  to  retreat.     This  victory  of  the  Prussians  was 

18 


|82  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  |  ClIAF. 

followed,  tlioiich  not  immediately,  by  the  rednrtion  of  fJlati 
and  Nciss,  ami  the  submission  of  the  wiiole  province  ol  Silesia. 
The  success  of  the  Kin^  of  Prussia  astonished  all  Europe, 
and  tiie  refusal  of  Maria  Teresa  to  comply  with  his  demands, 
whieli  had  so  lately  been  diijnilied  with  the  name  of  jrrealness 
of  soul,  wi's  now  branded  with  the  appellation  of  imprudent 
obstinacy  and  hereditary  hausrhtiness.      The  Queen  of  Hun- 
gary mitrht  perhaps  have  found  an  ally  in  Russia,  if  Sweden 
had  not  prevented  it  l)y  declaring  war  against  that  empire  in 
174 1 .     The  campaign  of  the  following  year  proving  disastrous 
to  the  Swedes,  peace  was  concluded  between  these  two  powers, 
at  Abo,   in    1743.     The   crown  of  Sweden,  on  the  death  of 
Ulrica   Eleanora,  (in    1741,)  had  devolved   on  her  husband, 
Frederic,    Landgrave    of  Hesse    Cassel  ;    when    peace    with 
Russia   was   treated  of,   the   states   of  Sweden   chose    Prince 
Adolphus  Frederick,  of  Holstein  Gottorp,  Bishop  of  Lubeck, 
hereditary  prince  ;  and  on  the  death  of  his  predecessor,  in  1751, 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Sweden.      A  revolution  also  took 
place  in  Russia  in  1741.     'I'lie  Empress  Anne,  dying  in  1740, 
named  for  her  successor  John  or  Iwan,  the  son  of  her  niece 
Anne,  married  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick   Bcvern.     The  fol- 
lowing year  the  Princess  Anne  was  appointed  regent  for  her 
infant    son,  and    her    husband   named   generalissimo   of  the 
Russian  forces  ;  but   discontents  arising  on    account  of  the 
share  which  forciirners  had  in  the  government,  the  Princess 
Elizabeth,  only  surviving  child  of  Peter  the  Great,  was,  con- 
formably to  the  will  of  her  father,  called  to  the  throne  in  1741, 
and  the  regent,  with  her  son  and  husband,  was  imprisoned. 
France  had  guarantied  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (»f  (Jiiarles  V'l., 
and  Cardinal  Fleury,  whose  love  of  peace  increased  with  his 
declining  years,  was  desirous  of  fulfilling  his  master's  engage- 
ment; hut  no  sooner  was  it  known  at  Versailles  that  the  King 
of  Prussia  had  invaded  Silesia,  than  the  French  nation  became 
desirous  of  breaking  the  power  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and 
of  exaltin?  that  of  Bourbon  on  its  ruins,  by  dismembering  the 
dominions    of    Maria    Teresa,    and    placing   on  the    imperial 
throne  Charles  Albert,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  a  stipendiary  of  his 
most  Christian   Majesty.      A   treaty  was  therefore  concluded 
between  France  and  Spain  with  Bavaria,  against  Maria  Teresa; 
the  Kings  of  Poland,  Prussia,  Sardinia,  and  N.aples,  afterwards 
acceded  to  this  alliance,  and  I^ewis  appointed   the  Elector  of 
Bavaria  his  lieutenant-general,  with  the  Mareschals    Belleisle 
and  Broglio  to  act  under  him.     In  1741,  the  combined  forces 
of  France  and  Prussia  overrun  Upper  Austria,  took  possession 


XXXIII.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  183 

of  Lintz,   and  approached  Vienna,   which   was    thrown  into 
great  consternation.      In  this  extremity  of  her  fortune,  INIaria 
Teresa,  committing  her  desperate  affairs  to  the  care  of  hei 
husband  and  her  brave  generals,  left  Vienna  and  retired  to 
Presburg  in  Hungary  ;  where  having  assembled  the  states  of 
that  kingdom,  she  appeared  before  them  with  her  eldest  son, 
yet  an  infant,  in  her  arms,  and  addressed  them  in  a  speech  to 
the  following  purport.     "  Abandoned  by  my  friends,  perse- 
cuted by  my  enemies,  and  attacked  by  my  nearest  relations,  I 
nave  no  resource  left,  but  in  your  fidelity  and  valour.    On  you 
alone  I  depend  for  relief;  and  into  your  hands  I  commit,  with 
confidence,  the  son  of  your  sovereign,  and  my  just  cause."    At 
once  filled  with  rage  and  compassion  at  these  affecting  expres- 
sions of  confidence,  by  so  flattering  an  appeal  to  their  loyalty, 
and  by  the  appearance  of  a  young,  heroic  princess  in  distress, 
the  Palatines  drew  their  sabres,  and  exclaimed,  in  a  tone  of 
enthusiasm,  "  We  will    die  for  our  king,*  Maria  Teresa." 
The  Hungarian  nobility  were  instantly  in  arms,  and  old  Count 
Palfy,  whom   the  queen  honoured  with  the  name  of  father, 
marched  to  the  relief  of  Vienna,  with  30,000  men.     Keven- 
huUer   had   a    garrison   of  12,000,  Count  Newperg  was   in 
Bohemia   at   the  head  of  20,000 :    the  grand   duke   and   his 
brother.  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  who  was  the  delight  of 
the  Austrian  armies,  commanded  another  large  body  ;  and  the 
other  generals  were  exerting  themselves  to  the  utmost  in  rais- 
ing troops  for  their  sovereign.     These  circumstances,  added 
to  the  declining  season,  induced  the  Elector  of  Bavaria   to 
alter  his  plans  ;  instead  of  investing  Vienna,  he  marched  into 
Bohemia,  and,  being  joined  by  20,000  Saxons,  laid  siege  to 
Prague.     The  place  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the  gallantry 
of  the  famous  Count  Saxe,  natural  son  of  Augustus  H.,  of 
Poland,  who  had  already  entered  the  French  service  :  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  having  been  crowned  King  of  Bohemia  at 
Prague,  proceeded  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  elected  emperor, 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VH.,  and  invested  with  the  imperial 
ensigns  in  January,  1742. 

The  intimate  connexion  between  England  and  the  house  of 
Austria,  since  the  revolution  in  1688,  cemented  by  the  blood 
spilled  during  two  long  and  desolating  wars  against  Lewis 
XIV.,  made  the  people  consider  this  connexion  as  essential  to 
the  liberties  of  Europe,  against  the  power  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon.     The  English  nation  therefore  warmly  espoused 

*  Tlie  Hungarians  call  their  sovereign,  king,  of  whatever  sex. 


184  GENERAL  HISTORY   OF   EUROPE.  [CU\9 

the  causo  of  llir  Qiieon  of  Iluiisraiy  :  tlio  cry  for  war  was  loud, 
and  for  fiilfilliiiir  lo  ilic  utmost,  the  treaty  with  the  hitc  emperor. 
Georj^e  II.,  who  sceiru-d  only  to  value  the  Hrilish  crown  as  it 
augmented  his  consequence  in  (iermany,  was  suiricicnlly  dis- 
pos(!d  lo  enter  into  these  views:  KUlO  Ikitish  troops  were 
transported  into  the  Low  Countries,  to  make  a  diversion  in 
favour  of  Maria  Teresa;  they  were  joined  by  6,000  Hessians 
and  10,000  Hanoverians  in  Ikitish  pay. 

Tlie  good  fortime  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  terminated  with 
IMS  elevation  to  the  imperial  throne.  The  very  day  that  he  was 
elected  emperor,  he  received  an  account  of  the  loss  of  Lintz, 
the  capital  of  Upper  Austria,  though  defended  by  a  garrison 
of  10,000  Frencli  troops.  KevenhuUer,  the  Austrian  general, 
who  had  |)crformed  this  important  service,  having  dislodged 
the  Frencli  from  all  llie  stronghoUls  of  that  country,  entered 
the  emperor's  hereditary  dominions,  defeated  Marshal  Thoring 
at  Memherij,  and  took  Munich,  capital  of  IJavaria.  In  the 
mean  time  Prince  Lobkowitz,  with  11,000  foot  and  5,000 
horse,  was  appointed  to  observe  the  motions  of  the  French  in 
Bohemia,  while  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  at  the  head  of 
48,000  men,  advanced  against  the  Prussians  and  Saxons  who 
had  invaded  Moravia.  They  retired  with  precipitation  on  iiis 
approach,  and  al)andoned  Olmutz,  whicii  they  had  taken. 
This  retreat  was  considered  ;is  an  event  of  mucli  importance 
l>y  the  Austrians  ;  but  the  active  and  enterprising  King  of 
Prussia,  having  received  a  reinforcement  of  30,000  men,  under 
the  Prince  of  Aiilialt-Dcssau,  marched  to  the  assistance  of  his 
allies  in  Boiieinia,  and  gave  battle  to  Prince  Charles,  at 
Czaslaw.  The  disciplined  troops  on  both  sides  were  nearly 
equul,but  the  Austrians  had  besides  a  large  body  of  undisciplined 
irregidars,  Croats,  Pandurs,  *Sic.,  who  engaged  with  incredible 
fury."  The  Prussians  were  brokcMi ;  the  king  left  the  field, 
and  a  total  defeat  must  have  ensued,  had  not  the  thirst  of 
plunder  seized  the  Austrian  irreffidars,  at  the  sight  of  the 
Prussian  l)aggage.  Their  example  infected  the  regulars,  who 
gave  over  the  pursuit.  The  Prussian  infantry  seized  the  op- 
portunity to  rally;  they  n.-turned  to  the  charge,  and  after  an 
ol)stinate  aHVay,  broke  the  main  body  of  the  Austrian  army, 
and  obliged  I'rince  Charles  to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  5,000 
men.  The  King  of  Prussia,  whose  loss  was  litUe  inferior  to 
that  of  the  Austrians,  sick  of  such  bloody  victories,  and  suspect- 
ing  the   sincerity  of  the  court  of  France,   began   to   turn   his 

•  The  CroaUi  arc  the  militia  of  C'roalia  ;  tin-  Patidors  arc  Sclavoiiiana. 


XXXin._,  GIJNERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  185 

thoughts  towards  peace,  and  concluded  at  Breslaw,  without 
consulthig  his  allies,  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the  Queen 
of  Hungary.  By  this  treaty,  Maria  Teresa  ceded  to  Frederic 
II.  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia,  with  the  county  of  Glatz ;  and 
he  engaged  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality  during  the  war,  and 
to  withdraw  his  forces  from  her  dominions,  within  sixteen 
days  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty.  A  peace  was  also  con- 
cluded, nearly  at  the  same  time,  between  the  Queen  of  Hun- 
gary and  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony, 
by  which  she  yielded  to  him  certain  places  in  Bohemia,  and 
he  guarantied  to  her  the  possession  of  the  rest  of  that  king- 
dom. The  intelligence  of  the  treaty  of  Breslaw  came  like  a 
clap  of  thunder  upon  the  court  of  France.  The  Mareschals 
Belleisle  anrf  Broglio  no  sooner  found  themselves  deserted  by 
the  Prussians,  than  they  abandoned  their  magazines  and  heavy 
baggage,  and  retired  with  precipitation  under  the  cannon  of 
Prague.  There  they  entrenched  themselves  in  a  kind  of 
peninsular  meadow,  formed  by  the  windings  of  the  river 
Muldaw,  while  the  Prince  of  Lorraine,  having  joined  Lobko- 
witz,  encamped  in  sight  of  them  on  the  hills  of  Grisnitz. 

Maillebois,  who  commanded  on  the  Rhine,  marched  to  the 
relief  of  Prague,  at  the  head  of  73,000  men ;  but  he  was  neces- 
sitated to  return  to  the  Palatinate ;  all  prospect  of  relief  for 
the  besieged  was  now  cut  off:  still  the  intrepid  spirit  of  Belle- 
isle  supported  him,  and  seemed  to  communicate  itself  to  the 
whole  army.  Finding  no  terms  would  be  accepted,  but  that 
he  and  all  his  garrison  should  surrender  themselves  prisoners, 
he  formed  the  design  of  a  retreat;  and  by  making  in  one  quar- 
ter of  the  town  a  feint  for  a  general  forage,  he  marched  out  at 
another  with  14,000  men,  and  got  a  day's  ma  ch  of  Prince 
Lobkowitz.  The  great  extent  of  the  walls  of  Prague  rendered 
this  the  more  practicable  ;  and  the  better  to  amuse  the  enemy, 
he  left  a  small  garrison  in  the  city.  He  had  ten  leagues  to 
march  before  he  could  reach  the  defiles ;  the  ground  was  co- 
vered with  snow ;  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  his 
enemies,  and  Prince  Lobkowitz,  with  20,000  men,  hung  on 
his  rear.  Under  all  these  disadvantages,  however,  he  reached 
the  defiles,  with  his  army  unbroken.  After  a  fatiguing  march 
of  twelve  days,  he  arrived  at  Egra,  which  was  still  in  the 
hands  of  the  French,  and  entered  Alsace,  without  the  loss  of 
a  single  man  by  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  but  of  a  thousand 
in  consequence  of  the  rigour  of  the  season. 

The  war  raged  during  this  campaign  with  no  less  violence 
\n  Italy,  than  in  Germany.     On  the  death  of  the  emperor  ' 

18* 


186  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  [CHAP 

Charles  VI.,  the  King  of  Spain  put  in  a  claim  to  the  whole 
Austrian  succession,  and  the  King  of  Sardinia  revived  one  to 
the  duchy  <>f  Milan.  Bolli  afterwards  thouirlit  proper  to  mode- 
rate their  pretensions,  'i'iie  S[)anish  monarch  seemed  (hs- 
p()sc<l  to  he  satisfied  witli  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy,  which 
he  intended  to  erect  into  a  kingdom  for  Don  I'hilip,  his  young- 
est son  hy  the  Princess  of  Parma:  and  his  Sardinian  majesty, 
alarmed  at  the  encroachments  of  the  house  of  l{ouil)on,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  Queen  of  Hungary  and  the 
Kinii'  of  Great  Hritain,  in  consideration  of  an  annual  sulisidy, 
and  the  cession  of  certain  places  contiguous  to  his  dominions. 

All  the  other  Italian  slates  affected  to  remain  neutral  during 
the  war.  An  EuLdish  fleet  had  cruised  in  the  Mediterranean 
ever  since  tiie  declaration  of  war  with  Spain,  withovit  per- 
forming any  thing  of  consequence.  Admiral  Matthews,  being 
apj)oinled  chief  commander,  was  vested  with  full  powers  to 
treat  with  the  Italian  states,  as  his  Britannic  Majesty's  minis- 
ter. In  this  double  caj)acity,  he  watched  the  motions  of  the 
Spaniards  both  by  sea  and  land ;  and  understanding  that  the 
Kin<r  of  the  two  Sicilies  had,  notwithstanding  his  jiretended 
neutrality,  sent  a  body  of  troops  to  join  Uie  Spanish  army, 
he  sent  an  English  squadron  into  the  bay  of  Naples,  with 
onlers  to  bombard  that  city,  unless  the  kins:  consented  to  with- 
draw his  troops,  and  siijn  a  promise  that  they  shimld  not  act 
in  conjunction  with  Spain  during  the  continuance  of  the  war. 
These  conditions  were  immediately  acceded  to.  Meanwhile, 
Don  Philip,  third  son  of  his  Catholic  majesty,  for  whose  ag- 
grandizement the  war  had  been  undertaken,  invaded  Savoy 
with  another  Spanish  army,  which  he  had  led  through  France, 
and  soon  made  himself  master  of  that  duchy.  Alarmed  at 
this  irruption,  the  King  of  Sardinia  returned  with  his  troops 
to  the  defence  of  Piedmont,  which  the  Spaniards  attempted  in 
vain  to  enter.  The  Queen  of  Hunirary,  now  victorious,  was 
in  possession  of  the  territories  of  Charles  VII.,  so  that  the 
French,  tired  of  supporting  that  princ(%  in  whose  cause  they 
had  lost  above  100,000  men,  made  at  last  proposals  of  peace, 
which  were,  however,  rejected. 

The  Queen  of  Iliinirary's  good  fortune  continued  to  attend 
her.  Prince  (Jharles  of  Lorraine  having  assumed  the  com- 
mand of  the  Austrian  army  in  IJavaria,  defeated  the  Im|)er.- 
llists  with  jrreat  slaujrhter,  near  Hranaw,  and  took  possession 
of  their  canip ;  while  Prince  liohkowitz,  marching  from  Ho- 
liemia,  drove  the  French  from  all  their  |)osts  in  the  Upper 
Palatinate;  and  the  emi)eror,  finding  himself  abandoned  by  hii 


XXXIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  187 

allies,  and  stripped  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  took  refuge 
in  Frankfort,  where  he  lived  in  indigence  and  obscurity. 

The  operations  on  the  side  of  Flanders,  during  the  cam- 
paign of  1743,  were  important,  though  not  decisive.  The 
British  and  Hanoverian  troops,  commanded  by  the  Earl  of 
Stair ;  and  the  Austrians  under  the  Duke  d'Aremberg,  begaa 
their  march  from  the  Low  Countries  towards  Germany ;  the 
King  of  France  sent  an  army  under  the  Duke  of  Noailles, 
prevent  these  allies  from  joining  Prince  Charles ;  while  he 
despatched  another  army  into  Alsace,  to  oppose  that  prince, 
should  he  attempt  to  pass  the  Rhine.  Having  secured  Spire, 
Worms,  and  Oppenlieim,  Noailles  passed  the  Rhine,  and 
posted  himself  above  Frankfort ;  the  Earl  of  Stair  advanced 
to  Aschaftenburg,  with  a  view  of  securing  the  navigation  of 
the  Upper  Maine,  but  Noailles  had  prevented  him  and  cut  off 
all  supplies.  The  King  of  Great  Britain,  attended  by  his 
second  son,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  arrived  in  June,  at  the 
camp  of  the  aUies,  and  found  his  army,  amounting  to  40,900 
men,  eager  for  battle,  but  in  great  want  of  supplies.  The 
French  general,  in  fact,  had  taken  his  measures  so  wisely, 
that  it  was  thought  the  allies  must  be  forced  to  surrender  pris- 
oners of  war,  or  to  be  cut  to  pieces  if  they  attempted  to  with- 
draw. A  retreat,  however,  was  resolved  upon.  Their  danger- 
ous route  lay  between  a  mountain  and  the  river  Maine ;  they 
were  annoyed  in  their  march  by  the  enemy's  cannon,  and  the 
French  general,  leading  60,000  of  his  men  over  the  bridges 
he  had  erected  across  the  river,  took  possession  of  the  village 
of  Dettingen,  in  front  of  the  allies  ;  while  another  detachment 
occupied  Aschaffenburg,  v/hich  they  had  abandoned.  Having 
made  these  dispositions,  Noailles  repassed  the  Maine,  the  bet- 
ter to  observe  the  motions  of  the  enemy.  Meanwhile,  the 
Duke  de  Grammont,  (his  nephew  and  lieutenant-general,)  who 
was  stationed  at  Dettingen,  with  80,000  choice  troops,  eager 
to  engage,  passed  the  defiles  behind  which  they  were  posted, 
and  advanced  into  a  plain,  called  the  Cock  Field,  where  the 
allies  had  formed  themselves  in  order  of  battle.  Noailles 
beheld  this  movement  with  grief  and  astonishment ;  but  could 
not  arrive  in  time  to  prevent  it.  The  French  charged  .vith 
great  impetuosity,  and  put  the  Austrian  cavalry  into  disorder: 
the  British  and  Hanoverian  infantry,  animated  by  the  presence 
of  their  sovereign,  who  rode  bet'.veen  the  lines  with  his  sword 
drawn,  stood  firm  as  a  rock,  and  poured  forth  an  incessant 
fire,  which  nothing  could  resist.  By  a  masterly  manosuvre, 
on  the  approach  of  the  French  cavalry,  who  rushed  on  despe- 


188  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [ciIAP 

rately,  these  impenetrable  battalions  opened  their  linos,  and 
afterwards  closing  ajrain,  made  great  havoc  in  that  gallant  body. 
'I'crior  now  seized  llic  wiiole  Frencli  army,  every  one  crying 
"Sauve  qui  pent,"  so  that  the  Duke  de  Noailles  found  liiin- 
Bclf  under  the  necessity  of  precii)itatcly  retreating  over  the 
iMaine,  with  the  loss  of  5,000  men.  'I'lie  allied  army,  though 
reinforced  with  20,000  Dutch  auxiliaries,  did  nothing  of  any 
consequence  after  the  victory  of  Dettingen  ;  and  tlie  Earl  of 
Stair  was  so  dissatisfied  witli  this  inaction,  that  he  resigned 
in  disgust. 

The  season  was  so  far  on  the  decline  before  the  Spanish 
armv,  under  Don  Pliilip,  entered  upon  action,  that  the  cam- 
paiijn,  on  the  side  of  Piedmont,  was  distinguished  by  no  im- 
portant event.     The  inaction  of  this  prince  was  occasioned 
by   secret  negotiations,   and   ended  in   the    famous  treaty  of 
Worms,  by  which  his  Sardinian  majesty  renounced   his  pre- 
tensions to  the  duchy   of   Milan,  and   guarantied    anew  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  :  the  Queen  of  Hungary  relinquishing,  in 
his  favour,  all   title  to  the  town  and  marquisate  of  Final,  and 
some  other  places.     'J'his  private  treaty  ilissipated  all  hopes 
of  a  general  peace;  the  Queen  of  Hungary  not  only  rejected 
any  terms  of  accommodation  with   the  emperor,  but  avowed 
her  purpose  of  keeping  possession  of  Bavaria,  and  the  Upper 
Palatinate,  as  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of  Silesia;   this 
produced  a  change  in  the  sentiments  of  the  principal  German 
powers.     Tiieir  jealousy  of  liie  ambition  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria was  revived,  and  their  pride  was  wounded  by  the  degra- 
dation of  the  imperial  dignity,  in  the  person  of  ('harles  VII., 
now  no   better  than  an  illustrioiis  beggar,  depending  on  the 
bounty  of  Prance  for  a  precarious  subsistence.     Tiiey  resolved 
to  interpose  in  his    favour,      A   secret  negotiation   began  be- 
iwj-en  France,  the  emperor,  the  Elector  Palatine,  the  King  of 
Sweden,  as  Landgrave'  of  Hesse  Cassel,  and  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia, as  Elector  of  Brandenl)urg,  who  feared  the  growing  power 
of  Maria  Teresa  might  strip  him  of  his  late  comiuests,    (ireat 
preparations  were  made  for  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour; 
20,000  French   troops,  under  the  Prince  of  Conti,  were  or- 
dered to  join  Don  I'liilip  in  Savoy  ;  and  the  French  and  Spa- 
nish s(iuadron  at  'I'oulon  were  commanded  to  act  in  concert, 
and  attempt  to  recover  tlie  sovereignty  of  the  Mediterranean. 
If  successful,  to  join  the  Brest  fleet,  and  having  established  a 
Huperiority  in  the  channel,  to  assist  in  the   prr)jecled   invasion 
of  ICngland. 

That  enterprise,  which  had  for  its  more  remote  object  thf 


JtXXIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    MTKOPE.  189 

re-establishment  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  was  planned  with  a 
view  of  obliging  George  II.  to  recall  his  troops  from  the  Con- 
tinent in  defence  of  his  own  dominions.  A  correspondence 
was  entered  into  with  the  Jacobites  in  Scotland  and  England, 
where  the  public  discontent  was  very  great;  the  people  being 
enraged  at  the  mysterious  inaction  of  the  last  campaign,  which 
they  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  German  counsels,  and  to  the 
political  situation  of  George  II.  as  Elector  of  Hanover.  Car- 
dinal de  Tencin,  who  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  Fleury  had 
taken  the  lead  in  the  French  administration,  was  warmly 
attached  to  the  Stuart  family,  and  the  chief  promoter  of  this 
enterprise:  15,000  men  were  assembled  in  Picardy  under 
Count  Saxe  ;  a  number  of  transports  were  collected  at  Calais, 
Dunkirk,  and  Boulogne,  and  Charles  Edward,  eldest  son  of 
the  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  whom  his  father,  in  a  procla- 
mation dated  from  his  court  at  Rome,  had  nominated  regent 
of  the  three  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
arrived  in  the  French  camp  to  join  the  expedition.* 

The  transports  put  to  sea;  but,  a  sudden  storm  arising,  they 
were  driven  back  with  great  damage  and  loss  of  men ;  so  that 
the  young  prince,  after  being  within  sight  of  the  English 
coast,  found  himself  necessitated  to  wait  for  another  opportu- 
nity to  attempt  the  recovery  of  the  kingdom  of  his  ances- 
tors. Mutual  declarations  of  war  were  now  issued  by  the 
Kings  of  France  and  England.  Lewis  XV.  accused  George 
II.  of  having  violated  the  neutrality  of  Hanover;  of  dissuading 
the  Queen  of  Hungary  from  coming  to  an  accommodation 
with  the  emperor;  of  blocking  up  the  ports  and  disturbing  the 

*  The  son  and  only  surviving  child  of  James  II.,  was  known  on  the 
Continent  by  the  name  of  the  Chevalier  de  St.  George;  in  England,  by 
that  of  the  Pretender.  Shortly  after  his  abortive  attempt  at  invasion,  in 
1715,  he  withdrew  from  France  into  Italy.  His  friends  having  advised 
him  to  marry,  a  suitable  consort  was  found  in  the  Princess  Clementina 
Sobieski,  granddaughter  of  the  famous  John  Sobieski  of  Poland.  It  was 
agreed  that  she  should  set  out  for  Italy  with  all  possible  expedition  ;  but  the 
plan  being  made  known  to  the  English  ministers,  they  found  means  to 
gain  over  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  by  whose  orders  the  princess  was 
stopped  at  Inspruck.  After  a  detention  of  two  months,  she  effected  her 
escape  from  prison,  and,  accompanied  by  her  mother,  reached  Bologna  in 
safety.  The  marriage  was  there  celebrated  by  proxy,  and  the  princess 
continued  her  journey  to  Rome,  where  she  was  joined  by  her  consort,  May, 
1719.  In  the  following  year  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  named 
Charles  Edward,  and,  in  1725,  to  a  second,  called  Henry  Benedict.  Dis- 
sensions unhappily  arising  between  Prince  James  and  his  consort,  the 
latter  withdrew  into  a  convent  in  Rome,  where  she  usually  resided  till  her 
fleath.     Prince  James  survived  her  some  years,  and  died  in  1766, 


190  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

commerce  of  France.  His  Britannic  majesty  recriminated, 
by  accusing  the  French  king  of  viidating  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion ;  of  iitteniptin^  to  dcstrov  the;  balance  of  power  in  Fu- 
roi)e,  l)y  ilisnicnihering  the  Austrian  succession;  of  assisting 
the  Spaniards,  in  contempt  of  the  faith  of  treaties  ;  of  harhonr- 
ini:  the  Pretender,  and  furnishing  him  willi  a  fleet  and  army  to 
invade  CJrcat  Britain. 

The  campaign  in  Italy  began  on  the  side  of  Piedmont. 
Don  Philip,  being  joined  by  the  Prince  of  Conti,  passed  the 
Var,  whicli  descends  from  the  Alps  and  falls  into  the  sea  of 
Genoa  below  Nice.  Tlie  whole  county  of  Nice  subinilUHl. 
The  French  and  Spanish  army  then  defiled  off  towards  Pied- 
mont, and  invested  the  strong  town  of  Coni ;  the  Kingr  of 
Sardinia,  being  reinforced  by  10,0(10  Austrians  under  Palavi- 
cini,  advanced  to  its  relief,  and  attacked  the  French  and 
Spaniards  in  their  cntreiicliinents,  but  was  obliged  to  retire 
with  considerable  loss  ;  ho,  however,  found  means  to  reinforce 
the  garrison  of  Coni,  and  to  convey  into  the  town  a  supply 
of  provisions  ;  this  obliged  Don  Philip  and  the  Prince  of 
Conti  to  raise  a  siege  which  had  almost  ruined  their  army  ; 
repassing  the  mountains,  they  took  up  their  winter  quarters 
in  Dauphine  ;  but  the  Spaniards  still  continued  in  possession 
of  Savoy,  which  they  fleeced  without  m(!rcy.  Meanwhile  a 
treaty  was  concluded  at  Frankfort,  througli  llic!  influence  of 
France,  between  the  Emperor  Charles  VTI.,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  the  Kinij  of  Sweden,  as  I^audgrave  of  Ilesse  Cassel, 
and  tlie  Elector  I'alatine.  'J'iie  declared  ol))ect  of  this  treaty 
was  to  restore  the  imperial  dignity  and  the  tranijuillity  of 
Germany;  the  contracting  jjowers  engaging  either  to  persuade 
or  oblige  the  Queen  of  Hungary  to  acknowledge  the  title  of 
Charles  V^H.,  to  give  up  the  archives  of  the  empire  still  in 
her  possession,  and  evacuate  Bavaria ;  the  emperor's  claims 
on  the  Austrian  succession  to  l)e  scUlled  by  a  fri«!ndly  compro- 
mise or  juridicial  decision.  So  far  the  <'onfederacy  seemed 
reasonable  ;  but  by  a  separate  article  of  a  difl'erent  nature,  the 
King  of  Prussia  engaged  to  put  the  emperor  in  possession  of 
Bolu-mia,  and  to  guarantee  to  him  Upper  Austria,  as  soon  as 
concjuered,  on  condition  he  should  give  up  to  his  Prussian 
Majesty  the  town  and  circle  of  Koningsgratz  in  its  whole 
extent,  with  the  country  between  the  frontiers  and  the  Elbe, 
and  from  Koningsgratz  to  the  conti nes  of  Saxony.  licwis 
XV^  put  himself  at  the  head  of  PiO,000  men,  in  sjiring,  and 
invested  Meiiin,  ('ount  Save,  now  Marshal  of  France,  com- 
manded   under   him.      Menin    surrunderud    in    seven   days  : 


XXXllI.J  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  191 

Ypres,  Fort  Knocke,  and  Fumes  were  reduced  with  equal 
facility,  and  Lewis  entered  Dunkirk  in  triumph ;  while  the 
allied  army,  unable  to  obstruct  his  passage,  continued  posted 
behind  the  Scheldt.  Meanwhile  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine 
entered  Alsace  at  the  head  of  60,000  Austrians,  took  Weisen- 
burg,  and  laid  all  Lower  Alsace  under  contribution.  Leaving 
Marshal  Saxe  in  Flanders,  Lewis  advanced  to  oppose  Prince 
Charles,  but  at  Metz  was  seized  with  a  fever  which  threaten- 
ed his  Ufe,  and  spread  consternation  throughout  France. 

His  recovery  was  celebrated  with  such  transports  of  joy,  as 
naturally  sprung  from  the  awakened  sensibility  of  a  nation, 
then  remarkable  for  its  attachment  to  its  sovereigns ;  and  it  was 
on  this  occasion  that  he  received  the  flattering  appellation  of 
Bien-aime.  In  the  interim,  Prince  Charles,  hearing  that  the 
King  of  Prussia  had  entered  Bohemia,  repassed  the  Rhine, 
and  hastened  to  the  relief  of  that  kingdom  :  and  Lewis  on  his 
recovery  besieged  and  took  Friburg.  Before  the  arrival  of 
Prince  Charles,  the  Prussian  monarch  had  made  himself 
master  of  Prague,  Tabor,  and  all  Bohemia  east  of  the  Mul- 
daw.  But  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland,  sent  16,000  men 
to  join  Prince  Charles,  who  was  also  reinforced  by  a  large 
body  of  Hungarians,  zealous  in  the  cause  of  their  sovereign, 
Maria  Teresa  ;  so  that  the  King  of  Prussia,  unable  to  with- 
stand such  a  force,  was  obliged  to  quit  Bohemia  and  retire 
with  precipitation  into  Silesia.  He  was  pursued  by  Prince 
Charles,  but  the  rigour  of  the  season  prevented  the  recovery 
of  that  valuable  province.  The  Prussians,  in  their  retreat, 
lost  above  30,000  men,  with  all  their  heavy  baggage,  artillery, 
provisions,  and  plunder. 

1745. — While  the  high-minded  Frederick  II,  experienced 
this  sudden  reverse  of  fortune,  the  dejected  fugitive,  Charles 
VII.  once  more  got  possession  of  his  capital,  Seckendorff",  the 
imperial  general,  having  driven  the  Austrians  out  of  Bavaria. 
But  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Prince  of  Lorraine  filled  him 
with  new  apprehensions,  and  he  was  in  danger  of  being  a 
third  time  chased  from  his  dominions,  when  death  freed  him 
from  a  complication  of  bodily  ills,  aggravated  by  the  anguish  of 
a  wounded  spirit.  His  son  Maximilian  Joseph,  being  only  se- 
venteen years  of  age,  could  not  become  a  candidate  for  the  im- 
perial throne.  He  therefore  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  Queen  of  Hungary.  By  this  treaty,  Maria  Teresa  agreed 
to  recognise  the  imperial  dignity,  as  having  been  vested  in  the 
person  of  Charles  VII.;  to  put  his  son  in  possession  of  all 
his  electoral  dominions,  which  she  had  again  invaded  ;  and  the 


192  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EIROPE.  [cHAP. 

young  elector  renounced  all  claim  to  any  part  of  the  Austrian 
succession ;  consented  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ; 
airrcfd  to  give  his  vole  for  the  grand  duke  at  the  ensuing 
elcciion  of  an  cmporor,  and  to  dismiss  tht?  auxiliary  troops 
in  his  service.  'I'iiis  treaty,  it  was  confidently  expected, 
would  prove  a  prelude  to  a  general  pacillcalion,  hut  the  French 
ministry  jiersisled  in  tlieir  resolution  of  opposing  the  election 
of  the  grand  duke,  and  of  continuing  the  war  in  Germany  and 
the  Low  Countries,  to  facilitate  the  operations  of  the  house 
of  Uourbon  in  Italy,  where  Elizubedi  Farnese,  who  still  di- 
rected all  the  measures  of  the  court  of  Madrid,  was  determined 
to  establish  a  sovereignty  for  her  second  son,  Don  Philip,  at 
the  expense  of  Maria  Teresa. 

Don  Pliilip  closed  a  brilliant  campaign  in  Italy  by  a  triumph 
ant  entry  into  Milan.  Lewis  XV.  was  equally  successful  in 
1745,  on  the  side  of  Flanders  :  he  first  invested  Tornay,  one 
of  the  strongest  towns  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  the 
most  important  in  the  Dutch  barrier.  The  Hanoverian  and 
the  British  troops,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  ("unil)erlaiid, 
advanced  to  its  relief,  with  the  Austrians  conducted  by  old 
Count  Konigseg,  and  the  Dutcli,  by  Prince  Waldeck,  as  young 
and  inexperienced  as  the  Duke  of  Cund)erland. 

The  I'rench  urmv,  under  Marshal  Saxe,  was  posted  on  a 
rising  ground  in  front  of  the  village  of  Fontenoy.  A  despe- 
rate battle  ensued  :  it  began  at  break  of  day,  and  lasted  till 
three  in  the  afternoon.  'I'hougli  tiie  fire  from  the  French  bat- 
teries was  so  heavy,  that  it  swept  oil  whole  ranks  at  a  single 
discharge,  the  British  infantry  continued  to  advance  as  if  they 
had  been  invulnerable,  and  drove  the  French  beyond  their 
lines.  Marshal  Saxe,  concluding  all  was  lost,  sent  advice  to 
the  king  to  provide  for  his  safety,  by  repassing  the  bridge  of 
Colonne ;  but  Lewis  XV.  refused  to  quit  his  post,  and  his 
firmness  saved  his  army  from  disgrace  and  ruin.  As  a 
last  resource  the  Irish  brigade  were  ordered  to  charge, 
and  filially  compelled  the  English  and  Hanoverians  to 
retire  with  the  loss  of  7,000  men,  after  having  successively 
routed  almost  every  regiment  in  the  French  army.  The 
French  lost  near  H),()00  men,  yet  their  joy  was  extravagantly 
high  at  their  dear-bouirlit  victory;  and  their  exultation  in  the 
hour  of  triumph  seemed  to  b(;ar  a  projjortion  to  llic  danger 
they  had  been  in  of  a  defeat.  After  this  battle,  the  allies  lay 
intrcnehed  between  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  while  Marshal  Saxe 
and  CJount  Lowendalil  rediii-ed  bv  stratagem  or  fifrce,  Tour- 
nay,   Oudenanle,    Ath,    Dendennonde,   Client,  Ostend,  ISew 


XXXII.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  193 

port,  and  every  other  fortified  place  in  Austrian  Flanders.  Yet 
tlie  Queen  of  Hungary  obtained  the  great  object  of  her  wishes, 
in  the  elevation  of  lier  husband  to  the  imperial  throne  ;  the 
electors  assembled  at  Frankfort,  and  raised  to  the  head  of  t'le 
empire  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  under  the  name  of 
Francis  I. 

Meanwhile  the  King  of  Prussia  gained  two  victories  over 
the  Aiistrians  under  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine ;  he  then 
invaded  Saxony,  and  made  himself  master  of  Dresden.  The 
King  of  Poland  now  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of 
suing  for  peace,  and  the  King  of  Prussia  was  heartily  tired 
of  the  war.  A  treaty  was  accordingly  concluded  at  Dr^-sden 
in  1745,  between  Augustus,  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Fred- 
eric II.,  by  which  Augustus  agreed  to  pay  Frederic  for  the 
evacuation  of  his  hereditary  dominions  one  million  of  German 
crowns  at  the  next  fair  of  Leipsic. 

Another  treaty,  confirming  that  of  Breslaw,  was  at  ths  same 
time  concluded  between  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Queen 
of  Hungary.  This  treaty  secured  to  Frederic  the  possession 
of  Silesia,  on  condition  of  acknowledging  the  new  emperor's 
election.  The  Elector  Palatine  was  included  in  this  tr.^aty  on 
the  same  condition.  These  treaties  restored  tranquillity  to 
Germany,  but  the  war  still  continued  for  some  years  between 
the  houses  of  Austria  and  Bourbon. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  on  the  continent,  when 
Charles  Edward,  the  grandson  of  James  II.,  arrived  in  Scot- 
land to  assert  his  right  to  the  kingdom  of  his  ancestors.  AVith 
a  few  tried  adherents  and  a  small  supply  of  money  and  arms, 
he  had  sailed  from  France,  and  having  made  the  circuit  of 
Ireland,  landed  at  Lochaber  on  the  western  coast.  He  was 
immediately  joined  by  several  Highland  chiefs  with  their 
clans,  and  on  reviewing  his  troops  found  them  amount  to  3,000 
men.  Having  crossed  the  Forth  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stir- 
ling, he  entered  Edinburgh  without  opposition,  caused  his 
father  to  be  proclaimed  king,  as  he  had  previously  done  at 
Perth,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Holyrood-house.  Mean- 
while, Sir  John  Cope,  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Scotland,  who,  by  marching  northward  towards  Inverness, 
had  left  the  whole  of  the  Low  Country  open  to  the  insurgents, 
advancing  to  oppose  them,  was  met  by  Charles  Edward  and 
his  adherents  near  the  village  of  Preston  Pans,  and  completely 
defeated.  By  this  victory,  the  whole  of  Scotland,  a  few  forti- 
fied castles  excepted,  was  reduced  to  the  obedience  of  tlie 
Stuarts;  and  Prince  Charles,  who  now  held  the  style  and  title 

19 


194  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

of  regent,  being  joined  by  many  of  tbc  h>coltis/i  nobility  w'th 
llieir  wives  and  daughters,  indulged  in  the  parade  of  royalty 
at  Ilolyrood-housc,  the  ancient  palace  of  his  ancestors.  He 
was  at  this  time  twentv-five  years  of  age;  a  consi(leral)le 
share  of  manly  beauty,  heightened  by  elegant  manners  and 
an  alfable  deportment,  rendered  his  general  appearance  strik- 
iiiijlv  attractive  and  prepossessing.  After  much  useless  delay, 
finding  himself  unable  to  reduce  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  for 
want  of  artillery,  he  left  that  city,  and,  entering  England,  took 
the  road  of  Carlisle,  which  surrendered  at  the  end  of  three 
days  ;  many  other  towns  opened  their  gates  without  resist- 
ance. In  Lancashire  he  was  received  with  some  demonstra- 
tions of  joy,  and  joined  by  Colonel  Townely,  at  the  head  of 
200  men,  but  though  he  advanced  within  a  hundred  miles  of 
London,  no  signs  of  any  general  movement  in  his  favour  ap- 
peared. The  Highland  chiefs  were  under  no  subordination, 
and  unanimous  only  in  discontent;  and,  in  ^  council  of  war 
held  at  Derby,  it  was  resolved,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
Prince  Charles,  who  was  for  attempting  to  gain  possession  of 
the  capital,  to  return  to  Scotland.  A  masterly  retreat  was 
plamied  and  executed  with  trifling  loss.  In  passing  Carlisle, 
the  garrison  was  augmented  by  throwing  in  the  Lancashire 
volunteers  ;  it  was,  however,  almost  immediately  besieged  by 
the  Duke  of  ('uml)erland,  (who  had  been  recalled  from  Flan- 
ders to  head  an  army  against  the  insurgents,)  and  compelled 
to  surrender  at  discretion  ;  the  men,  to  the  number  of  400, 
were  immediately  imprisoned  ;  their  subseipienl  fate  was  exile 
or  death.  In  Scotland,  the  friends  of  the  young  adventurer 
were  still  numerous  and  formidable  ;  and  a  brilliant  victory 
gained  at  Falkirk  over  the  regulars  under  fieneral  Hawley, 
a<l(led  vigour  to  their  hopes.  But  the  Highlanders  became 
dispirited  by  fruitless  elTorls  to  take  Stirling  castle  by  storm, 
and  their  chiefs  seemed  willing  to  decide  at  one  blow  a 
struL"^!.'!!'  of  which  they  had  grown  weary.  In  April,  17H5, 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland  crossed  the  Spey  without  opposition^ 
and  coming  up  with  the  insurgents  on  the  plains  of  ('idlodeii, 
gained  a  a  if  tory  so  decisive  as  at  once  to  quell  the  insurrec- 
tion, and  annihilate  the  hopes  of  Prince  Charles  and  his  ad- 
herents, 'i'hc  conquerors  disgraced  their  triumph  by  the 
moat  atrocious  cruelty,  refusing  quarter  to  the  wounded,  and 
carryinjT  fire  and  sword  into  the  huLs  of  a  simple;  people, 
whose  only  crin)e  was  too  irn|)licit  an  ot)e(lience  to  lln^ir 
chiefs,  'i'he  men  were  hunted  down  upon  the  mountains,  the 
women  and   children    left  to   perish    with  cold  and   hunger 


XXXIV  ]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  195 

The  Earl  of  Kilmarnock,  the  Lords  Balnierino  and  Lovat, 
and  a  great  number  of  officers  and  prisoners  of  distinction, 
suffered  death.  Many  of  the  Highland  chiefs  escaped  beyond 
sea,  and  Prince  Charles  himself,  after  a  series  of  romantic  ad- 
ventures and  hair-breadth  escapes,  was  received  on  board  a 
French  frigate,  and  safely  landed  in  France.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  that  though  a  price  of  £30,000  was  set  upon  his  head, 
and  more  than  fifty  persons  must  have  been  at  different  times 
acquainted  with  the  place  of  his  retreat,  not  one  was  found 
base  enough  to  purchase  affluence  by  betraying  him.  Tlie 
Duke  of  Cumberland  returned  triumphantly  to  London,  and 
sliortly  after  set  out  to  resume  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Flanders. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE  AFFAIRS  OF  EUROPE,  FROM    THE    TREATY    OF    DRESDEN    IN 
1745,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  IN   1748. 

The  treaty  of  Dresden  and  the  confirmation  of  that  ol 
Breslaw,  by  detaching  the  King  of  Prussia  from  the  house 
of  Bourbon,  made  a  change  in  the  state  of  the  contending 
parties,  but  did  not  dispose  them  to  peace.  Of  all  the  hostile 
powers,  the  King  of  France  was  the  first  in  readiness  to  put 
his  designs  into  execution.  Marshal  Saxe,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  Europe  and  the  terror  of  the  confederates,  took 
Brussels,  the  capital  of  Brabant,  and  the  residence  of  the 
governor  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  Lewis  XV.  joined 
his  victorious  army  of  120,000  men  in  April,  1746,  reduced 
Antwerp,  and  forced  the  allies  to  retire  to  Breda.  Mons, 
reckoned  one  of  the  strongest  towns  in  the  world,  held  out 
only  a  few  weeks,  and,  by  the  middle  of  July,  Lewis  saw 
himself  absolute  master  of  Flanders,  Brabant,  and  Hainault. 

The  enterprising  Marshal  Saxe,  after  the  reduction  of 
Namur,  passed  the  Jaar  at  the  head  of  the  whole  French 
army,  attacked  the  allies,  and  forced  them  to  retreat  to  Maes- 
tricht.  In  Italy,  Don  Philip  and  Maillebois,  who  had  carried 
every  thing  before  them  the  preceding  year,  were  still  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  notwithstanding  which,  the  King 
of  Sardinia  made  himself  master  of  Asti,  one  of  the  strongest 
places  in  Italy.  The  Austrian  forces  under  Prince  Lichen- 
stein  now  amounted  to  40,000  men ;  with  these  he  recovered 
all  the  Piedmontcse  fortresses,  and  entering  the  duchy  of  Milan, 


196  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  QcHAP 

took  Tiodi,  Guastalla,  Parma,  and  other  plares.  Don  IMiilip 
and  Maillebois  atlemplinij  to  force  the  Austrian  camp  al  JSt. 
liazaro,  a  battle  ensued,  in  wliicii,  so  masteilv  was  the  con- 
duct of  Prince  Lichenstein,  lirat  they  were  obliijcd  to  retire, 
after  a  bloody  contest  of  nine  hours,  leaving  6000  men  dead 
on  the  field,  and  as  many  wounded.  Soon  after  this  disaster, 
Don  Philip  received  inlelliiience  of  the  death  of  his  father, 
Philip  v.,  and  finding  himself  hard  pressed  by  the  allies, 
retired  toward  Savoy,  while  Maillei)ois  entered  Provence. 
The  retreat  of  the  French  and  Spaniards  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  surrender  of  Genoa. 

Struck  with  consternation  at  the  progress  of  the  French 
arms,  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  Provinces  clamoured  loud- 
ly against  the  ministry  of  the  republic.  They  rose  in  many 
places,  and  compelled  their  magistrates  to  declare  the  Prince 
of  Orange  stadtholder,  a  diiruity  which  had  i)ecn  laid  aside 
since  the  death  of  William  III.  'J'he  beneficial  elfecls  of  this 
revolution  to  the  common  cause  of  the  confederates  soon 
appeared  in  several  vigorous  measures. 

In  June,  1717,  a  partial,  but  obstinate  and  bloody  battle, 
was  fought  near  the  village  of  Val  or  Laffeldt,  in  which  the 
British  troops  distinguished  themselves  greatly ;  and,  if  pro- 
perly supported,  iniirht  have  jrained  a  glorious  victory.  Hence 
the  bon  mot  of  Lewis  XV'.,  that  "  the  English  not  only  jxtid 
all,  but  fought  all."  The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  however, 
was  on  the  [)oint  of  being  made  prisoner,  when  Sir  .lohn  Li- 
gonier  rushed  at  the  head  of  three  reijiments  of  dragoons  upon 
the  victorious  enemy,  thus  giving  the  duke  time  to  collect 
his  scattered  forces,  and  to  retire  without  molestation  to  Maes- 
tricht.  The  loss  of  the  victors  on  this  occasion  was  doiilde 
that  of  the  vanijuishcd.  After  this  battle.  Marshal  Saxe  sud- 
denly detached  Count  Lowendahl,  with  30,000  men,  to  invest 
Beriren-i>p-Zoom,  the  slroncfesi  fortification  of  Dutch  Prabant, 
and  the  favourite  work  of  the  famous  ('tehorn.  Tliis  place 
had  never  been  taken,  and  was  generally  deemed  impregnable. 
It  was  dcfendtMl  by  a  irarrison  of  .TOOO  men  under  the  I'rince 
of  Hesse  i'hilipstal,  when  Lowendahl  sat  down  before  it.  He 
conducted  his  operations  with  great  judgment  and  spirit; 
mines  were  sprung  on  both  sides,  and  every  instrument  of 
destruction  employed  for  many  weeks.  Nothing  was  to  be 
seen  but  fire  and  smoke,  nnthing  heard  but  the  perpetual  roar 
of  bombs  and  cannon  :  tlie  town  was  laid  in  ashes,  the 
trenches  Were  fdled  with  ciinuiu^e  ;  und  the  fate  of  Perjren-op- 
Zoom,  on  which  the  eyes  of  all  Fiiropc;  were  fixed,  was  still 


XXXV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  19^ 

doubtful,  when  Lowendahl  boldly  carried  it  by  assault.  All  the 
forts  in  the  neighbourhood  surrendered,  and  the  French  be- 
came masters  of  the  whole  navigation  of  the  Scheldt.  Lewis 
XV.  immediately  promoted  Lowendahl  to  the  rank  of  Mar- 
shal of  France ;  and  having  appointed  Count  Saxe  governor 
of  the  conquered  Netherlands,  returned  in  triumph  to  Ver- 
sailles. Fortunately  for  the  confederates,  the  French  were 
not  equally  successful  in  Italy  during  this  campaign. 

The  maritime  transactions  of  this  year  were  to  Great 
Britain  more  advantageous  than  glorious,  as  she  had  a  mani- 
fest superiority  of  force  in  every  engagement :  the  ruin  of  the 
French  navy  was  however  completed. 

Lewis  XV.  now  seriously  turned  his  views  to  peace  ;  he 
was  discouraged  by  these  losses,  he  saw  his  designs  frustrated 
in  Germany  by  the  elevation  of  the  Grand  Duke  to  the  impe- 
rial throne,  and  the  subsequent  treaties  between  the  houses  of 
Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Brandenburg.  He  made  advances 
towards  a  pacification  both  at  London  and  the  Hague,  and  a 
new  Congress  was  opened  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748. 
This  treaty  had  for  its  immediate  object,  a  mutual  restitution 
of  all  conquests  made  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  with  a 
release  of  prisoners  without  ransom.  The  principal  stipula- 
tions provided  that  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and 
Guastalla  should  be  ceded  as  a  sovereignty,  to  the  Infant  Don 
Philip  and  his  heirs  male ;  that  all  the  contracting  powers 
should  guarantee  to  his  Prussian  majesty  the  duchy  of  Silesia 
and  the  county  of  Glatz;  and  that  such  of  the  same  powers 
as  had  guarantied  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.,  for  securing  to  his  daughter  the  Empress  Queen 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  the  undivided  succession  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  should  renew  their  engagements,  with  the 
exception  of  the  cessions  made  by  this  and  former  treaties. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

FRANCE,    SPAIN,  AND    GREAT    BRITAIN,    FROM  1748,  TO  1759. 

In  March,  1751,  died,  universally  lamented,  Frederic  Prince 
of  Wales.  He  had  been  a  considerable  time  at  variance  with 
his  father,  wliich  had  tlirown  him  into  the  opposition,  but 
after  Walpole's  resignation,  in  1742,  was  reconciled  to  the 
King. 

19* 


198  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAI 

An  art  was  passed  tliis  year  for  iiitrodiicinir  tlic  New  or 
Gregorian  Style  into  England  ;  \vliieli  was  efFccted  by  pass- 
ing over  eleven  days  in  Uie  eah'ndar,  in  the  heginninij  of  1752. 

Europe  continued  in  peace  from  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  till  1751,  whe  i  the  disputes  between  France  and 
England,  concerning  the  limits  of  Nova  Scotia,  began  to  be 
holly  agitated  by  the  commissioners  of  the  two  crowns,  and 
anotlier  subject  of  ccuitention  arose  relative  to  the  boiindaries 
of  the  British  provinces  to  the  southward.  The  French  had 
formed  a  plan  to  unite,  by  a  chain  of  forts,  Canada  and  Loui- 
siana, and  to  circumscril)e  the  English  colonies  within  that 
tract  of  country  which  lies  between  the  sea  and  the  Alleghany 
or  Appalacliian  mountains.  This  scheme  was  ardently  em- 
braced by  De  la  Jonquiere,  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
forces  in  North  America,  and  by  La  Galissonicre,  Governor 
of  New  France.  By  their  joint  eflorts,  forls  were  erected 
along  the  great  lakes  which  communicate  with  the  river  St. 
Lawrence,  and  also  on  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  :  the 
vast  chain  was  nearly  completed  from  Quebec  to  New  Or- 
leans, when  the  court  of  England,  roused  by  repeated  inju- 
ries, broke  off  the  conferences  relative  to  the  limits  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

In  17.'')5,  the  English  government  equipped  a  fleet,  under 
the  command  of  Boscawen,  who  directed  his  course  to  the 
hanks  of  Newfoundland  ;  a  few  days  afterwards,  a  French 
fleet  from  Brest,  under  M.  de  la  Mothe,  came  to  the  same 
latitude,  in  its  passage  to  Quebec.  'I'he  summer  was  spent  in 
variiuis  skirmishes  and  partial  ent:a<rrmeiits,  and  thecampaisrn 
was  estimated  to  the  disadvantage  of  Cireal  Britain,  though  the 
French  were  driven  from  their  encroachments  on  Nova  Sco- 
tia, and  :<()()  trading  vessels  belonging  to  France,  laden  with 
West  Lidia  produce,  were  brought  as  prizes  into  the  ports  of 
England.  L'nable,  from  their  inferiority  at  sea,  to  make  any 
reprisals,  the  French  resolved  to  make  George  IL  tremble  for 
his  (Jerman  dominions,  which  thev  iiad  for  some  lime  threat- 
ened ;  and  an  army  of  2()0,(t(M)  men,  with  tlieir  vicinity  to  the 
country  to  be  invaded,  seemed  to  promise  success. 

While  the  flames  f»f  war  were  thus  breaking  out  anew  be- 
tween France  and  ICnirland,  tlie  southern  parts  of  Europe 
were  visited  by  a  dicadfid  calamity.  On  the  1st  of  Novem- 
ber, 17.'j.'),  a  violent  earthquake;  sliook  all  Spain  and  I'ortu- 
pal,  and  laid  the  city  of  Iiisl)on  in  ruins.  About  10,000 
persons  lost  their  lives,  and  the  survivors,  for  the  greatef 
part,  were  obliged  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  open  fields 


XXXV  ']  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  lOB 

The  Britisli  Parliament  generously  voted  £100,000  for  the 
relief  of  the  sufferers  in  Portugal,  and  ships,  laden  with  pro- 
visions and  clothing,  were  immediately  despatched  to  Iiis!)on, 
where  they  arrived  so  opportunely  as  to  preserve  thousands 
from  dying  of  hunger  and  cold.  The  throne  of  Portugal  waa 
then  filled  by  Joseph,  who  succeeded  his  father,  John  V.,  in 
1750.  King  John  had  been  complimented  by  Pope  Benedict 
XIV,,  in  1749,  with  the  title  of  Most  Faithful  Majesty, 
which  his  successors  have  since  retained.  To  preserve  tlie 
sceptre  of  Portugal,  in  the  house  of  Braganza,  the  Princess 
Mary  Isabella,  who,  by  the  accession  of  her  father,  Don  Jo- 
seph, had  become  sole  heiress  to  the  crown,  was,  by  virtue  of 
a  special  dispensation,  married  to  her  uncle,  Don  Pedro.  A 
similar  alliance  afterwards  took  place  between  her  eldest  son, 
Joseph,  Prince  of  Brazil,  and  her  sister,  Donna  Maria  Frances. 
Carvalho,  Marquis  of  Pombal,  minister  to  Joseph,  a  monster 
of  cruelty  and  ambition,  abused  the  confidence  of  his  sove- 
reign to  oppress  the  people,  and  gratify  his  insatiable  avarice 
and  revenge.  In  1752,  he  began  to  persecute  the  Jesuits,  a 
measure  which  is  thought  by  some  to  have  originated  in  a 
spirit  of  revenge,  for  their  having  discovered  to  the  king  the 
notorious  injustices  committed  by  a  brother  of  Carvalho's,  in 
Brazil ;  while  others  suppose  it  connected  with  the  antichris- 
tian  conspiracy,  then  carrying  on  by  the  ministers  of  Por- 
tugal, France,  and  Spain. 

To  attain  his  diabolical  ends,  he  procured  the  king's  sig- 
natures to  sheets  of  blank  paper,  which  were  afterwards  filled 
with  any  thing  he  pleased  to  dictate.  By  this  means  and  by 
the  abuse  of  the  inquisition,  he  murdered  the  exemplary 
missioner,  Father  Malagrida,  shipped  off  the  greater  part  of 
the  Jesuits,  in  insult  to  the  Pope,  and  buried  the  remainder 
alive,  in  subterranean  dungeons,  constructed  for  the  horrid 
purpose.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  in  1777,  Carvalho  was 
disgraced  ;  but  not  till  he  had  stained  the  scaffold  with  the 
innocent  blood  of  several  ecclesiastics  and  the  first  nobility 
of  Portugal,  for  conspiracies  fabricated  by  himself. 

1756. — An  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Byng  was  sent  to 
the  Mediterranean  off  Minorca,  but  the  French  effected  a 
landing,  and  got  possession  of  the  whole  island  ;  Byng  not 
darinff  to  advance  to  the  relief  of  the  Governor-general 
Blakeney.  The  voice  of  public  indignation  was  loud  against 
the  admiral,  who  was  superseded  by  Sir  Edward  Hawke 
in  the  command  of  the  fleet,  and  brought  home  under  arrest 
to  be  tried  for  his  life.     He  was  found  guilty  and  executed. 


200  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    Et'ROPE.  [cHAP. 

Mr.  Fox  was,  at  this  time,  (1757,)  at  the  head  of  afTairs, 
but  soon  afterwards  made  room  ior  the  ])opidar  minister,  Mr. 
Pitt.      In  North  America,  tlie  Earl  of  London  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief,    and    General    Ahercromhie    second    in 
command.      Albany  was  agreed  upon  as  the  place  of  rendez- 
vous ;  hut   this  campaign  w;us   lost   to  (Jrcat  Britain,  throuirh 
neglect  and  procrastination.      Nor  did  her  affairs  wear  a  more 
favourable  aspect  in  the  East  Indies.     As  early  as  the  year 
1000,  a  company  had  been  chartered  to  traffic  in  those  parts, 
but  the  first  traders  were  often  grievously  harassed  by  the 
Dutch,  and,  at  a  later  period,  by  the  French ;   who,  under 
Colbert's  administration,  had    made    a    settlement  at  Pondi- 
cherry.     The  successors  of  Taiuerlane,  the  illustrious  con- 
queror of  Indostan,  especially  since  the  invasion  of  Kouli 
Khan,  in  1738,  had  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  indolence  and 
apathy,    that  the  siihahs,  or  Mohammedan  viceroys  of  pro- 
vinces, the  nabobs,  or  governors  of  districts,  and  even  the 
rajahs,  or  tributary  Indian  princes,  began  to  consider  them- 
selves independent  sovereigns,  and  to  make  war  upon  each 
other  at  pleasure.     Yet  the  three  European  powers  who  had 
settlements  in   Bengal,  were  not   permitted    to    maintain  an 
army,  or  to  fortify  the  factories  they  had  erected,  till,  taking 
advantage    of  a    rebellion  raised   by  tlie    rajahs    against   the 
naliob,     the    English    obtained    permission     to    erect    Fort 
William,    in    the    neighbourhood  of  Calcutta,   then    a  small 
town,    where    they    had    eslal>lishe(l    their   chief  maija/ines. 
From  this  time  forward  llie  trade  of  the  company  llourislied 
exceedingly,  and  the  town  increased   in  population,  notwith- 
standing the  jealousv  of  the  native  powers  and  iMiropeans  of 
other  nations.      Though  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-("hapelle  had  re- 
estal)lis!ied    peace    between  France  and  England,  hostilities 
were  still  carried  on  in  the  East  Indies,  with  various  success, 
till,  in  1751,  an  individual  appeared,  who,  liy  his  genius  and 
bravery,  asserted  the  superiority  of  the  latter.     This  was  Mr. 
Clive,  a  writer  in  the  East  India  Company's  service.    At  the 
head  of  150  men  he   took  Arcot,  restored   it   to   the   deposed 
nabob,  withstood  a  siege  aijainst  an  overwhelming  force  of 
French  and  Indians,  and  oblijred  them  to  relinquish  it  at  the 
end  of  fiftv  davs.      Being  reinforced  shortly  after,  he  pursued 
them  ;  and.  by   a  complete   victory,   effcclually   humbled   the 
prirle  of  the  French   and    their   allies.     On  the  death  of  the 
nabob,  or,  more  [)roperly,  sul)ah,  Alavcrdy,  who  had  governci} 
with  the  greatest  ability,  for  many  years,  the  provinces  of 


XXXV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  201 

Bengal,  Baliar,  and  Orixa,  the  superiority  devolved  uponhia 
grandson,  Surajah  Dowlah,  a  weak  and  tyrannical  prince. 
Equally  timid,  suspicious,  and  cruel,  the  new  viceroy  de- 
termined to  take  vengeance  on  all  whom  he  feared,  and  to 
owe  his  security  to  the  inability  of  any  power  within  his 
jurisdiction  to  hurt  him.  The  English  had  particularly 
awakened  his  apprehensions,  by  the  taking  of  Gheria,  a  fort- 
ress in  India  deemed  impregnable ;  by  their  increasing 
strength  in  the  Carnatic,  and  by  the  growth  of  their  settle- 
ment at  Calcutta.  The  governor  and  council  of  Calcutta 
had  moreover  refused  to  deliver  up  to  him  a  noble  refugee 
who  had  taken  shelter,  with  all  his  treasures,  within  their 
presidency.  Enraged  at  this  refusal,  Surajah  Dowlah 
ordered  50,000  men,  whom  he  had  assembled,  to  march 
directly  towards  Calcutta,  where  the  English,  he  was  told, 
were  building  new  fortifications.  He,  himself,  headed  his 
troops,  and  advanced  with  such  rapidity,  that  many  of  them 
died  of  fatigue.  After  attempting  in  vain  to  oppose  the 
enemy  in  the  streets  and  avenues,  the  English  inhabitants 
took  refuge  in  Fort  William,  a  place  in  itself  by  no  means 
strong,  and  defended  only  by  a  small  garrison.  Panic-struck 
at  the  thought  of  falling  alive  into  the  hands  of  Surajah  Dow- 
lah, the  governor  made  his  escape  to  one  of  the  ships,  and 
was  followed  by  several  persons  of  distinction.  By  a  despe- 
rate assault,  the  besiegers  soon  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  fort,  which  had  then  only  190  men  in  it,  of  whom  146 
survived  the  siege,  and  were  made  prisoners.  Surajah  Dow- 
lah, enraged  at  the  resistance  they  had  made,  and  disappointed 
at  finding  but  a  small  sum  in  the  treasury,  ordered  Mr.  Hol- 
well,  the  commander,  and  his  companions  to  be  confined  in  the 
common  dungeon  of  the  fort,  usually  called  the  black  hole  ; 
and,  in  that  dungeon,  only  eighteen  feet  square,  were  they  con- 
demned to  pass  the  night  in  one  of  the  hottest  climates  of  the 
earth,  and  in  the  hottest  season  of  that  climate.  They  could 
receive  no  air  but  through  two  small  grated  windows,  almost 
totally  blocked  up  by  a  neighbouring  building.  Their  distress 
was  inexpressible  ;  they  attempted  to  force  the  door  without  ef- 
fect. Rage  succeeded  disappointment.  The  keenest  invectives 
were  uttered  to  provoke  the  guard  to  put  an  end  to  their  mise- 
rable lives,  by  firing  into  the  dungeon;  and  while  some,  in  the 
agonies  of  torment  and  despair,  were  uttering  frantic  execra- 
tions, others  were  imploring  relief  from  Heaven,  by  wild  and 
incoherent  prayers.  When  morning  appeared,  of  the  hundred 
and  forty-six,  only  twenty-three  survived  ;  these  were  sen» 


202  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CH\P. 

pri?(»nors  to  Mnxadavad,  the  capital  of  the  province.  Cal- 
cutta was  pillaged,  and  Fori  William  secured  ijy  a  garrison  of 
.3,000  Mioii. 

An  attempt  was  made  this  year  upon  the  life  of  Lewis  XV. 
bv  one  Dainicns,  wiio  having  attached  himself  to  the  service 
of  some  Parliament-mcii,  was  enraged  at  the  disgrace  into 
which  that  Ijody  luul  fallen.*  lie  was  torn  to  pieces  l)y 
young  horses,  after  having  sutTered  every  torture  that  human 
invention  could  suggest. 

The  latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Lewis  XV,  were  marked 
by  continual  disagreements  with  liis  Parliaments.  Jansenism 
infected  many  of  the  members  of  that  body,  and  the  con- 
demnation of  tlieir  errors  by  the  celebrated  bull  f^iii'j^rniftt.'i,  in- 
stead of  silencin<T,  increased  their  clamoiir.  On  their  refusal 
to  enrcgister  the  bull,  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  suspended 
by  Lewis,  in  1750;  and  did  not  resume  its  functions,  till  the 
September  of  the  following  year. 

The  Abbey  of  Port  Royal,  in  Paris,  had  long  been  the  resi- 
dence of  solitaries,  who  liave  immortalized  their  names  by 
their  writings.  Pascal  had  there  composed  his  '*  Provincial 
Letters,"  a  work  which,  though  victoriously  refuted  in  point 
of  doctrine,  will  ever  be  admired  for  its  enchanting  style  and 
poignant  raillery.  It  was  there  that  Ariiand  forged  the  sharp 
lances  with  wliicli  he  had  attacked  the  Jesuits  in  his  "Morale 
Pratique,"  and  it  was  still  the  asylum  of  Nicole,  of  Dugnet, 
of  Racine  and  his  son,  when  Le  Telliert  ol)tained  die  dc>mo- 
lition  of  this  famous  solitude,  in  1709;  an  act  of  arbitrary 
power  condemned  by  the  majority  of  his  colleagues.  The 
rapid  proirress  of  vice  under  the  ministry  of  the  Duke  dc 
Choiseuil  ;  the  extreme  prodiifality  of  this  minister,  an<l  his 
secret  machinations  for  the  destruction  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  were  not  unknown  to  the  virtuous  dauphin,  son  to 
Lewis  XV.      Having   prepared   a  memoir,  drawn  \ip   by  the 

•  Ditmiens,  in  his  interrogatories,  said  "  that  if  he  had  never  gone  into 
the  chatilH'rs  of  the  I'urlianieiit,  this  would  never  have  happened  to  him  ; 
that  he  had  forint-d  hi.s  plan  after  the  ullair  of  the  ParUameni  ;  that  if  ho 
had  not  iM'en  in  the  Hervice  of  one  of  llie^e  Parliamentary  men,  it  wouh! 
never  have  entcrexl  into  his  head  ;  that  he  sImuI.I  not  have  no  often  heard 
the  refusal  of  the  Sa'-ramenb*  wpoken  of,  whirh  heated  his  iniaciiiation," 
&c.  Sec  the  .Mciniiri*  to  Hcrvc  for  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  I8lh 
century,  vol.  2,  anno  1757. 

•(•  Lc  'IVIlier  was  a  Jesuit,  ami  confessor  to  Lewis  XIV.  See  "  Me- 
moirs of  AIiIh!  (icori;el,"  vol.  1st.  See  also  the  "  Ni-w  l)is(jui!<ition,"  faith- 
fully Irati'ii.iieil  Ifoin  "  .NouvcUwj  CoiibidcralionB,"  &c.,  printed  at  Versaillaa, 
18  7.     By  a  Sulpician. 


XXXV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  203 

elegant  pen  of  Pere  de  Neuville,  the  dauphin  liimself  present- 
ed it  to  his  father.  The  indignation  which  it  excited  in  the 
mind  of  the  king  against  his  unwortliy  minister,  may  be  easily 
conjectured ;  but  his  weakness  in  showing  it  to  the  duke  him- 
self, in  discovering  the  authors  of  it,  and  in  consigning  the 
contents  to  oblivion,  would  be  hardly  credible,  if  it  were  not 
related  on  good  authority.*  From  this  time  the  dauphin  lost 
all  his  influence  at  court,  and  a  slow  malady,  the  cause  of 
which  was  not  unknown  to  him,  insensibly  conducted  him  to 
the  tomb,  in  1765,  to  the  great  grief  of  the  French  nation. 

In  vain  did  Rome,  and  the  virtuous  Beaumont,  Archbishop 
of  Paris,  excommunicate  the  Parliaments  for  having  employed 
fraud  and  calumny  to  destroy  an  order  approved  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent;  in  vain  did  the  French  bishops  assembled  pre- 
sent a  public  memorial  to  attest  the  sanctity  of  the  institute 
and  doctrines  of  the  Jesuits,  the  utility  of  their  labours  for  the 
instruction  of  youth  and  the  reformation  of  morals ;  its 
destruction  was  resolved  upon  by  Choiseuil,  who  was  the 
soul  of  the  league  between  philosophy,  Jansenism,  and  the 
Parliaments;  he  directed  their  movements  to  bring  about  this 
event,  in  spite  of  the  king  himself,  who  loved  and  esteemed 
the  society.  But  at  last  the  natural  indolence  of  his  disposi- 
tion yielded  to  the  intrigues  and  solicitations  of  his  unworthy 
favourites,  and  Lewis  suppressed  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  his 
dominions,  in  1764,  by  an  edict,  which  was,  however, 
favourable  to  individuals,  as  it  left  them  at  liberty  to  pursue 
their  evangelical  labours  in  the  ministry,  under  the  habit  of 
secular  priests.  Their  goods  were  sold,  their  valuable  libra- 
ries dispersed,  and  their  colleges  seized.  But  their  enemies 
were  not  yet  satisfied.  In  order  to  deprive  the  church  of 
France  of  their  services,  the  Parliament  of  Paris  devised  a 
qualifying  oath,  which  required  them  to  abjure  their  institute, 
and  to  approve  of  the  odious  stigma  which  the  Parliament  had 
maliciously  endeavoured  to  fix  upon  it.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Jesuits  preferred  the  loss  of  the  small  pension  that  had 
been  assigned  them,  and  voluntary  exile,  to  the  infamy  of  this 
degrading  test. 

The  death  of  the  queen,  Mary  Leczinski,  who  did  not  long 
survive  her  only  and  beloved  son,  deprived  the  Jesuits  of  a 
generous  protectress.     Her  father.  King  Stanislaus,  had  met 

*  See  "  Memoirs  of  Abbe  Georgel,  vol.  1st.  See  also  the  "  New  Dis- 
quisition," faithfully  translated  from  "  Nouvelles  Considerations,"  &c^ 
Drintt  d  at  Versailles,  1817.     By  a  Sulpiciau. 


204  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAF 

with  ail  untimely  dealli,  the  preceding  year,  (17(57,)  on  wliose 
demise,  the  duchy  ol'  Lorraine  was  united  to  the  kingdom  of 
France. 

'i'iie  King  of  Prussia,  who  liad  concluded  an  oflensive  and 
defensive  league  with  his  uncle,  George  II.,  in  1756,  finding 
Maria  Teresa  unwilling  to  leave  him  in  quiet  possession  of 
Silesia,  resolved  to  annoy  her  and  oblige  her  to  withdraw  her 
forces  from  that  quarter;  he,  therefore,  overran  Saxony,  and 
took  possession  of  Dresden.  No  sooner  had  he  entered  Sax- 
ony, than  a  process  was  commenced  against  him  in  the  Aulic 
Council,  and  also  in  the  diet  of  the  empire;  he  was  put  under 
ihe  ban  of  the  empire,  and  adjudged  fallen  from  all  the  dig- 
nities and  possessions  which  he  held  in  it.  A  French  army, 
under  the  Prince  of  Soubise,  was  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  em- 
press-queen. Soubise,  before  he  passed  the  Rhine,  made 
himself  master  of  Cleves,  Meurs,  Gueldres,  Emden,  and  what- 
ever belonged  to  his  Prussian  majesty  in  East  Fricsland. 

Alarmed  at  the  danger  which  threatened  his  electoral  domi- 
aions,  George  II.  seemed  disposed  to  enter  into  the  continental 
knr,  and  even  to  send  over  a  IkxIv  of  troojjs  for  the  protection 
of  Hanover.  In  tiiese  views  he  was  thwarted  by  his  ne^v 
ministers,  Pitt  and  Lcgge,  who  considered  Hanover  as  a  use- 
less and  expensive  appendage  to  the  crown  of  Great  Urilain, 
and  all  continental  connexions  as  inconsistent  with  our  insular 
situation.  These  popular  ministers  were  deprived  of  their 
employments  for  opposing  the  will  of  their  sovereign  in  coun- 
cil;  and  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  was  sent  over  to  command 
an  army  of  oi)servation  for  tln^  defence  of  Hanover.  This 
army,  which  consisted  of  40,000  Hessians  and  Hanoverians, 
including  a  few  regiments  of  Prussians,  attempted  in  vain  to 
obstruct  the  jirogress  of  the  Mareschal  d'Eslrees,  The  Duke 
of  Cumberland  was  obliged  to  retire  behind  the  Wescr,  and 
the  French  passed  that  river  without  opposition.  His  Prussian 
majesty,  advancing  towards  I'rague,  gave  i)attle  to  tiie  Aus- 
trians,  and  i)roke  their  centre.  After  an  obstinate  and  bloody 
contest,  in  which  the  valour  and  military  skill  of  both  armies 
were  fully  tried,  tlie  main  l)ody  of  the  Austrians,  to  the  innnber 
of  .'iO,!)!)!!,  were  driven  into  Prairuo.  Another  desperate  batde 
followed  soon  after,  in  which  the  Prussians  returned  seven 
times  to  the  charL^c,  but  were  finaliv  forced  to  rclirujuish  the 
contest.  Altoiil -iO.OOO  nun  were  left  dead  in  the  field.  After 
this  battle,  the  King  (»f  Prussia  was  forced  to  evacuate  Bohemia. 
Meanwhile,  a  Russian  arinv  advanced  towards  the  Preirel, 
passed  that  river,  repulsed  the  Prussians,  and  ravaged  the  King 


XXXV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  205 

of  Prussia's  dominions  on  one  side  of  Germany,  while  the 
French  were  stripping  him  of  his  possessions  on  the  other, 
and  laying  the  electorate  of  Hanover  under  contribution  ;  the 
Duke  of  Richelieu,  the  celebrated  conqueror  of  Minorca,  made 
himself  master  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  and  obliged  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  to  take  refuge  under  the  cannon  of  Stade, 
where,  encamped  between  the  AUer  and  the  Elbe,  and  all 
communication  being  cut  off,  he  was  under  the  necessity  of 
signing  the  singular  convention  of  Closter-seven,  by  which  an 
army  of  38,000  Hanoverians  and  Hessians,  in  the  pay  of 
his  Britannic  Majesty,  was  dissolved  and  distributed  into 
different  quarters,  without  being  disarmed,  or  considered  as 
prisoners  of  war.  The  French  were  left,  till  a  definitive  treaty 
should  be  arranged,  in  possession  of  the  countries  they  had 
conquered  ;  and  hostilities  were  to  cease  on  both  sides.  The 
face  of  affairs  was  now  less  gloomy  (for  England)  in  the  East 
Indies.  Admiral  Watson,  on  his  return  from  taking  the  fortress 
of  Gheria,  was  informed  of  the  loss  of  Calcutta,  with  all  the 
horrid  circumstances  attending  it,  and  resolved  upon  revenge. 
By  a  zealous  co-operation  of  the  sea  and  land-forces,  the  forts 
of  Biizbuzia  and  Tannah  were  speedily  reduced  ;  Calcutta  was 
recovered,  and  the  English  colours  were  again  hoisted  on  Fort 
William :  the  British  commanders  next  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  large  town  of  Hughley,  where  the  nabob  had 
established  his  principal  magazines.  Enraged  at  so  many 
losses,  and  dreading  more,  Surajah  Dowlah  assembled  a  large 
army,  and  marched  towards  Calcutta;  but  he  met  with  so 
warm  a  salute  as  induced  him  to  sue  for  peace,  and  agree  to 
such  terms  as  the  English  commanders  thought  proper  to 
dictate. 

Informed  of  the  new  war  between  France  and  Great  Britais^ 
the  English  now  turned  their  arms  against  the  French  factories 
in  Bengal.  They  reduced  Chandernagore,  the  principal 
French  settlement  in  the  province,  and  a  place  of  great  strength, 
situated  a  litde  higher  on  the  river  Hughley  than  Calcutta. 
Colonel  Clive  next  resolved  still  further  to  humble  the  Nabob 
of  Bengal :  finding  him  slow  in  fulfilling  the  treaty,  and  mak- 
ing secret  preparations  for  war,  he  offered  him  battle  ;  totally 
routed  his  numerous  army,  which  fled  in  all  directions ; 
Surajah  Dowlah  was  taken,  brought  back  to  his  capital,  and 
put  to  death  by  orders  of  Meerum,  son  of  Meer  JafSer,  who 
had  betrayed  him,  and  who  succeeded  him  in  the  vice-royalty 
or  subahship  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orixa. 

In  Europe,  the  King  of  Prussia  gained  the  battles  of  Rosback 

20 


206  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPB.  [cHAP. 

aiul  Lissa,  over  llic  combined  army  of  Frrnch  and  Austrians: 
and  GeoifTO  II.,  enraircd  at  the  violalicm  of  the  treaty  «f 
Clnstcr-scvcn  l»y  the  Froiu-li,  invested  Prince  Ferdinand  of 
Bninswick  with  tlie  diief  command  of  his  electoral  forces  ; 
these,  reinforced  by  a  body  of  Prussian  horse,  pushed  tlie 
French  from  post  to  post,  and  oliliged  them  to  evacuate  suc- 
cessivelv  ()tlerl)erg  and  IJremen.  The  town  and  castle  of 
Hoya,  on  the  Weser,  were  reduced  by  the  hereditary  Prince 
of  IJruiiswick;  and  while  his  uncle  Ferdinand  recovered 
Minden  on  the  same  river,  making  prisoners  a  j^arrison  of  4,000 
men,  an  Enfrlish  squadron  compelled  the  French  to  abandon 
I'mbden,  capital  of  East  Fricsland  ;  and  the  wretclied  remnant 
of  that  lately  victorious  army  found  the  utmost  dilliculty  in 
rtioassinjj  the  Rhine,  without  being  entirely  cut  oif. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  FROM  1758  TO  17(50. 

1758. — A  SECOND  treaty  of  convention  was  signed  at  Lon- 
don between  the  Kiuff  of  Prussia  and  his  liritannic  majestv; 
by  which  they  cufjaged  to  conclude  no  treaty  with  tin;  liostile 
powers,  but  in  concert  and  by  mutual  agreement.  Germany 
continued  one  scene  of  l)loo(lshed,  sieges,  marclies,  and  coun- 
ler-marclies  ;  and  the  close  of  the  year  left  the  war  as  unde- 
cided as  it  was  in  the  beginning. 

In  Nortli  America,  the  affairs  of  Great  Britain  took  a 
more  favoural)le  turn.  Louisbin-g  was  taken,  and  the  whole 
isle  of  Cape  Breton  submitted  to  the  English,  with  that  of 
St.  John,  and  whatever  inferior  stations  the  French  had 
estal)lislied  for  carrying  on  the  cod-fishery  in  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  Fort  Frontenac  was  then  conquered,  and  next 
the  British  standard  was  erected  on  Fort  I)u  Quesne,  to 
which  was  given  the  name  of  Fort  Pitt,  in  honour  of  tlie  mi- 
nister under  whom  the  ex|)edition  had  been  undertaken.  In 
Africa,  the  English  entered  the  river  Senegal,  and  obliged 
Fort  Lewis,  which  commands  the  navigation  of  that  river,  to 
surrender,  with  all  the  French  sclUcments  on  it,  and  the  isle 
of  Gori;e. 

In  1759,  the  British  and  Hanoverian  army  gained  the 
batt  e  of  Minden;  which,  thoujrh  not  complete,  threw  the 
touit  of  Versailles  into  the  utmost  confusion.     It  not  only 


IXXVI.]  GENERAL   HtSTORY    OF    EUROPE.  207 

enabled  Prince  Ferdinand  effectually  to  defend  the  electorate 
of  Hanover,  but  to  recover  Munster  and  force  the  French  to 
evacuate  great  part  of  Westphalia.  The  Prussian  general, 
Weden,  attacked  the  Russian  army  with  great  vigour,  but 
without  effect,  at  Kay,  near  Znllichan  in  Silesia.  The  Prus- 
sians were  repulsed  with  much  loss,  and  the  Russians  made 
themselves  masters  of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder.  A  more  despe- 
rate battle  was  fought  in  the  month  following,  when  12,000  Aus- 
trian horse  having  joined  the  Russians,  they  gave  battle  to  the 
King  of  Prussia  at  Cunnersdorf,  opposite  to  Frankfort.  After 
every  effort  of  bravery  and  desperate  courage,  the  Prussians, 
overwhelmed  by  superior  force  and  numbers,  were  totally  de- 
feated. Night  alone  prevented  them  from  being  entirely  cut  off. 
Thirty  tliousand  men  lay  dead  on  the  ticld,  and  16,000  of 
these  were  Prussians.  The  day  after  this  battle,  the  King  of 
Prussia  repassed  the  Oder,  and  posted  himself  so  advantage- 
ously, that  the  Russians  did  not  dare  to  make  any  attempt 
upon  Berlin.  Before  the  close  of  the  campaign,  the  Prus- 
sian general,  Finck,  was  surrounded  by  the  Austrian  army  in 
Bohemia,  and  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion  ;  himself,  with 
eight  other  generals  and  nearly  20,000  men,  being  made  pri- 
soners of  war.  This  mortifying  blow  taught  the  King  of 
Prussia  a  lesson  of  moderation  ;  he  put  his  army  into  winter- 
quarters  at  Freyburg,  without  attempting  any  new  enterprise ; 
so  that,  after  the  loss  of  so  many  thousands  of  men,  the  affairs 
of  Germany  remained  nearly  in  the  same  situation  as  at  the 
opening  of  the  campaign.  The  country  had  been  desolated, 
and  much  blood  spilled  ;  but  Dresden,  which  was  retaken  by 
the  imperial  army,  was  the  only  place  of  importance  that  had 
changed  masters. 

In  America,  the  English  took  Guadaloupe,  Marigalante, 
and  some  other  small  islands  ;  they  also  reduced  Niagara,  and 
thus  effectually  cut  off  the  communication  between  Canada 
and  Louisiana.  The  taking  of  Quebec  was  the  great  aim  they 
had  next  in  view.  The  British  troops  were  landed  in  the 
night  under  the  heights  of  Abraham,  in  hopes  of  conquering 
the  rugged  ascent  before  morning.  The  stream  was  rapid,  the 
shore  shelving,  the  intended  landing-place  so  narrow,  as  to  be 
easily  missed  in  the  dark  ;  and  the  steep  so  difficult,  as  hard- 
ly to  be  ascended  in  the  day-time,  even  without  opposition. 
General  Wolfe  was  one  of  the  first  who  leaped  on  shore. 
Colonel  Howe,  with  the  Highlanders  and  light  infantry,  led 
the  way  up  the  dangerous  precipice;  all  the  troops  vied  with 
each  other  in  emulating  the  gallant  example,  and  the  whole 


808  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAP. 

British  army  li:i<l  reached  the  summit,  anil  vvas  ranged  in 
o/der  by  break  of"  day.  Montcalm,  the  French  genend,  could 
not  credit  the  alarmiiiix  iiUclliiriMicc,  lliat  the  invaders  ha(i 
jaiiu'd  the  heijrhts  of  Abraham,  which  in  a  manner  command 
Quebec  ;  but  when  convinced  of  the  truth,  he  put  his  troops 
n  nioiion  for  a  I)attle,  which  coidil  not  prudenUy  l)e  avoiiied. 
The  di.xposition  of  the  two  armies  was  ma-^terly,  and  the  bat- 
de  obstinate  and  bh)ody.  Tiie  British  fire  was  supported 
witii  such  constancy,  that  the  enemy  everywhere  yielded  to 
it ;  but  just  when  the  fortune  of  the  field  began  to  declare  it- 
(*eif,  (General  \\  olfe,  who  was  pressing  on  at  the  head  of  the 
grenadiers,  received  a  bullet  in  his  breast,  and  fell  in  the  mo- 
ment of  victory.  Tlic  brave  Montcalm  and  his  second  in 
command  were  both  mortally  wounded.  About  a  thousand  of 
the  enemy  were  made  prisoners,  and  as  many  fell  in  the  battle 
'i'he  remainder  of  this  army,  unable  to  keep  the  field, 
retired  first  to  Point  au  Tremlde,  and  afterwards  to  Trois 
Rivieres  and  Montreal.  The  loss  of  the  English  did  not 
amount  to  500  men,  but  the  death  of  General  Wolfe  was  a 
national  misfortune.  Under  all  the  agonies  of  approaching 
dissolution,  his  sole  anxiety  seemed  for  the  fijrtune  of  the  day; 
and  when  told  that  the  French  army  was  totally  routed  and 
fied  on  all  sides — "Then, "said  he,  "  I  am  happy," — and 
expired.  Montcalm,  the  French  general,  was  not  inferior  to 
his  antagonist  in  military  talents  ;  nor  vvas  his  death  less  re- 
markal)le.  When  told  that  his  wound  was  mortal,  and  the 
hour  of  his  death  at  hand,  "  I  am  glad  of  it,"  he  replied  ;  "  I 
shall  not  then  live  to  sec  the  surreiuler  of  tiueijci-."  Five 
days  after  the  victory  gained  in  its  neighbourhood,  the  city  of 
Quebec  surrendered  to  the  Fuglish. 

In  1700,  the  Auslrians  made  themselves  masters  of  Berlin, 
levied  a  contribution  upon  the  inhabitants,  destroyed  the  ma- 
gazines, arsenals,  ;uul  foundations,  and  pillaged  the  royal  pa- 
laces, licipsic,  Toriraw,  and  Wirlemberg,  successively  surnMi- 
dered  to  the  imperialists,  while  a  detachment  from  the  French 
army  in  Westphalia,  laid  Halberstadt  under  contril)ution. 
One  part  of  Fomerania  was  rava<jcil  by  the  Swedes,  and  an- 
other by  the  Russians;  the  situation  of  the  King  «)f  Prussia 
seemed  very  perilous,  and  he  resolved  to  strike  a  desperate 
blow.  He  rushed  into  Saxony,  nu-t  tin;  Austrian  army  under 
Marshal  Dauu,  in  tfie  neigliljourhood  of  'i'orgaw  ;  a  battle 
ensued;  both  sides  claimed  the  advantage;  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  <in  the  side  of  the  Prussians,  who  iMitui'diateK 
entered  Torgavv,  and  recovered  all  Saxony,  except  Dresden. 


XXXVII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  209 

The  French,  this  year,  made  a  spirited  attempt  to  recover 
Quebec,  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  from  before  the  place ; 
and  the  English,  uniting  their  forces  from  different  quarters, 
besieged  and  took  Montreal,  and  every  other  place  within  the 
government  of  Canada.  The  Cherokees  made  the  most 
humble  submission,  as  well  as  the  other  savage  tribes.  The 
town  of  New  Orleans,  and  a  few  plantations  higher  on  the 
Mississippi,  alone  remained  to  France,  of  all  her  settlements  in 
North  America,  and  these  were  too  distant  and  feeble  to  mo- 
lest the  English  colonies.  This  same  year,  the  English 
besieged  and  took  Pondicherry,  the  only  settlement  of  any 
consequence  remaining  to  the  French  on  the  Coromandel 
coast.  By  the  reduction  of  this  place  and  of  the  small 
settlement  of  Manie,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  the  French 
power  in  the  east  was  utterly  subverted  ;  and  the  English 
became  in  a  manner  masters  of  the  whole  commerce  of  the 
vast  peninsula  of  India,  from  the  point  of  the  Carnatic,  to  the 
mouths  of  the  Indus  and  Ganges,  besides  the  almost  exclusive 
dominion  of  the  provinces  of  Bengal,  Baliar,  and  Orixa.  This 
was  the  state  of  affairs,  when  George  II.  died,  in  the  seven- 
ty-seventh year  of  his  age,  and  thirty-fourth  of  his  reign. 
The  attachment  of  this  prince  to  German  politics  made  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  unpopular;  but  the  spirit  with  which 
he  resisted  the  insults  offered  to  his  crown,  and  the  brilliant 
conquests  that  adorned  the  latter  years  of  his  reign,  have 
endeared  his  name  to  the  nation. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE  STATE  OF  EUROPE,  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE  WAR,  FROM 
THE.  ACCESSION  OF  GEORGE  III.  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  PARIS,  IN 

1763. 

1760.— George  III.,  eldest  son  of  the  late  Prince  Frede- 
rick of  Wales,  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  in  the 
twenty-third  year  of  his  age  ;  he  was  universally  allowed  to 
be  the  arbiter  of  peace  and  war,  and  the  most  powerful  mo 
narch  in  Europe.  His  first  care,  after  his  accession,  was  to 
assemble  the  Parliament,  which  met  in  November,  and  settled 
the  annual  sum  of  ;6800,000  upon  the  king,  to  maintain  the 
civil  list.*      His  majesty  soon   after  married   the   Princess 

•  This  sum  being  found  insufficient,  £100,000  per  annum  was  added  to 
It  ill    776. 

20* 


210  GENERAL    IIISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAF 

Chavlotte  of  Mecklenburg  Slrelilz,  and  tlic  ceremony  of  their 
coronalioii  was  performed  with  great  ponip  in  Westminster 
Ahhev,  on  tlie  2'2(1  Scjitc  inlxr,  17t)l. 

The  liberal  supplies  irpanted  by  the  British  l*arlianient  for 
supporting  the  war  during  the  ensuing  campaign,  amounted 
nearly  to  X'iO.OOO.OUO  sterling,  'i'heso  immense  resources 
astonished  all  Murope,  and  made  the  courts  of  Vieiuia  and 
Versailles  sensible  of  the  necessity  of  proposing  terms  of 
peace.  Negotiations  commenced,  but  failed  of  any  efl'ect,  and 
the  cause  of  failure  may  be  thus  explained.  The  pacific  Fer- 
dinand VI.  having  breathed  his  last  in  1759,  was  succeeded 
on  the  throne  of  Spain  by  his  brother,  Don  Carlos,  King  of 
Naj)les  and  Sicily.  On  this  event,  by  an  article  in  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Don  Philip  should  have  ascended  the 
throne  of  the  two  Sicilies,  and  Parma,  Placenlia,  and  Guas- 
talla  have  reverted  to  the  house  of  Austria  ;  saving  certain 
provisions  made  by  the  same  treaty,  in  favour  of  the  King  of 
Sardinia.  But,  as  Don  Carlos,  now  Charles  III.  of  Spain, 
had  never  acceded  to  that  treaty,  he  left  the  crown  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  by  will,  to  his  third  son,  Don  Ferdinand,  the  second 
Ijeing  juilged  unfit  for  government,  and  tin;  eldest  designed  for 
the  Spanish  succession.  Don  Philip  acquiesced  in  this  dis- 
position ;  and  the  court  of  Vienna,  through  the  mediation  of 
France,  permitted  him  to  remain  in  possession  of  tlie  duchies 
of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla,  without  putting  in  any 
claim  to  those  territories.  'I'lie  King  of  Sardinia  was  (piieted 
with  money.  Charles  111.  foresaw  that,  if  the  French  empire 
in  America  were  deslroycid  i)y  the  English,  that  of  Sp'ain  must 
also  lie  at  tlieir  mercy ;  this  apprehension,  which  the 
court  of  Versailles  endeavoured  to  increase,  brought  about 
the  Fdiiulji  Coui/Kic/  i)etween  France  and  Spain,  which  the 
former  had  so  long  and  so  ardenUy  desired.  The  English 
miiii><ler,  Mr.  Pitt,  considered  a  war  with  Spain  as  the  un- 
avoidable conseciuciK'c  of  this  measure.  Biding  opposed  by 
Lord  Grenvillf!  and  the  other  members  of  the  council,  he 
resolved  to  resign  the  seals.*  The  Flarl  of  Bute,  who  had 
been  governor  to  the  yoiinir  kinsr,  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  new  ministry,  and  Lord  lOgremont  received  the  seals. 
But  it  was  soon  found  necessary  to  adopt  the  measures  of  the 
ex-minister,  and,  in  the  betjinningof  ITCi'i,  mutual  declarations 
of  war  were  issued  i>y  the  courts  of  London  and  Madrid,  and 

•  Mr.  F'itt  wo«  crcalod  Earl  of  ('tiHlham  in  1776,  and  a  prnsion  of 
£3,0(1(1  per  aiiriiiiii  Rctllrd  on  tiitn  for  Uiri-o  lives.  He  died  in  1778,  an4 
Mraa  buried  in  Westminster  .\bl)ey,  al  the  luiblic  cx{K!nse. 


XXXVII."!  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  211 

the  greatest  preparations  were  made  by  both  for  commencing 
hostilities  with  vigour  and  effect.  Great  Britain  was  now 
engaged  as  a  principal  in  a  war  with  the  whole  house  of 
Bourbon  ;  and  as  an  ally,  she  had  the  declining  cause  of  the 
King  of  Prussia  to  support  against  the  house  of  Austria,  the 
Empress  of  Russia,  the  King  of  Sweden,  and  the  Germanic 
body.  Nor  was  this  all  :  France  suggested  to  Spain  the  in- 
vasion of  the  neutral  kingdom  of  Portugal,  as  the  most  effect- 
ual mean  of  distressing  England,  her  ally.  The  conquest  of 
Portugal,  indeed,  seemed  no  distant  or  doubtful  event.  Sunk 
in  ignorance  and  indolence,  reposing  on  the  protection  of 
England,  and  fed  and  adorned  with  the  rich  productions  of 
Brazil,  the  Portuguese,  under  a  worthless  king,  and  an  im- 
pious ministry,  laid  aside  all  attention  to  their  internal  defence. 

A  declaration  of  war  against  Portugal,  by  the  Kings  of 
France  and  Spain,  soon  followed ;  and  a  Spanish  army  was 
ready  to  enter  that  country.  His  Britannic  majesty  could  not 
view  with  indifference  the  danger  of  his  ally ;  he  sent  over  to 
Portugal  arms,  ammunition,  provisions,  and  near  10,000  land 
forces.  By  these  means  the  Spaniards,  who  had  passed  the 
mountains  and  taken  several  places,  found  themselves  neces- 
sitated to  abandon  their  conquests  and  evacuate  Portugal 
before  the  close  of  the  campaign. 

Meanwhile,  a  revolution  in  the  state  of  Russia  changed  the 
face  of  politics  in  Europe.  Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia, 
second  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  died  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1662,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew,  the  Duke 
of  Holstein,  under  the  name  of  Peter  III.  Peter,  besides  an 
extravagant  admiration  of  the  character  of  the  King  of  Prussia, 
was  ambitious  of  recovering  from  Denmark  the  duchy  of 
Sleswick,  to  which  he  had  pretensions  as  Duke  of  Holstein. 
He  therefore  ordered  a  cessation  of  arms,  and  soon  after 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Frederic,  without  stipulating  any 
thing  in  favour  of  his  former  confederates.  He  even  joined 
part  of  his  forces  to  those  of  his  new  ally,  in  order  to  drive 
the  Austrians  out  of  Silesia ;  while  he  commanded  another 
army  to  march  towards  Holstein.  Sweden  followed  the 
exjmple  of  Russia,  in  concluding  a  peace  with  the  court  of 
Berlin.  A  body  of  Russian  irregulars  made  an  irruption  into 
Bohemia,  and  retaliated  on  the  Austrians  those  cruel  ravages 
wbich  the  same  barbarous  enemy  had,  in  alliance  with  Austria, 
before  committed  on  the  Prussian  dominions. 

In  the  mean  while,  the  dissatisfied  part  of  the  nobility, 
tlergy,  and  chief  officers  of  the  army,  taking  advantage  of  the 


*12  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  ^CHAP. 

dissensions  between  Peter  III.  and  his  consort,  Catherine  of 
Anh:ih-Zcrl)st,  asscnil)ltHl  in  the  absence  of  tlie  czar,  deposed 
him  lorniully,  and  invested  Catherine  with  tlie  imperial 
ensigns.  Peter  attempted  to  escape  into  Holstein,  but  was 
seized  and  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  expired  a  few  days 
after.  Tlio  odium  of  iiis  death  lias  jrenerally  been  cast  on  his 
empress;  and  by  reason  of  tlie  steps  which  liad  precedt^d  it, 
was  an  event  universally  expected.  The  new  empress  or- 
liered  back  to  Russia  all  her  troops  in  Silesia,  Prussia,  and 
Pomerania.  Notwithsiaiidin^r  tliis  defection,  the  Kini^  of 
Prussia  made  himself  master  of  Schweidnitz,  and  eventually 
of  all  Silesia;  and  then  turned  his  eyes  towards  Saxony  and 
prepared  to  besiege  Dresden.  These  preparations,  and  the 
decisive  victory  gained  by  his  brother.  Prince  Henry,  near 
Freyherg,  induced  the  court  of  Vienna  to  conclude  a  cessation 
of  hostilities  with  Frederic  for  Saxony  and  Silesia.  The 
Prussian  army  then  broke  into  Bohemia,  laid  the  greater  part 
of  the  town  of  Egra  in  ashes,  penetrated  into  the  heart  of 
Franconia,  and  even  as  far  as  Swahia,  ravaging  the  country, 
exacting  heavy  contributions,  and  spreading  ruin  and  dismay 
on  every  side. 

During  these  transactions  in  Germany,  the  English  made 
tliemselves  masters  of  Martinique,  Granada,  St.  Lucia,  St. 
Vincent,  and  every  other  place  belonging  to  France,  though 
reputed  neutral,  in  the  extensive  chain  of  the  Carribbee 
Islands  ;  but  an  advantage  still  more  decisive  and  glorious, 
was  the  taking  of  the  famous  city  of  Havana,  the  principal 
seaport  in  the  isle  of  Cuba,  the  key  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
the  centre  of  the  Spanish  trade  and  navigation  in  the  new 
world;  while,  in  tlie  I'^ast  lulies,  the  whole  range  of  Philip- 
pines  fell,  with  the  city  of  Manilla,  under  their  power.  But, 
before  the  event  of  this  suc(;essful  expedition  in  the  east  was 
known,  preliminaries  of  a  treaty  of  peace  were  siirned  at 
Fontaiiie!)leau,  which  has  generally  been  considered  as  inade- 
quate to  the  advantages  olitained  by  the  British  arms  during 
the  war.  By  the  articles  of  this  treaty,  tlie  whole  of  ('anada, 
with  the  i.-.laiids  of  St.  John  and  C^ape  Breton,  and  the  greater 
part  of  Louisiana,  were  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  France  regain- 
ed possession  of  Marlinieo,  Guadaloupe,  Goree,  and  Belleisle, 
as  well  as  of  lier  East  India  setd(!ments.  She  agreed,  however, 
not  to  erect  any  fortifications  in  Bengal,  and  to  destroy  those 
of  the  city  of  Dunkirk.  Tlie  Havana  was  restored  to  Spain 
in  exchange  for  the;  Florid.ts  and  Minorca,  which  were  ceded 


HXVIIl.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  21? 

to  England.     These  preliminaries   were  approved,  and  the 
deiinaive  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  February,  1763. 

About  the  same  time  was  signed  at  Hubertsl)urg,  a  treaty 
of  peace  between  the  empress-queen  and  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia, by  which  it  was  provided  that  a  mutual  restitution  of 
conquests  and  an  oblivion  of  injuries  should  take  place,  and 
both  parties  be  put  in  the  same  situation  as  at  the  commence- 
ment of  hostilities,* 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

PRUSSIA,  POLAND,  TURKEY,  AND  RUSSIA,  FROM  1763  TO   1772. 

The  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  in  1763,  having  put  an  end  to 
what  is  sometimes  called  the  seven  years'  war,  the  King  of 
Prussia  returned  to  his  capital,  from  which  he  had  been  absent 
upwards  of  six  years.  The  contest  in  which  he  had  been 
engaged,  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  upon  record  ;  and 
the  exertions  of  Frederic,  against  enemies  so  numerous  and 
formidable,  had  been  a  subject  of  universal  admiration.  But 
the  laurels  with  which  his  brow  was  encircled,  were  a  trifling 
compensation  to  his  subjects  for  the  calamities  they  had  endured, 
and  the  blood  that  had  been  shed  to  satiate  his  thirst  for  mili- 
tary glory.  The  throne  of  Poland  becoming  vacant  the  follow- 
ing year,  (1764,)  by  the  demise  of  Augustus  III.,  he  concurred 
with  the  Empress  of  Russia  to  procure  the  election  of  Stanis- 
laus Poniatowski,  a  Polish  nobleman  of  ancient  lineage,  and 
high  in  the  favour  of  Catherine  II.  This  foreign  nomination 
was  opposed  by  a  numerous  party  of  dissentient  members, 
who  quitted  the  Diet,  and  took  up  arms,  but  were  defeated 
by  the  Russians.  The  Empress  Catherine,  conceiving  her- 
self entitled  to  the  submission  of  a  monarch  of  her  own  crea- 
tion, soon  put  forward  the  most  exorbitant  pretensions ;  and, 
tracing  on  a  map  a  line  of  demarcation,  by  which  a  great  part 
of  the  Polish  territory  was  made  over  to  Russia,  insisted  on 
the  recognition  of  her  claim.  The  kingdom,  meanwhile,  was 
torn  with  internal  divisions ;  the  Dissidents,  under  which 
name  were  comprised  Greeks,  Socinians,  and  sectaries  of 
every  denomination,  claiming  equal  rights  with  the  Catholics, 
which  the  prelates  and  nobles  perseveringly  refused  to  con- 
cede.    These  troubles  were  artfully  fon^nted  by  Catherine, 

•  The  National  Debt  at  this  period  amounted  to  £148,000,000,  and  thfl 
Interest  of  it  to  nearly  £5,000,000. 


tl4  OEXERAL    HISTORY    OF    KUROPE.  [[cHAP. 

w!io  found  in  tlicin  a  pretext  for  introducing  an  anny  into 
Poland,  (iradually  advancing,  the  Russian  troops  at  length 
invested  Warsaw,  and  several  of  those  who  liad  In-en  most 
active  against  the  Dissidents,  being  seized  and  bound,  were 
sent  into  Siberia.  After  many  tumultuous  meetings,  the  Diet 
yielded  and  made  the  concessions  retjuired.  Various  confe- 
deracies were  now  formed  by  the  Poles  to  support  the  inde- 
pendence of  their  country,  and  Turkey  was  induced  to  lend 
them  her  aid  by  declaring  war  against  Russia,  in  17G8.  Two 
squadrons  of  Russian  men-of-war  sailed  round  the  Straits  of 
(Tibraltar,  and,  entering  the  Archipelago,  carried  terror  and 
desolation  through  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire. The  arrival  of  tlie  Russians  was  a  signal  of  revolt  to 
the  Greeks,  who  flew  to  arms,  but  were  defeated  and  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  the  mountains.  The  Turkish  fleet  was  at 
anchor  near  the  island  of  Scio,  when  the  Russian  armament 
coming  up  with  it,  a  desperate  conflict  ensued  ;  the  admiral's 
vessel,  and  that  of  the  capitan  pacha  were  closely  engaged, 
when  both  took  fire  and  were  blown  up.  The  remaining 
Turkish  vessels  ran  into  a  small  bay,  where,  on  the  following 
niglit,  fire-ships  being  introduced  among  them,  they  were  all 
destroyed.  The  partial  diversion  caused  by  this  war,  ani- 
mated tiie  confederate  Polos  to  new  exertion.  The  kingdom, 
desolated  by  anarchy,  laid  waste  by  civil  war,  and  depopu- 
lated by  the  plague,  which  had  spread  from  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier through  many  of  tlie  provinces,  was  reduced  to  the  most 
di;plorable  condition.  Stanislaus,  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands 
(  f  Russia,  scarcely  deemed  himself  safe  within  the  walls  of 
his  capital.  On  the  night  of  the  3d  of  September,  1771,  a 
party  of  tlie  confederates  entered  Warsaw  in  disguise,  stopped 
•he  king  on  his  way  to  the  palace,  wliitlier  he  was  returning 
without  guards,  dragged  him  forcibly  out  of  his  carriage,  and 
convey(.'d  liim  on  horseback  out  of  the  city.  The  night  being 
extremely  dark,  the  conspirators  were  unable  to  find  tlieir 
way;  and,  perceiving  the  dilficulty  of  carrying  oflf  the  king, 
repeatedly  proposed  to  kill  him,  but  were  prevented  by 
their  leader,  Kosinski,  who  was  at  length  left  alone  with 
the  royal  captive,  to  whom  he  promised  protection  and 
liberty,  on  the  conditions  of  pardon  and  reward.  After  wan- 
dering about  for  some  time,  they  reached  a  mill,  whence 
Stanislaus  sent  a  note  to  tlie  captain  of  his  guards,  at  Warsaw, 
who  conducted  him  back  with  an  escort,  amidst  the  rejoicing 
of  tlie  court  and  people.  Of  all  the  conspirators,  Kosinski 
alone  escaped  punishment. 


XXXIX.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  215 

Poland  was  now  completely  surrounded  by  hostile  armies ; 
and  in  an  interview  between  the  Prussian  monarch  and  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.*  in  1772,  a  partition  of  her  territory  was 
finally  resolved  on.  Manifestoes  were  prepared,  in  which 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  set  forth  their  several  preten- 
sions ;  while  the  royal  conspirators  introduced  each,  on  his 
side,  an  army  to  support  them.  Thus  was  Poland  unjustly 
dismembered  of  several  large  and  fertile  provinces,  comprising 
above  seven  thousand  square  leagues  of  territory,  with  five 
millions  of  inhabitants,  and  despoiled  of  one-half  of  her  annual 
income. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

SPAIN,  FRANCE,  AND  ENGLAND,  FROM  1767,  TO  THE  TREATY 
OF  PEACE  IN  1784. 

The  Jesuits  had  been  calumniated,  despoiled,  and  expelled 
from  Portugal  and  France;  but  they  were  still  a  numerous 
and  powerful  body  in  the  foreign  and  domestic  dominions  of 
the  crown  of  Spain.  Among  the  partisans  of  heresy  and  infi- 
delity, who  had  nothing  more  at  heart  than  the  destruction  of 
an  order  formidable  by  its  learning,  its  deep  penetration,  and 
its  virtues,  men  were  to  be  found  who  could  unblushingly 
invent  and  circulate  the  most  atrocious  calumnies.!  By 
forged  documents  and  terrors  of  insurrection, 'it  was  no  diffi- 
cult task  to  work  upon  the  weak  mind  of  Charles  III.,  and 
win  his  consent  to  the  execution  of  a  plan  as  novel  as  it  was 
unjust  and  treacherous.  Despatches  were  forwarded  to  the 
governors  and  civil  magistrates  in  every  part  of  the  Spanish 
dominions,  with  strict  orders  to  open  them  only  at  the  hour 
of  sunset,  on  the  2d  of  April,  1767.  According  to  the  direc- 
tions therein  contained,  on  a  given  day  and  hour,  and  without 
the  sliglitest  previous  intimation,  all  the  Jesuits  in  Spain,  in 
Africa,  in  Asia,  America,  and  the  isles,  were  seized  ;  forced 
on  board  transports  in  readiness  for  the  purpose,  and  cast  on 
the  shores  of  the  ecclesiastical  state.     The  flourishing  mis- 

*  Joseph,  who  had  been  elected  King  of  the  Romans,  succeeded  to  the 
imperial  dignity  on  the  demise  of  his  father,  in  1765,  and  the  empress- 
queen  made  him  co-regent  in  her  hereditary  dominions.  Leopold,  her  se- 
cond son,  was  at  the  same  time,  agreeably  to  the  wish  of  the  late  emperor, 
made  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 

■(■  One  of  the  maxims  of  the  party  was  this:  Calomniez  hardiment;  il 
en  restera  toujours  quelque  chose. 


21**  GUNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EtTROPE.  [cHAP. 

Bioi.s  in  Paraguay  and  California  thus  disappeared,  and  (he 
poor  Indians  were  deprived  of  those  to  whom  they  wore 
indchled  for  the  advanla^ros  of  civilized  life  and  the  hlessing^s 
of  Christianity.  In  vain  did  I'opc  Clement  XIII.,  in  an  auto- 
graph letter,  inquire  into  the  cause  of  so  unheard-of  a  proceed- 
ing ;  it  was  a  secret  which  (Charles  tiiou<rhl  fit,  as  he  said,  to 
seal  up  in  his  own  royal  heart,  and  tlunigh  the  Pope,  I)y  a 
brief,  declared  the  institute  pious  and  holy  in  its  spirit,  its 
laws  and  its  morality,  the  king's  resolution  to  condemn  those 
whom  he  would  not,  because  he  could  not,  accuse,  remained 
immutable :  Clement  ceased  not  to  protect  and  console  t\\e 
proscribed  members  of  die  society  till  his  death,  in  1769. 

The  Jesuits  had  now  disappeared  from  all  the  countries 
where  the  intriguing  ministers,  Choiseuil,  Pombal,  and  Aranda 
could  extend  their  influence  ;  the  young  King  of  Naples, 
guided  by  his  father  Charles  III.,  had  pul)lislied  an  edict  for 
their  perpetual  expulsion  from  his  kingilom  of  the  two  Sici- 
lies;  and  the  Duke  of  Parma,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  had 
adopted  a  similar  measure.  On  the  elevation  of  Cardinal 
Gauganelli  to  tlie  pontilicale,  under  the  name  of  Clement 
XIV.,  the  three  crowns  redoubled  their  exertions  to  obtain 
from  the  head  of  the  church  the  entire  suppression  of  the 
order.  During  the  reign  of  his  predecessor  this  would  have 
been  a  hopeless  effort;  but  the  love  of  peace,  the  dread  of 
exciting  schism,  some  say,  a  previous  simoniacal  promise, 
induced  the  Pope  to  yield  assent  to  their  wishes.  In  177.3, 
he  published  a  brief,  suj^pressing  the  Society  of  .lesus  thronjrh- 
out  the  C'hristian  world,  elTacing  it  from  the  number  of  reli- 
gious orders,  and  placing  its  disbanded  members  in  the  ranks 
of  secular  clergymen. 

The  venerable  chief  of  the  order,  the  aged  Ricci,  was 
imprisoned  in  the  casde  of  St.  Angelo,  and  detained  there  till 
his  death.  In  his  last  moments,  he  made  a  solemn  declara- 
tion, that  among  all  his  subjects,  he  knew  not  one  who  had 
been  guilty  of  a  crime  deserving  that  name,  or  the  treatment 
they  had  experienced.  The  brief  of  suppression  was  re- 
ceived by  ilie  bishops,  and  by  all  uninfected  with  Jansenism 
or  infidelity,  with  grief  and  consternation  ;  by  those  whom  it 
concerned,  willi  edifyinjr  sul)mission.  The  empress-queen, 
who  loved  and  esteemed  the  Jesuits,  yielded  a  reluctant 
acquiescence;  the  Kings  of  Prussia  and  Poland  maintained 
them,  under  the  habit  of  seculars,  in  possession  of  their 
houses  and  colleges  ;  but  no  entreaties  could  induce  the  high 
minded  CaUicrinc  of  Russia  to  connive  at  die  destruction  of 


SXX1X.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  217 

an  order  she  had  found  so  emuiently  serviceable.  She  even 
threatened  to  withdraw  her  protection  from  t!ie  Catholics  ir: 
general,  if  the  Jesuits  were  molested  in  lier  dominions. 
Clement  XIV.  died  the  year  after  the  publication  of  tlie  brief; 
Cardinal  Braschi  was  elected  in  his  stead,  and  took  the  name 
of  Pius  VI.  From  him  the  empress  obtained  an  authoriza- 
tion, empowering  the  Jesuits  in  Russia  to  live  as  formerly,  ac- 
cording to  the  institute  of  St.  Ignatius.  Tlius  was  one  branch 
upheld  by  Providence  till  the  restoration  of  tlie  parent  tree. 

The  year  in  which  Clement  XIV.  signed  the  brief  of  sup- 
pression, was  the  last  of  the  Duke  de  Choiseuil's  administra- 
tion. Supplanted  by  the  intrigues  of  the  reigning  favourite, 
and  the  party  of  the  Duke  d'Aiguillon,  his  successor  in  the 
ministry,  he  quitted  Paris  to  live  an  exile  on  his  estates, 
leaving  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  in  a  deplorable  condition. 
The  people  groaned  under  the  weight  of  taxes,  heavier  by  far 
than  those  of  any  preceding  reign ;  while  the  increasing  defi- 
ciencies of  the  revenue  did  not  prevent  the  court  from  dis- 
playing the  most  profuse  expenditure.  Thus  was  France 
situated,  when  Lewis  XV.  was  seized  with  the  small-pox,  to 
which  disease  he  fell  a  victim  in  1774.  The  title  of  Bicn 
Jlim?.  he  had  long  ceased  to  deserve,  and  his  memory  will  be 
ever  tarnished  by  his  unbounded  prodigalities,  weak  conde- 
scension, and  depraved  conduct.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson,  Lewis  XVI.,  a  prince  of  unblemished  morals  and 
excellent  disposition,  whose  accession  was  hailed  with  exces- 
sive joy  by  the  people,  and  who  began  his  reign  by  several 
very  popular  acts. 

The  year  1772  was  distinguished  by  a  revolution  of  a  sin- 
gular nature  in  Sweden.  A  year  had  elapsed  since  the  acces- 
sion of  Gustavus  III.;  he  had  been  crowned,  and  the  Diet  was 
still  sitting,  when,  having  secured  the  adherence  of  the  army, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  senate  and  the  admiralty,  he 
entered  the  senate-hall,  in  his  regalia,  carrying  the  silver 
hammer  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  his  hand.  After  many 
complaints  against  the  Diet,  he  ordered  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment to  be  read,  giving  almost  absolute  power  to  the  crown. 
All  were  required  to  swear  they  would  observe  it,  and,  in 
such  circumstances,  it  is  no  wonder  that  there  was  not  one 
dissentient  voice.  The  king  then  rose,  took  a  psalter  from 
his  pocket,  and  entoned  Te  Deum,  in  which  all  the  audience 
joined.  Thus  an  important  revolution  was  effected  withoui 
bloodshed.  Gustavus  displayed  on  tliis  occasion  great 
talents,  firm  resolution,  and  profound  dissimulation. 

21 


218  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  LCHAP 

The  court  of  Denmark  was  at  this  epocli  (1772)  divided 
into  two  parties  ;  at  the  head  of  one  was  tlie  Queen  Caroline 
MaliUla,  sister  of  George  III.,  and  Counts  IJrandt  and  Stru- 
ensee  ;  the  other  parly  was  headed  l)y  the  queen-dowager, 
widow  of  the  late  King  Frederic  V.  Christian  III.,  now  re- 
duced to  a  state  of  mental  imhecilitv,  was  prevailed  upon  to 
order  the  arrest  of  his  queen  and  iier  accomplices,  who,  he 
was  assured,  had  resolved  on  compelling  him  to  abdicate  his 
crown.  Struensee  from  being  the  most  powerful  man  in 
Denmark,  saw  himself  chained  in  a  dungeon  ;  he  was  tried 
wiih  Brandt  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  found  guilty,  and 
executed.  The  queen  was  conveyed  to  Zell,  where  she  was 
maintained  in  affluence  by  her  brother,  and  died,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-four,  in  1775. 

The  disputes  which  had  for  some  years  been  carried  on, 
between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  in  America,  now  be- 
gan to  assume  a  very  serious  aspect.  The  chief  subject 
of  contest  was  the  right  claimed  by  Parliament  of  levying 
taxes  on  the  colonists  ;  which  they  denied,  maintaining  that 
they  could  not  lawfully  be  taxed  without  their  own  consent 
In  order  to  raise  a  revenue  from  the  transatlantic  j)ossession3 
of  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Grenville,  when  minister,  proposed  a 
stamp  act,  which,  though  afterwards  repealed,  was  unfortu- 
nately revived  in  17t»0,  and  a  duty  laid  upon  tea,  and  various 
other  articles  imported  into  the  colonies.  A  combination  was 
immediately  formed  in  America  not  to  receive  any  of  the  com- 
modities thus  taxed;  and  three  ships  arriving  at  the  portof  Bos- 
ton, laden  with  tea,  were  boarded  by  a  numberof  men  disguised 
like  Indians,  who  threw  the  whole  cargo  of  each  into  the  sea. 
In  consequence  of  this  opposition,  an  act  was  passed  for  shut- 
ting up  that  port,  and  for  changing  the  constitution  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  and  Quebec.  The  Americans,  on  their  side, 
agreed  to  suspend  all  cominercial  intercourse  with  Great 
Britain,  till  the  oluioxious  acts  should  be  repealed  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  sent  over  deputies  to  profess  their  loyalty,  and 
to  supplicate  a  change  of  measures  in  their  regard.  I^ut  their 
remonstrances  were  disregarded  :  coercion  in  its  utmost 
rigour  seemed  to  be  resolved  upon,  and  every  attempt  at  con- 
ciliation was  negatived  in  Parliament  by  large  majorities. 
In  the  same  proportion  was  a  spirit  of  determined  resist- 
ani-e  diffused  thrr)Uirh  the  colonies,  which  became  more 
animated  on  the  receipt  of  every  new  act  or  declaration  from 
EuLdand.  In  April,  177r>,  the  first  I)lood  was  shed  in  this 
unfortunate    contest.       (ieneral    Gage    had    sent    a  body  of 


XXXIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  219 

troops  to  destroy  a  military  depot  at  Concord  :  they  succeed- 
ed in  their  design,  but  on  their  return  were  dreadfully  harassed 
by  tlie  Americans,  and  the  loss  of  life  on  both  sides  was  consi- 
derable. All  the  colonies  now  began  to  act  in  open  hostility  to 
the  British  government,  and  appointed  a  congress  to  manage 
their  affairs.  This  body  of  representatives  instantly  passed' 
resolutions  for  raising  an  army  and  issuing  a  paper  currency 
on  the  security  of  the  United  States  of  America,  (a  title  now 
first  assumed,)  and  for  stopping  all  importations  to  those 
places,  which  still  remained  faithful  in  their  allegiance  to 
Great  Britain.  However,  the  arrival  of  Generals  Howe, 
Burgoyne,  and  Clinton,  with  reinforcements  from  England, 
kept  up  the  spirits  of  the  royalists,  and  they  were  victorious 
at  an  engagement  near  Bunker's  Hill.  In  compliance  with 
the  general  wish.  Congress  appointed  George  Washington, 
a  gentleman  of  fortune  in  Virginia,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
American  forces  ;  and  his  conduct  and  military  skill  justified 
the  partiality  of  his  countrymen.  The  main  body  of  the 
British  army  being  blockaded  in  Boston,  an  invasion  of 
Canada  was  attempted,  but  proved  unsuccessful ;  the  Ameri- 
cans, in  their  retreat,  burned  St.  John's  and  abandoned 
Montreal. 

The  spring  of  1776  was  signalized  by  the  bombardment  of 
the  town  of  Boston,  which  the  British  general  at  length  de- 
termined to  evacuate  by  sea;  as  the  rear  embarked,  Washing- 
ton entered  the  town  triumphantly  on  the  other  side.  All 
hope  of  an  accommodation  being  now  at  an  end,  the 
thirteen  colonies  declared  themselves  free  and  independent ; 
abjured  their  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  and 
renounced  all  political  connection  with  that  country.  In 
1777,  Howe  gained  two  victories  over  Washington,  and  Phi- 
ladelphia surrendered  to  the  king's  troops  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
General  Burgoyne  was  surrounded  at  Saratoga,  and  obliged 
to  lay  down  his  arms.  Overtures  for  peace  were  at  this  time 
held  out  by  General  Howe  and  his  brother,  the  admiral ;  but 
concessions,  which  formerly  would  have  been  received  with 
gratitude,  were  now  rejected  with  contempt. 

1778. — The  French,  who,  from  national  jealousy,  had  long 
viewed  the  revolted  colonies  with  a  favourable  eye,  now 
entered  into  open  alliance  with  them  as  independent  states, 
and  war  between  France  and  England  became  inevitable.  On 
this  occasion,  as  on  many  others,  Lewis  XVI.  suffered  his 
own  judgment  to  be  overruled  by  evil  counsellors,  for  such  an 
alliance  was  in  every  respect  impolitic.     The  Marquis  de  la 


220  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Fayctle  arrived  in  America  towards  the  close  of  the  campaiirn 
of  1777,  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  that  reputalioa 
which  aftrrwanls  rose  so  lii^li,  tlimigh  jn-rliafis  not  beiioficial 
tx)  the  real  inti-rests  of  his  oountrv.  The  certainty  of  a 
war  with  France  induced  General  Clinton,  who  now  held  the 
principal  command,  to  qnit  Philadclpliia,  and  retire  to  New 
York.  I'ondiclierry  in  the  East,  and  St.  Lucia  in  llie  West 
Indies,  surrendered  to  the  Enj^lish,  hut  Dominica,  St.  Vincent, 
and  Grenada  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  assisted 
the  Americans  with  a  fleet  commanded  hy  Count  d'Estaing. 
Spain  soon  united  her  arms  to  tliose  of  France  and  America  ; 
took  Pensacola  and  closely  invested  Gibraltar;  while  lh<j 
combined  fleeUsof  the  two  neiCThI)ourinff  powers  rode  for  some 
time  triutnplianlly  in  the  British  channel,  but  withdrew  with- 
out attempting  any  thing  of  importance.  The  Dutch  had  long 
heen  suspected  of  assislinij  the  Americans  ;  and  as  the  Slates- 
general  declined  giving  any  satisfactory  answer  to  the  decla- 
mations which  were  made  on  the  subject,  war  was  declared 
against  Holland  towards  the  close  of  the  year  1780.  In  the 
month  of  June,  the  same  year,  the  city  of  London  exhibited 
one  of  the  most  disgraceful  scenes  that  religious  bigotry  ever 
produced.  It  arose  from  the  fanaticism  of  an  association  of 
Frolestaiit  sectaries,  who  took  offence  at  some  recent  relaxa- 
tion of  the  penal  statutes  in  favour  of  the  Catholics  by  the 
legislature.  Several  chapels,  belonging  to  persons  of  that 
religion,  were  destroyed;  and  on  the  commitment  of  some  of 
the  rioters,  the  mob  rose  in  a  mass  and  pulled  down  the 
prison  of  Newgale,  liberating  the  prisoners,  who  readily  join- 
ed them  in  the  work  of  destruction.  In  short,  the  King's 
Bench,  the  Fleet  Prison,  the  houses  of  Catholics,  and  of 
those  who  were  suspected  of  favouring  them,  were  seen  at 
once  in  a  conflairration.  Among  others.  Sir  George  Saville 
and  the  Earl  of  Mansfield,  whose  liberalitv  of  sentiment  had 
marked  them  out  to  the  vengeance  of  the  fanatics,  were  very 
great  sufferers.  During  these  disgraceful  scenes,  the  ministry 
seemed  appalled,  and  the  mairislrales  of  London,  in  general, 
except  Mr.  Wilkes,  shrunk  from  the  exercise  of  their  author- 
ity. At  len<rlh,  bv  the  king's  command,  who  retained  his  pre- 
sence of  mind,  troops  poured  into  London,  and  order  was 
restored  by  military  force.  Many  of  the  rioters  lost  their 
lives  by  the  fire  of  the  soldiers,  or  i)V  the  sentence  of  the 
law  ;  and  Lord  George  Gordon  with  difficulty  escaped,  for 
the  weak,  rather  than  wicked  j)art  he  had  taken  in  this 
affair. 


XXXIX.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  221 

Some  relief  had  also  been  conceded  by  the  Irish  Parliamen" 
to  the  Catholics  of  that  kingdom  in  1778,  especially  an  act 
which  enabled  them  to  talie  leases  for  any  term  of  years  not 
exceeding  999.  A  violent  contest  had  long  been  maintained 
respecting  the  legislative  independence  of  Ireland.  An  address 
to  his  majesty,  stating  the  grievances  of  the  nation  and  the 
declaration  of  right,  was  powerfully  supported  by  the  eloquence 
and  patriotic  exertions  of  Mr.  Grattan,  and  passed  unanimously. 
The  measure  of  conciliation  was  at  length  adopted  by  England, 
during  the  administration  of  Earl  Shelburne,  afterwards  Mar- 
quis of  Lansdowne,  in  May,  1782,  by  a  repeal  of  the  6th  of 
George  I.  The  motion  was  proposed  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons by  Mr.  Secretary  Fox,  in  a  speech  of  uncommon 
eloquence  and  perspicuity,  and  carried  without  a  dissenting 
voice.  By  this  act  of  the  British  Parliament  was  the  inde- 
pendence of  Ireland  in  legislating  for  herself  established,  to  the 
great  joy  of  the  whole  nation.  The  Irish  Parliament  rewarded 
the  services  of  Mr.  Grattan  by  voting  him  £50,000,  enacted 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  abolished  the  Sacramental  Test, 
rendered  the  judges  independent,  and  established  the  Bank  of 
Ireland.  The  illustrious  order  of  St.  Patrick  was  instituted 
the  following  year,  of  which  the  king  and  his  heirs  were  ap- 
pointed sovereigns. 

In  Sept.  1780,  the  Resolution  and  Discovery  returned  from 
a  voyage  round  the  world,  but,  to  the  grief  of  every  person 
who  respected  worth  and  talents,  without  their  captains,  Cook 
and  Clarke.  The  former,  whose  life  had  been  devoted  to  use- 
ful and  important  pursuits,  was  unfortunately  killed  by  the 
natives  of  Owhyhee,  an  island  he  had  discovered  in  the  South 
Sea ;  the  latter  died  soon  after  of  a  decline. 

The  war  with  Holland  was  vigorously  pursued,  and  St. 
Eustatia,  St.  Martin,  and  St.  Bartholome-w,  the  colonies  of 
Demerara  and  Essequibo,  with  a  great  number  of  trading  and 
some  armed  vessels,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

In  America,  alternate  successes  and  reverses  attended  the 
arms  of  England  ;  but  victory  itself  was  of  small  advantage  to 
the  mother  country,  while  defeats  only  served  to  teach  the 
colonists  the  art  of  conquering  in  their  turn.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  cause  of  Great  Britain  became  every  day  more 
desperate.  Earl  Cornwallis,  after  distinguishing  himself  on 
various  occasions,  was,  at  length,  surrounded  by  General 
Washington,  assisted  by  the  Marquis  de  la  Fayette,  and  obliged 
to  surrender  Yorktown,  as  well  as  himself  and  all  his  forces, 
amounting  to  7000  men.  (1781.)    The  untimely  fate  of  Majoi 

21* 


222  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  QcHAP 

Andre,  an  able  and  estimable  young  oHicer  in  the  British 
service,  excited  universal  sympalhy.  While  concertin<r  mea- 
sures with  General  Arnold,  who  oflcred  to  betray  West  Point, 
an  important  post,  into  the  hands  of  the  Knirlish,  he  was  taken 
by  the  Americans  and  shot,  in  pursuance  of  a  sentence  passijd 
by  a  council  of  ollicers.  He  met  Ids  death  with  the  fortitude 
of  a  soldier,  and  was  honoured  with  a  monument  in  West- 
minster Abliey.  The  cause  of  American  independence  was, 
in  the  mean  time,  warmly  advocated  by  Fox  and  Murke  in  the 
House  of  Commons;  in  fact,  after  the  surrender  of  liOrd 
Cornwallis,  a  chani^e  of  measures  became  absolutely  necessary ; 
and  as  a  change  of  ministry  was  a  requisite  preliminary,  an 
entire  alteration  took  place  in  the  caliinet,  on  the  27th  of  March, 
1782,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  who 
was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  In  order  to  confirm 
the  favoural)le  opinion  which  had  attended  their  coming  into 
power,  the  new  ministry  conscuted  that  the  indepcMidence  of 
America  should  be  acknowledged,  and  entered  witli  ardour 
into  measures  for  promoting  a  general  pacification.  For  this 
purpose,  Mr.  Grenville  was  invested  witli  full  powers  to  treat 
at  Paris  with  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  belligerent  na- 
tions; and  orders  were  despatched  to  the  commanders-in-chief 
in  America,  to  ac(i\iaint  them  with  the  pacific  intentions  of  the 
British  cal)inet,  and  with  their  olTer  of  independence  to  the 
United  States.  Peace  was  now  most  ardently  desired  by  all 
ranks  of  people  in  this  coimtry ;  a  signal  naval  victory,  gained 
over  the  P'rendi  fleet  under  ('omit  de  (irasse,  by  Admiral  Kod- 
ney,  in  Ajiril,  rendered  essential  service  to  the  interests  of  the 
country,  and  facilitated  the  pending  negotiations. 

The  Bahama  Isles,  however,  soon  afler  surrendered  to 
Spain,  which  had  previously  conquered  Minorca;  but,  to  coun- 
terbalance this  loss,  the  British  reaped  immortal  laurels  at 
Giliraltar,  und(!r  the  lirave  General  I'dliott,  and  converted  one 
of  the  most  formidaI)le  attacks  which  had  ever  Iieen  made, 
to  the  destruction  of  their  :.ss;iilants. 

The  Marquis  of  Rockingham  dying,  was  succeeded  in  of- 
fice bv  Lord  Shelburne,  uniler  whose  auspices  the  preliminary 
articles    of   peace   were    finally  adjusted,   (178.3,)   by   which 
America  gained  all  she  had  been  contending  for,  and  was  ac 
knowled<>-ed  ;in  independent  nation. 

The  address  of  thanks  for  peaci;  being  lost  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  Lonl  Shelburne  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  former  un|)opular  minister.  Lord  North,  who  had  recently 
formed   a  coalition  with   Mr.  I'ox,  though  they  had   hitherto 


XL."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  223 

differed  so  widely  in  their  political  sentiments.  Peace  was 
proclaimed  in  July,  1784;  and  the  same  year  the  coalition  was 
dissolved,  the  ministry  again  changed,  and  Mr.  Fox  made 
place  for  his  popular  rival,  the  Honourable  William  Pitt,  second 
son  of  the  celebrated  Earl  of  Chatham,  then  only  twenty-four 
years  of  age. 

Though  peace  was  thus  restored  in  the  west,  the  East  Indies 
stih  continued  the  scene  of  warfare.  The  ambition  of  Ilyder 
Ally,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  who,  from  a  private  soldier,  had 
raised  himself  to  the  rank  of  a  powerful  prince,  obliged  the 
company  to  take  up  arms  against  him.  Being  defeated  by  an 
army  from  Madras,  he  withdrew  into  a  mountainous  district, 
whence,  by  the  superiority  of  his  cavalry,  he  harassed  the 
English  and  intercepted  their  supplies.  In  1780,  he  formed 
a  confederacy  with  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan  and  other  native 
princes  to  expel  them  from  India ;  and,  passing  the  Ghauts, 
burst,  like  a  torrent,  into  the  Carnatic.  Victory  was  for  some 
time  in  his  favour ;  but  General  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  arriving  to 
take  the  command,  defeated  him  in  three  different  actions,  and 
effected  a  great  improvement  in  the  affairs  of  the  company. 
Hyder  Ally  died  in  1782,  leaving  a  kingdom  of  his  own  ac- 
quisition to  his  son,  Tippoo  Saib,  who  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  princes  in  the  east,  and  an  inveterate  enemy  of  the 
English. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

GERMANY,    PRUSSIA,    AND    RUSSIA,    FROM    1778    TO    1791. 

1778. — THEdeathof  Maximilian  Joseph,  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
gave  rise  to  a  new  contest  between  the  Prussian  monarch  and 
the  court  of  Vienna.  In  him  was  extinguished  the  Ludovician 
line  of  Bavaria,  which  had  possessed  the  duchy  nearly  500 
years.  He  was  succeeded,  both  in  the  electoral  dignity  and  in 
his  dominions,  by  Charles  Theodore,  the  Elector  Palatine  of 
the  Rhine.    This  prince  was  in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his  age ; 


2?4  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAH. 

and  having  no  issue,  the  lar^c  possessions  of  the  double  elec- 
torate were  held  in  exportation  by  the  Duke  of  Deux  Fonts, 
who  was  the  nearest  relative  on  the  male  side.  Scarcely  iiad 
Charles  Theodore  arrived  in  his  capital,  Munich,  before  die 
Austrian  trt)ops,  who  had  only  waited  ft)r  an  account  of  the  late 
elector's  death,  poured  on  all  sides  into  IJavaria,  Unable  to 
contend  witli  an  artny  of  (»0,000  men,  the  new  elector  concluded 
a  treaty  with  Vicuna,  by  which,  in  order  to  preserve  a  part  of 
his  possessions  in  liavaria,  he  gave  up  more  than  half  of  tiiein. 
The  Duke  of  Deux  Ponts  protested  against  d»is  arrangenu>nt, 
and  the  King  of  Prussia  undertook  to  supi)ort  his  rights,  'l^he 
Emperor  .Joseph,  then  very  young,  commanded  the  Austrian 
army;  and  when  Frederic  quitted  Berlin  to  oppose  him,  he 
sent  the  following  note  to  one  of  Ids  ministers  : — "  You  will  tind 
money  enough  in  the  treasury  for  the  pul)lic  supplies.  1  trust 
in  God  that  I  shall  soon  return,  as  I  am  only  going  on  a  short 
excursion  to  teach  a  young  gendeman  his  military  exercise." 

Tiie  campaign,  however,  was  radier  long;  but  no  action  of 
consequence  took  place;  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was,  at  length, 
concluded  at  Teschen,  1779,  by  which  Austria  renounced  all 
pretensions  to  Bavaria,  excepting  only  the  district  of  Biirg- 
hausen,  and  agreed  to  make  satisfaction  to  the  Duke  of  Deux 
Ponts. 

During  the  American  war,  when  Enirlaud,  Holland,  France, 
and  Spain  tinged  widi  blood  tlu"  seas  of  tlui  two  hemispheres, 
the  pride  of  <Jatherine  II.  was  hurt  by  the  English,  wlio  paid 
no  respect  to  the  vessels  freighted  in  her  ports;  and  as  she  was 
determined  to  protect  the  navigation  of  the  nordi,  slie  proposed 
to  the  courts  of  Copenhagen  and  Stockholm  to  equip  each  a 
squadron,  which,  combined  with  hers,  should  defend  the 
neutrality.  Russia  had  experienced  from  her  conquests  on  tiie 
frontiers  of  Turkey,  a  rapid  increase  of  commerce;  iier  vessels 
passed  the  Dardanelles,  proceeded  to  Smyrna  and  Alexandria, 
and  traded  in  the  ports  of  Italy.  On  the  shores  of  die  Nieper, 
Cadierine  had  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Cherson, 
which  already  counted  within  its  walls  40,000  inhabiUuiLs,  and 
from  the  yards  of  vvhicii  were  launched  vessels  of  commerce, 
and  ships  of  war,  destined  to  strike  terror  into  the  (JtUiman 
Empire.  Desirous  of  conquering  a  country  so  long  the  object 
>f  her  ambitious  projects,  tlu!  empress  resolved  to  commence 
iperations,  by  detaching  the  ('rimea  from  Ttirkey,  Having, 
therefore,  excited  an  insurrection  there,  the  Russian  troops, 
onder  pretence  of  assisting  the  khan,  found  means  to  possais 
ihemselves  of  the  country. 


XL.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  225 

1783. — Intimidated  by  the  immense  preparations  of  Cathe- 
rine, the  Porte  concluded  a  treaty  with  Russia,  by  which  the 
empress  retained  the  sovereignty  of  tlie  Crimea,  of  the  isle  ot 
Tainan,  and  a  great  part  of  the  Kuban,  while  her  right  was 
acknowledged  to  the  dominion  of  the  Euxine  and  to  the  pas- 
sage of  tlie  Dardanelles.  Thus  did  she  acquire,  without  the 
necessity  of  a  battle,  an  immense  territory  and  1,500,000 
subjects.  To  the  Crimea  and  to  the  Kuban,  she  restored 
their  ancient  names  of  Taurida  and  Caucasus.  In  the  Caspian 
Sea,  Catherine  maintained  a  fleet  which  cruised  along  the 
Persian  coasts  and  burned  all  the  vessels  it  met  in  those  parts. 
She  revived  the  commerce  with  China,  and  sent  thither  seve- 
ral young  Russians  to  learn  the  language.  The  spirit  of 
toleration  was  a  striking  feature  in  her  government;  not  satis- 
fied with  having  appointed  a  Catholic  bishop,  she  established 
at  Mohilef  a  seminary  of  Jesuits  ;  and,  on  the  day  of  the 
benediction  of  the  waters,  her  confessor,  by  her  orders,  gave 
an  annual  grand  entertainment  to  ecclesiastics  of  every  deno- 
mination, called  the  dinner  of  toleration,  at  which  have  been 
seen  the  clergy  of  eight  different  forms  of  worship. 

After  this  short  view  of  the  increasing  power  of  Russia, 
we  must  return  to  the  affairs  of  Germany.  The  year  1780 
was  marked  by  the  death  of  the  empress-queen,  Maria  Teresa, 
a  princess  who  appears  to  have  inherited  all  the  spirit,  firm- 
ness, and  magnanimity  of  her  most  renowned  ancestors, 
united  with  a  clear  understanding,  a  happy  temper,  and  a 
captivating  condescension.  In  the  course  of  her  life  she  expe- 
rienced many  vicissitudes  of  fortune;  but  her  unfailing  cou- 
rage enabled  her  to  surmount  all  difficulties,  and  to  elevate  th? 
house  of  Austria  to  a  degree  of  power  which  it  had  not  en- 
joyed since  the  time  of  Charles  V.  Exclusive  of  her  engage- 
ments against  Poland,  she  was  entitled  to  universal  respec> 
for  the  justice  of  her  administration ;  and  in  the  characters  of 
a  wife  and  parent  she  is  deservedly  proposed  as  a  model 
to  posterity.*  Her  son,  Joseph  II.,  succeeded  to  her  exten- 
s  ve  possessions,  but  his  unfortunate  reign  presents  us  with  a 
very  different  prospect.  To  this  prince's  early  acquaintance 
with  the  infidel  King  of  Prussia,  and  with  the  deistical  pro- 
ductions of  his  literarjr  friends,  may  be  traced  the  subsequent 
sacrileges  and  tyrannical  acts  which  have  rendered  his  reign 
ever  memorable  in  the  annals  of  the  church.     The  dissolution 

•  The  Prince  of  Kaunitz,  long  the  Nestor  of  the  European  ministers, 
enjoyed  to  the  last  the  confidence  of  his  sovereign,  and  died  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  eighty-four. 


220  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAP. 

of  the  Society  of  Jesus  coiUril)iited  also  not  :i  liiilc  to  overturn 
the  sentiiiiLMits  of  reliirioii  lie  luid  iiiil)il)fttl  from  his  moilicr. 
Enrly  im[)rcssed  wiili  an  oslfciii  for  the  Jesuits,  it  was  ob- 
served, that  wlie.i  he  visited  tlie  ihlTerent  provinces  of  liia 
einj)ire,  he  gave  particular  attention  to  their  establishments. 
In  Transylvania,  7000  families  were  pointed  out  to  him, 
whom  thev  iiad  recently  reconciled  to  the  ('atiiolic  church. 
On  his  return  to  Vienna,  Joseph  made  this  circumstance 
the  subject  of  a  congratulatory  letter  to  l*ope  Clement  XIV., 
and  received  from  liim  in  reply,  the  brief  suppressing  an 
order,  whose  apostolical  laliours  he  had  so  much  admiri'd. 
This  was  the  moment  made  use  of,  l)y  the  lovers  of  innova- 
tion, to  confirm  liis  prepossessions  against  tlie  power  of  the 
Holy  See  and  churcli  hierarchy  ;  and  no  sooner  had  the  em- 
press expired,  than  he  began  to  circumscribe  the  Pope's 
autliority,  and  to  destroy  monastic  orders  in  his  dominions. 
I'ius  VI.,  who  undertook  a  journey  to  Vienna  to  expostulate 
witli  the  emperor,  could  not  engage  him  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
innovations  by  which  he  afllicted  the  church.  Jansenism 
triumj)hed  in  Gennaiiy  ;  the  priiici|des  of  liUlher  were  taught 
in  the  universities,  and  tiie  lyceums  of  the  Freemasons  suc- 
ceeded the  Jesuits'  schools  for  the  instruction  of  youth.  But, 
of  all  the  subjects  of  the  emperor,  the  Catholics  of  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands  sufTered  most  from  the  new  edicts.  Faith- 
ful, however,  to  their  religion,  they  repulsed  the  troops  that 
would  have  compelled  them  to  conform  to  the  imperial  inno- 
vations ;  and,  after  sustaining  many  sieges,  and  gaininsj  several 
battles,  lieigium,  in  a  few  mouths,  proclaimed  its  independ- 
ence, not  like  the  Jacobins,  of  the  altar  and  llu;  throne,  but  of 
pliilosophical  iinpietv.  Joseph  protecteil  the  Protestants  and 
Jews  in  his  dominions  ;  lie  also  granlc<l  liberty  to  the  press, 
as  far  as  regardjid  the  productions  of  profane  literature  and 
modern  philosophy,  but  Ik;  established  a  severe  censorship, 
over  (yatliolic  writings.  Hv  an  edict  which  does  honour  to 
his  memory,  he  abolisheil  the  slavery  of  the  peasants  in 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  ;  and  similar  measures  were 
soon  after  taken  to  meliorate  their  condition  in  Austrian 
Poland. 

In  1786  died  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia,*  surnamed  the  Great, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-four;  till  llu!  day  that  preceded  his  death, 
he  retained  all  those  niicommon  j)ow(;rs  of  understanding  for 
which   he   had  been   remarkalih',  and,  although   alllicted  with 

•  The  night  he  died,  he  went  to  bed  in  his  regimentals,  with  liis  hal 
Uid  btMita  on. 


XL."]  GENFRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  227 

the  gout,  applied  to  business  with  the  same  indefatigable  at' 
tention.  In  estimating  his  character,  we  must  remember  that 
he  was  heir  to  a  despotic  monarcliy,  trained  up  from  his  in- 
fancy in  military  and  arbitrary  ideas,  and  that  his  education 
had  been  a  good  deal  neglected.  But  it  is  probable,  that  with 
his  taste  for  literature,  and  his  distinguished  talents,  he  would 
have  made  a  better  king,  if  he  had  not  early  imbibed  the 
pernicious  skepticism  of  Voltaire.*  His  vanity,  which  blind- 
ed him  to  his  own  interest,  in  this  particular,  was  ridiculed 
even  by  Voltaire  himself;  while  the  protection  he  afforded  the 
enemies  of  Christianity,  made  religion  consider  him  as  one  of 
her  principal  adversaries.  He  desired  to  unite  in  his  own 
person  the  reputation  of  a  great  king,  a  wise  legislator,  an 
illustrious  hero,  an  accomplished  general,  a  fine  poet,  and  an 
enlightened  philosopher.  Active,  enterprising,  indefatigable, 
and  intrepid,  he  continually  alarmed  his  neighbours ;  and 
their  apprehensions  were  increased  by  his  appearing  not  to 
scruple  at  any  means  which  might  eff'ect  his  purpose.  As  a 
general,  his  talents  were  of  the  first  order;  and  few  kings  de- 
voted so  much  time  and  attention  to  promote  the  happiness  of 

*  Voltaire,  the  chief  of  the  antichristiaa  conspirators,  was  born  at  Pans, 
in  1 694,  and  gave  early  proofs  of  the  fertility  of  his  genius,  and  the  activity 
of  his  irtiagination  ;  deep  researches  and  solid  reasoning  will  in  vain  be 
sought  for  in  his  compositions.  Inordinate  vanity  appears  to  have  been  his 
characteristic,  and  to  establish  his  reputation  by  the  overthrow  of  the 
Christian  religion,  the  grand  aim  of  all  his  numerous  writings,  in  prose  and 
verse.  To  succeed  in  his  impious  undertaking,  he  soon  found  that  associates 
would  be  necessary,  and  he  selected  for  the  purpose  Diderot  and  d'Alembert ; 
who  were,  like  himself,  atheists,  deists,  and  skeptics,  by  turns.  In  order  to 
propagate  their  opinions,  these  infidels  undertook  to  compile  a  universal 
dictionary  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  Encyclopedia  was  announced  to 
the  public  as  the  masterly  performance  of  the  most  scientific  men  in 
France,  and  the  articles  regarding  religion  were  professed  to  be  treated  of 
by  men  of  known  learning  and  orthodoxy.  But,  under  the  specious 
appearance  of  reverence  and  respect  for  religion,  the  most  pernicious  doc- 
trines are  inculcated ;  and  the  unsuspecting  reader  imbibes,  before  he  is 
aware,  the  spirit  of  infidelity  and  materialism  in  full  force.  The  impious 
and  satirical  writings  of  Voltaire  obliged  him  to  abscond,  in  order  to 
escape  imprisonment.  He  retired  to  Ferney,  near  Geneva,  where  he 
resided  till  1778,  when  the  young  Lewis  XVI.,  yielding  to  the  solicitations 
of  his  friends,  permitted  him  to  return  from  exile.  The  infidel  sect 
triumphed,  and  celebrated  the  event  in  the  most  pompous  manner.  In  the 
midst  of  these  enthusiastic  honours,  Voltaire  was  seized  with  a  mortal  dis- 
temper, which  terminated  his  life,  in  such  transports  of  rage  and  despair, 
that  his  physician,  the  celebrated  Tronchin,  considered  his  death  the  most 
salutary  lesson  that  could  be  impressed  upon  those  whom  his  writings  had 
torrupted. 


229  GKNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

their  sul)jocts,  as  did  Frederic  II.,  diirin<i^  tlic  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life.  In  short,  he  was  certainly  one  of  tlie  raosi 
(li.slin<:iiished  and  extraordinary  princi's  of  w  hoin  llie  records 
of  iii-story  liave  prcscrvi-d  any  incniorial.  lie  \v;is  succeeded 
by  his  ncpiiew,  Frederick  William  II.,  whose  rei<rn  it  was 
believed  would  he  as  jrjorious  as  had  been  that  of  his  prede- 
cessor, and  more  mild  and  peaceable  ;  but  these  j^ood  begin- 
ninsjs  were  soon  followed  by  weakness,  carelessnes.s,  prodi- 
gality, and  vanity.  Prussia  look  an  active  part  in  the  affairs 
of  lloUand,  and,  resentinjj  the  treatment  which  the  Princess 
of  Orange,  sister  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  experienced,  overran 
Holland  with  her  armies,  and  obliged  the  Dutch  to  reinstate 
the  stadtholder  in  the  authority  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived. 

Catherine  II.  again  calls  our  attention  to  the  events  of  her 
reign.  A  magnificent  procession  was  this  year  (1786)  to  be 
made  to  Cherson,  where  she  was  to  be  declared  Queen  of 
Taurida  and  protectress  of  all  the  Tartar  tribes.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  the  adjoining  nations  would  flock  from  all  parta 
U)  do  homage  to  the  new  sovereign  of  the  east,  who  would 
thus  be  enabled  to  conduct  her  grandson,  Constantine,  to  the 
gates  of  Constantinople,  to  the  sovereignly  of  which  she  had 
destined  him  since  his  l)irth.  The  prince,  liowever,  sickening 
of  the  mcaiiles,  was  obliged  to  be  left  behind,  and  the  empress 
took  only  a  kind  of  formal  possession  of  Cherson  and  the 
Crimea.  Her  ambition  had  excited  the  jealousy  and  fears  of 
the  Turkish  emjjire  ;  the  insults  and  injuries  of  which  the 
Porte  complained  were  neither  f(!w  nor  imairinary,  and  war 
was  accordingly  dedarctl  against  Russia  in  1787.  A  formi- 
dable Turkish  army  advanced  to  the  sliores  of  the  I)aiuil)e, 
and  the  standard  of  .Mohammed  was  prepaied  to  be  unfurled 
Catherine,  who  impatiently  expected  the  declaration  of  war 
was  ready  with  her  lleets  and  armies,  and  ,Iose|)h  II.  senV 
30, 000  Austrians  to  her  assistance.  Surrounding  nations  be 
held  with  j(;alousy  the  intentions  of  the  empress,  who  threat 
ened  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  Europe;  and  the  King  ol 
Sweden  declared  war  against  Russia  and  laid  siege  to  Frede- 
rii'ksham.  Hut  (iustav\is  III.,  who  hoped  to  carry  terror  to 
the  gales  of  Petersburg,  had  tlie  iiiortilication  to  discover  that 
no  conlldence  could  be  placed  in  his  soldiers,  and  was  finally 
obliged,  by  ihe  superior  force  of  Russia,  to  evacuate  Finland. 
Having  restored  discipline  in  his  army,  he  ditl  not  cease  to 
annoy  ihe  enemy  ;  and  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Prince 
of  N;issau,  who  had,  with   superior  numbers,  given   Itattle  tc 


XL.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  229 

the  Swedes.  In  this  engagement  the  Russians  lost  half  their 
fleet  and  more  than  10,000  men.  This  defeat  accelerated  a 
peace,  and  Gustavus,  sensible  of  his  imprudence,  accepted  the 
proposals  of  the  empress.  In  the  mean,  time  the  Russian 
forces,  estimated  at  150,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Po- 
temkin  and  Count  Romanzof,  assisted  by  Suvvarrow  and  other 
officers,  took  Oczakov,  by  an  assault  that  cost  the  Russians 
12,000  men,  while  25,000  Turks  perished  in  the  town.  Su- 
warrow  routed  the  Turkish  army  with  a  horrible  carnage  near 
the  river  Rimnik,  and  having  captured  Tutukay,  in  Bulgaria, 
wrote  to  the  empress  four  lines  of  Russian  poetry,  which  sig- 
nified, "  Glory  to  God  !  Praise  to  Catherine  !  Tutukay  is 
taken  !  Suwarrow  is  in  it !"  Town  after  town  submitted  to 
the  conquerors.  Ismail,  however,  still  held  out ;  Potemkin, 
therefore,  sent  orders  to  Suwarrow  to  take  that  city  within 
three  days.  Accordingly  the  assault  was  commenced.  Fif- 
teen thousand  Russians  purchased  with  their  lives  the  bloody 
laurels  of  their  general,  who  wrote  to  the  empress  with  his 
usual  brevity,  "  The  haughty  Ismail  is  at  your  feet !" 
Elated  with  the  news  of  these  successive  victories,  Catherine 
thus  accosted  Sir  Charles  Whitworth,  the  British  ambassador, 
when  he  next  appeared  at  court.  "  I  hope,"  said  she,  with 
an  ironical  smile,  "  that  since  the  king,  your  master,  is  deter- 
mined to  drive  me  out  of  Petersburg,  he  will  allow  me  to  re- 
tire to  Constantinople."  The  war,  during  this  period,  was 
extremely  unsuccessful  on  the  side  of  Austria  :  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  vexations  resulting  from  his  ill  success,  the  empe- 
ror had  the  mortification  to  witness  the  rapid  destruction  of 
his  army  by  a  dreadful  mortality.  Prince  Lichtenstein  being 
obliged  by  illness  to  resign  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Croatia,  Marshal  Laudohn  was  persuaded  to  succeed  him, 
and  the  great  name  of  that  veteran  officer  seemed  to  reanimate 
the  troops  with  vigour  and  confidence.  Under  his  auspices, 
fortune  began  to  smile  on  the  Austrian  arms,  which  had  been 
long  attended  with  such  ill  success,  and  Belgrade  was  taken. 
(1789.)  Torrents  of  blood  were  shed  on  both  sides,  but  Jo- 
seph determined  to  prosecute  the  war  till  his  tarnished  glory 
should  be  restored  to  its  former  lustre.  The  campaign  of 
1789  was  successful ;  but  a  spirit  of  discontent  prevailed  in 
the  Austrian  dominions.  The  war  raged  in  Transylvania, 
and  the  Hungarians  sent  a  haughty  memorial  to  Vienna,  de- 
manding the  restoration  of  their  privileges  and  their  crown, 
ifec,  on  which  condition  they  promised  to  defend  the  king- 
dom :  the  emperor,  worn  out  with  bodily  disease,  complied 

32 


830  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

witli  most  of  tlieir  deniamls,  ami  promised  to  visit  Presburg  in 
order  to  be  crowned,  if  he  should  be  alive  the  following  May. 
Death,  however,  defeated  his  iiiliMilion.  !!(!  died  penitent  of 
the  trouble  and  scandals  he  had  created  in  the  church,  and 
ordered  the  same  to  be  signified  to  Pius  VI.  On  the  accession 
of  his  brother  Leopold,  a  separate  peace  was  concluded  with 
the  Porte  by  Austria.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  between 
Turkey  and  Russia  were  signed  in  1791,  and  thus  a  war  was 
terminated,  which  had  cost  the  latter  200,000  men,  and  the 
Turks  330,000.  Brussels  surrendered  to  the  imperial  arms 
the  same  year  ;  and  Leopold  put  an  end  to  the  troul)les  which 
had  agitated  the  Low  Countries,  since  the  innovations  in  reli- 
gion set  on  foot  by  his  predecessor,  by  granting  a  general  am- 
nesty, and  promising  to  respect  the  privileges  of  the  Belgians. 


CHAPTER  XLL 

THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 

The  ministers  to  whom  Lewis  XVL  gave  his  confidence, 
after  tiic  dismissal  of  the  Duke  d'Aiguillon,  were  jx-rsons  of 
limited  abilities  ;  and  the  difTicidtics  in  which  the  nation  was 
involved  assumed  daily  a  more  alarming  aspect.  The  disor- 
dered state  of  the  finances  has  already  been  alluded  to  ;  and 
although  some  attempts  had  Ijeen  made  to  introduce  economy 
into  the  administration  of  alTairs,  they  had  been  injudiciously 
applied,  and  had  tended  to  divest  the  regal  dignity  of  its 
splendour,  without  producing  any  adequate  result,  or  prevent- 
ing the  deficit'  from  accumuhuing  to  a  frightful  extent.  The 
plans  of  the  banker  Necker,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the 
administration  of  the  finances,  being  considered  extravagant 
and  chimerical,  he  was  dismissed  ;  and  his  successor,  M.  de 
Calonne,  suggested  the  expedient  of  calling  together  an 
Assembly  of  .\otal)les,  or  persons  of  note  from  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  selected  cliiedy  from  among  the  higher  orders, 
and  nominated  by  the  court.      Before  this  assembly,  which 

•  The  (Icfiril  is  the  amount  l>y  whirh  llip  revenue  of  the  fitntr  fell  short 
of  the  expenditure.  In  the  nHsrniMy  of  Nolnliles,  it  wns  stnted  at  T)!), (1(10,000 
of  livres;  under  the  adriiiriisinitinn  of  .N'rcker  it  exeecdcd  four  times  iliat 
num.  Necker  wa«  n  foreigner  and  a  Protestant,  and  as  such  exdudi'd  i.y 
the  laws  of  the  kingdum  from  t):(>  ininiitCry  to  which  he  had  the  hardihood 
to  upirs. 


tLl.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  231 

met  at  Versailles,  and  was  opened  by  the  king  with  great 
Bolemnity,  in  February,  1787,  the  minister  brought  forward  his 
plan.  He  proposed,  by  a  general  land-tax,  to  equalize  the 
public  burdens,  of  which  the  whole  weight  had  hitherto  fallen 
on  the  industrious  classes;  the  clergy,  nobles,  and  magis- 
trates being  exempt.  Notwithstanding  the  equity  of  this 
measure,  it  was  rejected  ;  and  so  great  was  the  clamour  raised 
by  the  privileged  classes  and  the  Parliaments  against  the 
minister,  that  he  resigned  and  withdrew  into  England ;  the 
Assembly  was  dissolved,  and  separated  without  effecting  any 
thing  of  importance.  The  Archbishop  of  Toulouse  succeeded 
M.  de  Calonne,  and,  in  his  turn,  devised  some  expedients  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  the  state ;  among  which  was  a  loan, 
which  the  Parliament  declared  illegal,  and  perseveringly 
refused  to  enregister.  This  body,  so  long  noted  for  its  spirit 
of  resistance  to  the  wall  of  the  sovereign,  was  now  influenced 
by  a  faction  devoted  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  whose  determined 
hostility  to  the  king  was  notorious,  and  founded,  it  is  asserted, 
on  that  monarch's  refusal  to  appoint  him  to  the  office  of  Lord 
High  Admiral  of  France.  He  now  openly  avowed  himself 
the  head  of  the  discontented  party,  and  admitted  the  counsel- 
lors of  the  Parliament  to  hold  in  his  palace  nocturnal  meetings, 
in  which  their  projects  of  opposition  were  discussed  and 
arranged.  The  king,  being  informed  of  these  proceedings, 
sent  an  order  to  the  duke  to  withdraw  to  his  country-seat, 
banished  the  refractory  Parliament  to  Troyes,  and  issued 
lettres  de  cachet  for  the  arrest  of  two  of  the  members.  The 
queen  was  suspected  of  being  the  adviser  of  these  measures : 
the  dissatisfaction  they  excited  was  so  marked,  that  they  were 
shortly  after  revoked,  and  the  duke,  at  the  solicitation  of  his 
virtuous  duchess,  allowed  to  return  to  Paris, 

At  this  juncture,  France  was  a  prey  to  famine ;  the  incle- 
mency of  the  weather  had,  in  some  measure,  destroyed  the 
promise  of  the  last  harvest,  and  an  edict,  permitting  the  free 
circulation  of  corn,  had  enabled  a  few  monopolists  to  possess 
themselves  of  what  remained.  At  the  head  of  these  mis- 
creants was  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  thus  became  the  arbiter 
of  the  life  and  death  of  the  multitude.  The  granaries  which 
his  immense  resources  had  enabled  him  to  fill,  were  opened  or 
shut  according  to  his  pleasure  or  policy ;  while  the  gold 
which  his  emissaries  scattered  among  the  populace  with  pro- 
fusion, gained  him  a  vast  number  of  partisans,  by  whose 
means  he  sought  to  transfer  to  his  own  head  the  crown  worn 
oy  the  elder  branch  of  his  family.     Writers  in  his  pay  worked 


232  OKNTRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  LcHAF 

up  the    soil,   wliii'h  vice  :iml   incredulity   liul   prepared,  and 
eowed  then;  the  seeds  of  rel)ellion  anil  apostasy.      The  niani- 
feslalions  of  public  discontent  ^rowinir  day  by  day  more  fre- 
quent   and    violent,  it    appeared    necessary    to    convoke    the 
Btates-fTcneral  of  the  kinjidoin,  to  prevent  a  civil  war.      Tliey 
accordinj^ly    assembled    at    Versailles,  on    the    5lh   of   May, 
178i).     'l"he  speech  of  the  kin<r  to  the  deputies,  exi)r(;ssive  of 
his  wish   to  make    every  sacrilice  to    the  publiir  good,  was 
received  with  great  applause.     In  it,  he  declared  himself  the 
first  friend  of  his  people,  and  thanked  die  clergy  and  nol)ilily 
for  having  renounced  their   pecuniary  privileges   to  clear   the 
pid)lic  debt.      Disputes,  however,  soon  arose  as  to  the  method 
of  voting.     The  deputies  of  the  people,  called  of  the  third 
estate,  being  equal  in  number  to  the  clergy  and  nobles  united, 
the  latter  proposed  that  each  of  the  three  shoidd  have  its  sejia- 
rate  hall  of  meeting,  and  that  the  votes  should   be  given   by 
order,  which   would  render  the  nunil)ers  of  the   third   estate 
less  available.     This  arrangement  was  warmly   opposed  by 
the  deputies  of  the  people,  who  insisted  on  voting  by  head, 
and  forming  one  general  assembly,  to  which  they  summoned 
the  other  two  orders  tu  iniite  themselves.     The  mandate  was 
obeyed  l)y  a  few  of  the  nobles  and  several  among  the  inferior 
clergy,  and  a  meeting  was  held,  in  defiance  of  the  royal  au- 
tluiritv.   in    the    tennis-court    of    Versailles,  on    the   17th  of 
•luuc,  178D,  by  the  united  memliers,  who  formed   themselves 
into  a  National  Assembly,  and  took  an  oaUi  not  to  separate  till 
they   had  given   a   new  constitution    to   France.      The    king, 
being  supported  by  the  great  majority  of  the  nobles,  declared 
these   proceedings   null,  but   was   afterwards  prevailed  on    to 
sanction  them,  and  the  union  of  the  three  orders  took  place. 

In  the  mean  while,  an  army,  under  the  command  of  the 
Due  de  Hroglie,  advanced  into  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  and 
Nccker,  to  whom  the  finances  had  a  second  time  been  intrust- 
ed, was  again  suddenly  dismissed.  Tremendous  commotions 
ensued  in  die  capital :  the  citizens,  being  joined  by  the 
French  guard,  took  up  arms  ;  and  the  court  found  diat  litUe 
reliance  could  be  |)laced  on  the  troops  of  the  Due  dc  llroglie, 
who  soon  became  infected  with  tlu;  popular  s|)irit  of  license 
and  iiisul)or(liMalion.  Nor  was  this  to  be  wondered  at ;  the 
most  in(1aiiin)atory  harangues  were  echoed  from  the  tribune 
of  the  National  Asseml)lv,  amou'j  which,  those  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  (recendy  relurncil  from  Fntibrnd,)  of  the  Abbe 
Sieyes,  and  of  Mirabeau,  a  creature  of  Uio  Orleans  faction, 
were  conspicuous.     The  latter  vehemently  demanded  that  the 


XLI.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  233 

troops  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris, 
and  that  a  decree  should  be  issued,  declaring  Uiat  the  minis- 
ters who  had  been  dismissed  merited  the  confidence  of  the 
people.  The  busts  of  Necker  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  were 
carried  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of  Paris,  the  populace 
loudly  demanding  the  recall  of  the  former ;  a  concession 
which  the  king  was  constrained  to  make.  At  length,  the 
storm  which  had  been  so  long  gathering,  burst  forth  in  all  its 
fury.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1789,  an  enraged  multitude, 
aided  by  some  among  the  military,  carried  the  Bastile  by 
storm,  and  levelled  it  with  the  ground.  The  governor,  M. 
de  Launay,  an  upright  and  humane  man,  fell  a  victim  on  this 
occasion  to  the  popular  indignation.  He  had  ordered  a  flag 
of  truce  to  be  hung  out,  and,  as  it  was  alleged,  had  taken  ad- 
vantage of  the  confidence  it  inspired,  to  intimidate  the  assail- 
ants, by  pouring  on  them  a  heavy  fire  of  cannon  and 
musketry.  Whether  this  were  the  result  of  accident  or 
treachery,  it  had  no  other  effect  than  to  increase  their  rage 
almost  to  frenzy  :  the  governor  was  massacred,  and  his  head 
earned  through  the  streets  on  a  pole.  This  crime  unavenged, 
was  only  a  prelude  to  scenes  of  far  greater  atrocity.  The 
National  Assembly,  meanwhile,  continued  to  sit ;  and  on  the 
20th  of  August  issued  a  declaration  of  rights,  to  serve  as  a 
basis  to  the  new  constitution,  by  which  the  form  of  govern- 
ment was  declared  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  and  the 
person  of  the  king  inviolable  :  it  was  promulgated  the  follow- 
ing month,  and  received  the  royal  sanction.  But  the  insti- 
gators of  rebellion  were  not  yet  satisfied  ;  early  in  October, 
the  royal  guards  gave,  as  was  customary,  a  banquet  to  the 
newly-arrived  regiment  from  Flanders,  and  the  queen, 
with  the  dauphin  in  her  arms,  appeared  in  the  assembly. 
The  enthusiasm  of  these  brave  men  in  the  cause  of  their  in- 
sulted sovereigns  was  manifested  by  repeated  acclamations; 
and  a  sonorous  voice  having  entoned  the  well  known  couplet 
from  the  opera  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  beginning,  "  O 
Richard!  O  mon  roi !  I'univers  t'abandonne  !"  the  chorus  waa 
taken  up,  and  sung  with  all  the  feeling  which  existing  circum- 
stances were  likely  to  inspire.  This  natural  and  affecting 
scene  was  made  the  subject  of  the  grossest  misrepresentation. 
The  plan  of  a  counter-revolution,  it  was  falsely  said,  had  been 
laid  open  in  a  moment  of  excitement,  and  the  national  colours 
trodden  under  foot.  The  French  guards,  who  had  been 
refused  the  exclusive  custody  of  the  royal  person,  which  they 
had  demanded,  became  discontented  and  mutinous,  and  even 

22* 


234  OENFIIAL    HISTORY    OF    F.l'ROPE.  [cHAP. 

the  regiment  of  Flrinders,  on  whose  fidelity  so  much  reliance 
had  bocn   placed,  soon  passed  over  to  (he  standard  of  revolt. 
That  llie  scenes  of  the  5ili  and  Gth  of  Oclohcr  were  tlie  resulta 
of  a  deep-laid  conspiracy,  of  uliich   the  Duke  of  Orleans  was 
the  chief  promoter,  there  can  be  no  doubt :    it  seems  less  cer- 
tain whether  Mailly,  tlie  Mayor  of  I*aris,  and  La  I-'ayi'tte,  who 
commanded   the   >i;;tiona[  (iuard,  were   privy  to  it.      l*aid  by 
the  ag'cnts  of  sedition,  and   worked   up   to  fury  by  the  lugli 
price  of  bread,  a  troop  of  demaffoj^ues,  the  drej^s  of  the  fau- 
bourifs,  accompanied  by  women  of  the  lowest  class,  went  in 
crowds   to  Versailles.     The  National  Guard    assembled    on 
the  IMace  dc  CJreve  under  arms,  and  imperiously  demanded 
to  be  led  tiiither  also,  to  call  out  the  king,  and  conduct  him  to 
Paris,  where  his  presence  was  necessary  to  restore  tran(|uilliiv. 
To  this  mutinous  demand  the  coun<;il  of  the  commune  acceded, 
and  siirncd  an  order  to  La  Fayette  to  lead  his   troops    to  Ver- 
sailles.     The    National   Assembly   was  still   sitting,  when  a 
horde  of  ferocious  women  demanded  entrance ;  fifteen  were 
admitted,  and  boldly  stated    their    determination  to  conduct 
the  king  to  Paris.      Several  members  of  the  assembly,  who 
wished  to  preserve  the  dignity  of  the   crown,  proposed    that 
they  shoidd  go  in  a  body  to   protect  the  king;   this   project 
was  insolently  overrided  by  \Iirabean.      However,  the  Presi- 
dent, Mouuier,  departed  at  the  head  of  a  deputation,  to  which 
the  iieroines  of  the  popular  faction  joined  themselves.     J^a 
Fayette,   on    arriving    at  Versailles,    had    ranged    his    troops 
around  the  casde,  where  the  greatest  tranquillity  appcjared  to 
prevail.     Tlic  women  had  presented  their  retjuest  and  (h.-part- 
ed  ;  tht!  captains  of  the  (Juards   had    retired   to  rest,  for  La 
Fayette  had  made  himself  responsible  for  the  royal   safety. 
Fortunately,  the  ladies  in  attendance  on  the  queen  were  still 
watching    in    her    antechamber,    when,    before    daybreak,    a 
band  of  nitii  ins  forced  open  the   doors  of  the   castle  and    at- 
tempted  to  make   their  way  to   the   royal   apartments.     The 
gunie-du-corps  on  duty  had  scarcely  time  to  exclaim,  "  Save 
the  queen,"  when    he  fell,  covered   with  wounds  :   his   place 
was  instantly  supplied  by  another,  who  met  with  a  similar  fate. 
The  ladies  m"anwbile  were  not  inactive.     They  roused  the 
queen,  who,  breathless  with  terror,  quitt^id  her  bed,  ran  alonjf 
the  corridor  wliieh  led  to  the  kinsr's  clianil)er,  atid  took  refuge 
in  his  arms.      The  assassins,  having  l)y  ibis  time  overpowered 
the  guard,  forced  open  the  doors  of  the  queen's  room,  and, 
rushiiiiT  to  the  lied  she  had  just  (piitted,  plunged  a  dairger  into 
it  in  several  places.  They  soon,  however,  ascertained  that  their 


ILl.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  235 

design  had  failed,  and  were  proceeding  full  of  rage  to  the 
apartments  of  the  king,  wlien  tlie  arrival  of  the  Marquis  de  la 
Fayette,  with  a  gallant  troop  of  300  men,  obliged  them  to  with- 
draw. Their  retreat  was  favoured  by  the  presence  of  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  and  other  conspirators,  who  had  arrived  to 
witness,  as  they  hoped,  the  success  of  the  plot.  At  an  early 
hour  the  royal  family  appeared  on  the  balcony,  and  were 
received  by  the  troops  below  with  repeated  shouts  of  joy. 
The  grenadiers  of  the  French  guard,  recalling  their  ancient 
loyalty,  swore  to  die  for  their  king  ;  and,  embracing  the  Swiss 
gardes-du-corps,  promised  them  friendship  and  fraternity. 
The  courts  of  the  castle  were  filled  with  multitudes  waiting 
the  moment  of  departure,  wliich  La  Fayette  entreated  the 
king  to  hasten.  At  length  the  cortege  set  out,  preceded  by 
the  mob,  carrying  on  pikes  the  heads  of  the  slain,  and  rending 
the  air  with  appalling  shouts  of  mingled  joy  and  ferocity  : 
the  royal  family,  wearied  and  depressed,  were  conducted  in  a 
sort  of  mock  triumph  to  the  Tuileries.  An  inquiry  was 
entered  into  as  to  the  authors  of  these  outrages  ;  yet  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  whose  participation  was  notorious,  met  with  no 
other  chastisement  than  an  order  to  withdraw  into  England. 
Application  being  made  to  the  queen  for  her  testimony,  she 
replied,  with  great  magnanimity  :  "  I  saw  all,  heard  all,  and 
have  forgotten  all." 

On  the  2d  of  November,  the  revenues  of  the  church  were 
placed,  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  at  the  disposal 
of  the  nation ;  the  clergy  having  in  vain  offered  to  relieve  the 
public  burdens  and  pay  the  debt  of  the  state,  by  a  gratuitous 
gift  of  four  hundred  millions  of  livres.  On  the  11th,  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  kingdom  was  altered,  and  France 
was  divided  into  departments,  (chiefly  borrowing  their  names 
from  the  nearest  mountains  or  rivers,)  districts,  cantons,  and 
municipalities. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  Lewis  XVL  to  be  governed  by 
timid  counsels,  and  to  sanction,  on  the  plea  of  necessity,  many 
decrees  which  his  own  sound  judgment  and  virtuous  feelings 
would  have  urged  him  to  reject.  The  tears  and  expostulations 
of  the  queen  were  often  made  use  of,  to  extort  from  him  con- 
cessions of  tliis  nature.  Still  it  was  evident,  that  in  signing 
the  acts  of  the  new  legislature,  his  heart  did  not  guide  his 
hand,  and  a  feeling  of  distrust  was  excited,  which  Lewis 
deemed  it  prudent  to  avert.  On  the  4th  of  February,  1790, 
ho  repaired  to  the  hall  of  the  National  Assembly,  where  a  chair 
was  placed  for  him  at  the  right  hand  of  the  President,  who  did 


336  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [cilAF 

not  rise  at  liis  entrance.  Lewis,  thongh  a  little  disconcerted, 
made  a  conciliatorv  speech,  expressive  of  liis  adhesion  to  the 
will  of  liie  national  rcprescnlalives,  and  liis  desire  to  defend 
constitutional  liberty.  This  declaration  was  a  triumph  to  the 
Jacobins,'^  who  caused  it  to  he  notified  to  all  foreijrn  courts;  a 
solemn  7c  Dcum  was  suiiir  in  thanksiriviiiir.  and  the  city  was 
brilliantly  ilUiminaled  at  ni<rht.  On  the  14th  of  .Iune,a  grand 
federal  meeting  was  held  in  the  ('hamp  de  Mars,  where 
2(K1,()(U)  men  were  assembled  under  arms,  and  Lewis,  at  the 
head  of  the  National  Representatives,  took  the  civic  oath.  In 
the  following  September,  Necker,  whose  popularity  had  for 
some  time  been  on  the  decline,  gave  in  his  resignation,  and 
retired  to  Copet,  near  Geneva,  his  native  place.  Decrees 
subversive  of  the  altar  and  of  the  throne,  now  followed  each 
other  in  rapid  succession  ;  cloisters  were  thrown  open  and 
suppressed,  marriage  was  declared  to  be  only  a  civil  act;  the 
clergy  were  called  upon  to  swear  fidelity  to  the  unfinished  and 
already  schismatical  constitution,  and  on  their  refusal  deprived 
of  their  benefices,  into  which  others,  elected  liy  the  ditlerent 
administrations,  were  immediately  intruded.  From  this  lime 
commenced  a  series  of  persecutions,  which  compelled  the  most 
estimable  members  of  the  Frrncli  dergv  and  nobility  to  seek 
an  asylum  in  forei;:n  lands.  'I'he  (^ointe  d'Ai  tois  and  iiis  family, 
who  were  particularly  obnoxious  to  tiie  Orleans  faction,  had 
already  fiuilted  France  ;  their  example  was  followed,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1791,  by  Mesdames  Victoire  and  Adelaide,  the  king's 
aunts,  who,  notwithstanding  the  dilficulties  thrown  in  tiieir  way 
by  the  Jacobins,  reaclu^d  Rome  in  safety.  The  wliole  king- 
dom was  now  on  the  verge  of  anarchy  ;  paid  emissaries  of  the 
dominant  faction  traversed  it  in  all  dircH-tions,  pillaging  the 
castles  of  the  nobility,  and  exciting  everywhere  tumult  and 
sedition.  The  royal  family  were  helil  captives  in  the  midst 
of  Paris,  by  La  Fayette  and  his  satellites  ;  while  the  regal 
dignity  itself,  shorn  of  its  honours,  and  divested  even  of  the 
priviletro  of  doing  good,  became  a  daily-increasing  source  of 
affliction  and  disciuiet  to  the  peace-loving  and  virtuous  monarch, 
who  bore  the  empty  title  of  constitutional  king.  Though 
Lewis  had  rejected  the  offers  of  six  hundred  devoted  nol)les. 
who  had  formed  a  confed(>ralion,  to  rescue  him  from  thraldom, 
and  were  afterwards  distinguished  as  Knights  of  tlie  Dairger, 
from  having  gained  access  to  the  Tuilerics  with  arms  concealed 
beneath  their  clothes,  he  was  induced  to  listen  to  the  overtures 

•   Tlif  Jai'oliins  were  ho  railed,  lirrau>^<'  ihry  liclil  ificir  meetings  in  the 
convent  whence  the  Jacobin  fnur;*  had  been  cxpoficd. 


Xhl."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  237 

of  the  Marquis  de  Boiiille,  then  military  governor  of  Metz, 
who  recommended  that  the  royal  captives  should  privately  quit 
Paris,  promising  that  different  detachments  of  the  troops,  under 
his  command,  should  meet  and  escort  them  to  the  frontiers. 
Accordingly,  on  the  20th  of  June,  1791,  the  king,  with  all  the 
members  of  his  family  who  were  still  in  France,  departed 
privately  from  the  Tuileries,  and  arrived  between  twelve  and 
one  at  the  village  of  St.  Menehould,  four  leagues  distant  from 
Varennes.  Here  the  king  was  recognised  by  the  postmaster, 
DroLiet,  a  furious  republican,  who  caused  the  tocsin  to  be 
sounded  in  the  neighbouring  villages,  and  the  National  Guard 
to  be  put  under  arms.  The  royal  fugitives  were  arrested  and 
detained  at  Varennes,  while  an  express  was  sent  of!'  to  ascer- 
tain the  intentions  of  the  national  representatives.  Meanwhile, 
La  Fayette,  who  had  been  gained  over  to  connive  at  the  king's 
evasion,  carried  the  news  of  it  with  well-dissembled  astonish- 
ment to  the  National  Assembly,  who  immediately  declared 
Lewis  suspended  from  his  functions,  and  ordered  the  govern- 
ment to  be  carried  on  by  a  council  of  ministers.  A  paper  was 
produced,  signed  by  the  king  on  the  eve  of  his  departure,  in 
which,  annulling  all  the  decrees  he  had  sanctioned  while  under 
restraint,  he  laid  open  the  motives  of  his  evasion,  and  his  in- 
tention of  repairing  to  Montmedy,  there  to  take  such  steps  as 
might  seem  conducive  to  the  happiness  of  his  people.  Not- 
withstanding this  pacific  declaration,  the  Jacobins  asserted  that 
the  king  had  quitted  France  only  to  return  at  the  head  of 
a  foreign  army,  to  punish  Paris,  to  dissolve  the  National 
Assembly,  and  re-establish  despotism  on  the  ruins  of  liberty. 
While  these  reports  were  urging  the  Parisian  populace  almost 
to  madness,  news  arrived  that  the  king's  flight  had  been 
arrested  at  Varennes,  and  that  the  royal  fugitives  were  on  their 
return  to  the  capital.  This  unfortunate  attempt  destroyed  all 
confidence  between  the  court  and  the  people,  whom  it  was 
now  easy  to  persuade  that  Lewis  favoured  the  hostile  designs 
of  the  emigrants,  a  large  body  of  whom  were  assembled  under 
the  orders  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  another  still  more 
numerous  surrounded  the  children  of  Henry  IV.  at  Coblentz  ; 
whither  the  Marquis  de  Bouille  and  Monsieur  and  Madame, 
who,  by  taking  a  different  route,  reached  Brussels  in  safety, 
had  also  repaired. 

In  August,  1791,  an  interview  took  place  at  Pilmtz  between 
the  emperor  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  which  was  attended  by 
many  of  these  illustrious  exiles,  and  in  which  the  two  sove- 


138  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

feigns  aj^recd  to  take  up  arms  in  support  of  the  royal  authority 
in  France. 

The  new  eonstitntion  was  completed  in  Septemher;  and 
Lewis,  liaviuiT  siirnilicd  hi<  aceeptalion  of  it,  was  permilted  to 
resume  a  sliadow  of  auliiurity.  The  iNatioual  Asseinl)ly  was 
replaced  on  the  1st  of  October,  by  the  second  legislature,  con- 
sistin<T  chiedy  of  literary  men,  votaries  of  the  new  order  of 
things,  both  as  to  religion  and  politics.  Among  their  earliest 
measures  was  a  decree,  condemning  to  death  all  emigrants, 
without  exception,  who  should  not  return  to  France  before  the 
first  day  of  the  ensuing  year;  and  to  deportation,  every  priest 
or  bisiiop  who  should  refuse  to  swear  adhe-iion  to  the  civil  (con- 
stitution of  the  clergy.  Indignation  now  inspired  Lewis  with 
courage  and  energy  ;  making  use  of  the  privilege  granted  him 
by  the  constitution,  he  peremptorily  refused  to  sanction  this 
decree.  To  prove,  however,  that  he  did  not  invoke  the  aid 
of  a  foreign  army  to  avensre  his  personal  wrongs,  he  consented, 
at  the  instigation  of  his  ministers,  to  declare  war  against  Atis- 
tria  and  Sardinia.  The  Jacobins  had,  in  this  measure,  a 
secondary  ol)ject;  that  of  employing  on  the  frontier  those 
troops  of  the  line  who  might  have  proved  an  olistacle  to  the 
change  of  government  they  now  sought  to  ellcct.  On  the 
20th  of  June,  20,000  men,  headed  by  the  execrable  Santerre, 
presented  themselves  at  the  palace  of  the  Tuilcries.  They 
were  in  the  act  of  forcing  the  door  of  the  royal  apartment, 
when  Lewis  ordered  it  to  be  opened.  The  furious  assassins 
instantly  rushed  in,  demanding  with  veliemence  the  death  of 
the  queen,  the  expulsion  of  the  j)riests  and  aristocrats.  The 
calm  intrepidity  of  the  king  chcjcked  their  fury  ;  several  drew 
back  in  astonishment,  and  for  some  time  a  profound  silence 
ensued.  The  tumult  then  recommenced,  and  several  diflferent 
attempts  were  made  to  stal)  the  king,  l)ut  tlie  blows  were 
warded  ofTl)y  sume  faithful  attendants.  After  horrible  outrages, 
whicli  were  closed  by  puttinu  a  red  bonnet  on  his  majesty's 
head,  and  obliging  him  to  drink  to  the  health  of  the  nation,  the 
mayor,  Petion,  entered  the  palace,  and,  addressing  the  king, 
told  him  he  had  nothini:  to  fear.  liCwis  took  the  baud  of  a 
grenadier,  who  was  slandiiii''  by,  and,  placing  it  on  his  heart, 
asked  him  if  he  found  that  it  beat  quicker  than  ordinary. 

Tin?  brevity  of  this  aceotmt  will  not  admit  of  a  detail  of  the 
Iiorrid  massacres  wliicli  were  perpetrated  on  the  memorablo 
lOtli  of  AuL'^ust.  Th(!  kini{  was  oldigcd  to  seek  rcfiiL'e  with 
his  family  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  after  his  faithful 
Swiss  guards,  and  all  the  servants  who  were  in  the  palace  had 


XLl.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  239 

been  cut  to  pieces.  Some  of  the  members  observing  that  the 
constitution  forbade  the  legislative  body  all  deliberation  in 
presence  of  the  king,  the  royal  family  were  conducted  to  a 
box,  ten  feet  square,  situated  behind  the  president's  chair, 
where  they  remained  fourteen  hours,  during  the  burning  heat 
of  a  summer  day.  On  the  13th,  they  were  conveyed  as 
state  prisoners  to  the  Temple;  the  civil  list  was  suspended, 
royally  was  abolished,  and  all  the  statues  of  the  kings  over- 
turned. It  had  been  foreseen  that  the  altar  and  the  throne 
would  be  overthrown  at  the  same  time.  In  effect,  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  the  recent  outrages  committed  against  Lewis 
XVI.,  was  his  refusal  to  sanction  the  resolutions  adopted  in 
the  liCgislative  Assembly  respecting  the  emigrants,  and 
those  among  the  clergy  who  rejected  an  oath  incompatible 
with  their  sacred  obligations.*  All  these  were  marked  out 
for  destruction ;  and  orders  were  given  to  drag  as  many  as 
could  be  found  to  several  convents  of  the  city,  now  converted 
into  prisons  ;  principally  that  of  the  Carmes,  the  seminary  of 
St.  Firmin,  and  La  Force.  On  the  2d  of  September,  the 
dreadful  butchery  commenced.  On  that  and  the  two  follow- 
ing days,  1085  state  prisoners,  among  whom  were  300  priests, 
the  Princess  de  Lamballe,  and  many  other  persons  of  high 
rank,  were  sacrificed  in  a  manner  shocking  to  humanity. 
Those  who  had  emigrated  were  received  in  Italy,  England, 
and  other  places,  with  the  greatest  charity  and  benevolence. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  situation  of  Great  Britain  at 
the  date  of  1788  ;  which  we  were  induced  to  defer  in  order 
not  to  interrupt  the  narrative  of  the  French  Revolution. 

England  was  enjoying  peace  and  recovering  from  her 
losses,  under  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Pitt,  when  the  king's  illness 
spread  a  gloom  over  the  nation.  The  regency-bill  was  about 
to  pass,  but  his  majesty's  sudden  recovery  rendered  it  unne- 
cessary. The  principal  measures  proposed  by  Mr.  Pitt, 
after  his  accession  to  power,  were,  first,  his  East  India  Bill, 
in  1784;  secondly,  his  motion,  in  1785,  for  a  parliamentary 
reform,  Avhich  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  seventy-two 
members  ;  thirdly,  his  plan  for  the  liquidation  of  the  National 
Debt,  by  the  establishment  of  a  Sinking  Fund,  in  1786;  and, 
fourthly,  the  act  on  the  treatment  of  negroes,  and  the  amelio- 
ration of  their  condition,  in  May,  1788.     In  1791,  the  penal 

*  Talleyrand  de  Perigord,  Bishop  of  Autun,  was  flie  first  prelate  in 
France  who,  by  the  civic  oath,  withdrew  himself  from  the  j  irisdiction  and 
communion  of  the  see  of  Rome.  His  example  was  followed  by  three 
bishops  only,  out  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight. 


210  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cJlAP 

Statutes  were  softciiotl  down,  and  several  pains,  penalties,  and 
disqiialitieations  were  done  away  with.  The  conslilution  of 
Canada  was  fixed  l)y  dividin":  that  province  into  two  govern- 
ments, and  giving  a  (.'oiincil  and  House  of  Assembly  to  each. 
The  same  year,  the  Duke  of  York  was  married  to  the  Prin- 
cess Frederiea  Charlotte,  sister  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 

With  equal  conduct  and  good  fortune.  Earl  Cornwallis, 
who  had  accepted  the  office  of  governor-general  of  Bengal, 
carried  on  the  war  with  Tippoo  Saih,  in  which  he  had  been 
involved  througli  tlic  intrigues  of  France.  Overcoming  all 
impediments,  he  formed  the  siege  of  Seringapatam,  the  capital 
of  iMysore,  and  concluded,  on  his  own  terms,  a  peace  with 
Tippoo,  in  1791.  In  connection  with  the  affairs  of  India, 
may  be  noticed  tlie  celebrated  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  the 
late  Governor-general  of  Bengal,  who  was  arraigned  at  the  bar 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  on  a  cliarge  of  hiijh  crimes  and  misde- 
meanours, Burke  and  Sheridan  supported  the  accusation, 
with  their  usual  eloquence  ;  but  he  defended  himself  in  a 
speech  of  great  ability,  and  ol)taincd  a  verdict  of  honourable 
acquittal,  after  a  trial  which  had  lasted  for  seven  years.  In 
addition  to  a  handsome  donation  conferred  upon  the  accuse(.', 
the  expenses  of  the  suit,  amounting  to  £70,000,  were  defray 
ed  by  the  East  India  Company. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Freuch  revolutionists  found  inanv 
admirers  in  England  ;  while  the  discriminating  and  tliink'.ig 
part  of  the  nation  apprehended  equal  danger  froui  the  associa- 
tions formed  in  this  country,  and  from  the  intemperate  and 
ungovernable  licentiousness  of  its  natural  enemies.  A  great 
riot  took  place  at  Birmingham,  in  which  the  library  of  the 
philosopher,  Dr.  Priesdey,  was  consumed.  The  militia  was 
imbodied,  and  proper  methods  taken  for  seeming  the  internal 
peace  of  the  kingdom;  yet  it  has  been  since  known,  that,  far 
from  nssistini;  Lewis  to  (pu'll  tlie  disturbances  in  France, 
Mr.  Pitt  secretly  encouraged  the  chsafrcctcd  there,  by  way  of 
reprisal*  for  the  assistance  the  French  had  given  the  Ameri- 
cans in  the  late  war.  Difference  of  opinion  respecting  tlie 
revolution  occasioned  a  disagreement  biitween  the  principal 
members  of  the  opposition,  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  Fox,  and  Mr 
Sheridan.  Mr.  Burke  severely  censured  the  leaders  of  affairs 
in  France,  and  demonstrated,  in  a  celebrated  work,  that  their 
object  was  the  destruction  of  the  monarciiy  ;  he  was  answered 
by  his  colleagues  in  office ;  and  in  reply  to  Mr.  Sheridan, 
Burke  dechired  that  from  that  hour  their  pf)litical  connexion 
•   See  Memoirs  of  Abbe  Georgcl,  vol.  ii.,  page  419. 


XLI.3  GENF.RAI     HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  241 

was  at  an  end.  The  publication  of  his  "  Reflections,"  in 
1791,  involved  the  nation  in  a  war  of  principles.  Ministers 
were  inclined  to  favour  his  sentiments,  as  the  numerous  sedi- 
tious writings  that  had  appeared  since  the  French  Revolution 
gave  them  considerable  uneasiness.  This  year,  Mr.  Wilber- 
force  again  introduced  the  question  of  the  Slave  Trade,  and, 
after  a  long  discussion,  the  gradual  abolition  of  it  was  at  last 
resolved  upon. 

1792. — The  armies  of  the  allied  sovereigns  were  on  tlie 
point  of  entering  France,  when  the  Emperor  Leopold  was 
seized  with  a  pleuritic  fever,  which  brought  him  to  the  grave, 
in  the  second  year  of  his  reign.  Francis  11.  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  was 
soon  after  raised  to  the  imperial  throne.  The  King  of  Prus- 
sia induced  him  to  declare  war  against  France,  and  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick  soon  arrived  at  Coblentz  with  the  first  division 
of  the  Prussian  army  ;  but  the  haughty  terms  in  which  liis 
manifesto  was  conveyed  injured  the  cause  of  loyalty,  as  it 
engaged  many  young  Frenchmen  to  enlist  without  bounty  in 
the  service  of  their  country.  The  French  princes,  who  liad 
quitted  France,  published  a  declaration  in  the  month  of  Au- 
gust. In  the  mean  time,  the  French  twice  successfully  in- 
vaded the  Austrian  Netherlands.  On  their  side,  the  grand 
army  of  the  allies  entered  France,  and  took  possession  of 
Longwi,  August  the  22d ;  about  which  time  the  Marquis  de 
la  Fayette  came  over  to  the  allies,  with  a  part  of  the  staff  of 
his  army.  The  French  general,  Dumouriez,  who,  with  all  the 
other  generals,  had  given  in  his  adhesion  to  the  provisional 
government,  was  at  this  time  strongly  encamped  atGrandpre, 
where  he  had  the  mortification  to  learn  that  Verdun  had  been 
delivered  up  to  the  allies.  His  out-posts  were  repeatedly,  but 
unsuccessfully,  attacked.  The  post,  Croix-au-bois,  was 
however  forced;  and  as  his  army  was  reduced  to  15,000 
men,  who  had  to  contend  against  60,000  Prussians  and  Aas- 
trians,  together  with  a  body  of  emigrants,  he  was  forced  to 
retreat.  It  required  all  his  skill  to  prevent  the  complete  rout 
of  his  troops,  who  were  seized  with  a  panic  terror.  He  now 
proceeded  !o  occupy  the  camp  of  St.  Menehould.  Towards 
the  latter  end  of  September,  the  important  fortress  of  Thion- 
ville  was  besieged  by  the  allies.  It  was  gallantly  defended 
by  General  Wimpfen,  who,  in  a  successful  sortie,  seized  on 
the  magazines  and  military  wagons  of  the  besiegers.  Dumou- 
riez, having  been  joined  by  Generals  Kellermann  and  Beur- 
nonville,  the  combined  army  advanced    in  pursuit  of   him  ; 

23 


242  GENERAL   UISTOKV    OF    El'ROPE.  [cHAP 

repcatpii  skirmishrs  ensued,  but  notliiu;T  docisivc  was  efiectea 
on  ritlier  side.  The  allied  troojis,  cne-auiped  in  the  sterile 
parts  of  the  provinee  of  Champaj^ne,  suflercd  so  much  from 
famine  and  disease,  that  their  eainp  I)eeame  the  seene  of  deso- 
lation and  death.  The  Prussian  monareh,  after  having  twice 
sent  his  adjutant-general  with  propositions  to  General  Du- 
mouriez,  retreated  with  his  troops. 

'J'he  French,  under  General  Custine,  having  made  an 
irruption  into  Germany,  in  a  few  weeks  made  themselves 
masters  of  Spire,  Worms,  Mentz,  and  Frankfort.  The  Duke 
of  Saxe  Teschen,  governor-general  of  the  Austrian  Nether- 
lands, having  joined  the  army  of  General  Clairfayt,  and  the 
Austrian  forces  being  strongly  intrenched  on  the  heights  of 
Jeniappe,  Dumouriez  came  to  a  resolution  of  attackinir  them, 
on  tlie  6th  of  jN'ovember,  and  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Aus- 
trians  to  retreat,  after  a  very  vigorous  defence.  The  concjuest 
of  Beliiium  followed  this  very  important  victory.  General 
Clairfayt,  wiio  had  now  assumed  the  command  inchief  of  the 
Austrian  forces,  after  having  spv^nt  nearly  two  months  in 
retreating,  took  up  his  position  en  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine. 

About  the  middle  of  September,  Lewis  and  his  family  were 
immured  in  a  tower  of  the  Temple,  which  had  been  carefully 
insulated  from  the  rest  of  the  building,  by  a  stronir  wall  ana 
deep  ditch.  The  windows  were  dosed,  and  no  Ught  admit- 
ted but  tlirough  a  narrow  aperture  at  the  top  ;  eight  iron  door8 
forbade  access  to  the  stairs  which  led  to  tlie  king's  apartment. 
In  this  prison,  he  was  deprived  of  pens,  ink,  and  paper,  but 
was  allowed  to  retain  his  books.  Before  his  captivity,  Lewis 
had  sometimes  appeared  irresolute  and  weak  ;  but  in  his  pri- 
son he  was  a  model  of  serenity,  fortitude,  and  courage,  in  tho 
midst  of  every  kind  of  outrage. 

On  the  21st  of  September,  the  Legislative  Assembly  made 
place  for  the  National  ('onvention;  tlie  first  on  the  list  of  the 
members  who  composed  it  was  Robespierre,  to  whom  France 
was  indebted  for  the  formation  of  the  too  celebrated  Com- 
mune, which  orjjanized  the  murders  and  proscriptions  in  the 
capital.  Marat,  the  echo  of  Robespierre,  the  ferocious 
Danton,  and  JJ<:(tIife,  late  Duke  of  Orh-ans,  were  among  the 
members,  of  wlutm  ^'etion  was  president.  On  the  11th  of 
December,  tlie  king  .vas  cited  to  the  l)ar  of  the  Convention, 
ami  appeared  there  with  the  di^niity  and  firmness  whieh  suited 
his  rank  and  innocence.  Among  the  crimes  alleged  againsi 
him,  he  was  accused  of  having  sent  money  to  the  enemict*  of 


XLI.] 


GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  243 


France,*  of  being  the  author  of  the  war  waged  against  the 
French  territory,  of  having  conspired  against  the  liberty  of  the 
nation,  &c. ;  to  all  which  he  replied  with  equal  firmness,  pre- 
cision, and  dignity.  Counsel  was  allowed  him,  and  Target 
having  refused  his  services,  the  king  chose  M.  de  Male- 
sherbest  and  M.  Tronchet,  to  whom  was  afterwards  joined 
M.  de  Seze.  On  Christmas-day,  Lewis  finished  his  will,  and 
disposed  himself  for  his  last  hour,  with  a  full  persuasion  of  ita 
near  approach.  His  eloquent  defence  was  read  on  the  follow- 
ing day  by  M.  de  Seze,  and  he  was  again  reconducted  to  the 
Temple,  amidst  the  insulting  cries  of  the  populace.  The 
death  of  Lewis  was  decided  in  the  Convention  by  a  majority 
of  five  voices  ;  his  appeal  to  the  people  was  rejected  through 
the  persuasion  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  of  all  his 
demands,  two  only  were  granted  ;  namely,  that  he  should 
have  a  private  interview  with  a  priest  of  his  own  choice,  and 
another  with  his  family,  from  whom  he  had  been  entirely  se- 
parated since  the  commencement  of  his  trial.  The  clergyman 
he  fixed  upon  to  assist  him  on  this  melancholy  occasion  was 
the  Abbe  Edfi-eworth,  from  whose  hands  he  received  the  sa- 
craments  of  the  church,  on  the  last  fatal  morning.  Lewis  met 
death  with  the  constancy  and  piety  of  a  martyr,  at  a  quarter 
past  ten  on  the  21st  January,  1793,  in  the  thirty-eighth  year 
of  his  age  and  the  nineteenth  of  his  reign. 

*  Twelve  millions  of  iivres  had  indeed  been  sent  to  Vienna  fronri  Ver- 
sailles, in  1785,  on  the  following  occasion.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  find- 
ing his  unreasonable  demands  as  to  the  opening  of  the  Scheldt  and  the 
cession  of  Maastricht,  rejected  by  the  Dutch,  declared  war  against  them  in 
1784.  A  compromise  was  effected,  through  the  mediation  of  France,  by 
which  Joseph  consented  to  withdraw  his  claim,  if  indemnified  to  the 
amount  of  10,000,000  of  florins.  As  the  Dutch  were  unable  to  pay  more 
than  half  that  sum,  Lewis,  who  had  imprudently  promised  his  concurrence 
to  his  brother-in-law,  was  constrained  to  make  good  the  remainder. 

■j-  This  venerable  magistrate  had  been  united  with  some  of  the  most 
famous  philosophers  of  the  day ;  but  two  or  three  visits  to  Lewis  in  the 
Temple  effected  an  entire  change  in  his  sentiments.  At  the  sight  of  the 
patience  and  the  serenity  of  the  prince,  no  doubt  remained  in  his  mind 
of  the  force  and  truth  of  religion.  From  that  time  he  gave  hi'iiself 
up  to  the  practice  of  an  exemplary  piety.  (See  Abbe  Caron,  "  Vie  dea 
Justes,"  vol.  iv,  p.  148.)  He  died  by  the  guillotine  during  the  reign  of 
terror. 


244  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  fcHAP 


CHAPTER  XLIl 

SWEDEN,    SPAIN,    WITH    A    CONTIMIATION    OF    THE    WAR    FROM 

1793  TO  ITOt) 

1792. — The  spirit  of  insubordination  andlilierty  whioli  hnd 
spread  into  Sweden,  proved  fatal  tiiis  year  to  Ciiistavus  III. 
lie  had  <jiven  canse  of  discontent  to  his  senate,  by  engaa;in^  in 
a  war  atrainst  Russia,  without  the  consent  of  th(^  States:  and 
thoiisrh  he  hud  endeavoured  to  suppress  tlie  dissatisfaction 
of  his  nobles,  tlie  evil  was  not  eradicated,  'i'hc  king  had 
resolved  to  put  himself  at  the  liead  of  the  French  emii^rants, 
wliose  liopcs  and  enthusiasm  he  had  cherished  and  inllanied, 
and  to  attack,  the  dominions  of  France.  To  tliis  measure,  not 
only  the  nobles,  but  the  people  were  extremely  averse.  lie 
was  assassinated  at  a  masked  ball,  on  tl>e  16th  of  March, 
1792,  by  Ankerstroem,  a  captain  in  the  "guards,  who  was  no 
sooner  apprehended,  (having  been  traced  by  a  pistol  that  he 
had  dropped  near  the  king,)  than  he  confessed  and  gloried 
in  the  deed.  lie  was  sentenced  to  have  his  right  hand  cut 
off  and  his  body  impaled.  The  king's  wound  proved  mortal, 
but  he  lived  several  days,  and  displayed  in  his  misfortiuies  a 
constant  courage  and  an  heroic  firmness.  Immediately  on 
his  death,  his  son,  Gustavus  IV.,  was  proclaimed  king  of 
Sweden,  and  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  was 
appointed  sole  recent,  till  the  prince  should  have  attained  the 
eighteenth  year  of  his  age.  The  mild  and  eipial  conduct  of 
the  regent  preserved  the  country  from  the  horrors  of  internal 
war,  and  he  dedicated  his  whole  attention  to  repair  the  losses 
which  it  had  sustained.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  year  179.3, 
a  conspiracy  was  discovered  and  quelled,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  Haron  Armfeldt  and  others  of  the  noliilily. 

('harles  IV.  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain  on  the  demise  of 
his  father,  in  1789,  and  was  crowned  in  Sepleml)er,  wilh  the 
utmost  pomp  and  solemnity.  The  Spanish  government  testi- 
fied trreat  uneasiness  at  the  French  Revolution,  and  carefully 
guarded  against  the  propagation  of  the  j)riucipl(^s  of  those  who 
attempted  to  defeiul  it,  i)y  prohil)iting  the  circulation  of  news- 
papers and  French  puijUcations.  In  consequence  of  a  dispute 
relative  to  the  sovereignty  of  Nootka  Sound,  his  Catliolic 
Majesty  prepared  to  take  up  arms  against  I'ngland,  in  1790; 
but  the  naval  force  of   the  latter  being   vastly  superior,  he 


XLII.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  245 

altered  his  intentions,  and  consented  to  give  the  satisfaction 
demanded  by  Great  Britain. 

The  mediation  of  the  Spanish  court  between  Lewis  XVI. 
and  his  rebellious  subjects  having  been  disdainfully  rejected, 
and  this  refusal  being  soon  after  followed  by  the  execution  of 
that  unfortunate  monarch,  Spain  declared  war  against  France,  in 
1793 ;  and  the  first  actions  which  took  place  between  the 
Spanish  and  republican  forces  were  decidedly  in  favour  of  the 
former  power.  In  England,  Parliament  being  sitting  when 
news  was  received  of  the  execution  of  the  Kino-  of  France, 
advantage  was  taken  of  the  melancholy  sensations  it  produced 
to  enforce  the  necessity  of  war,  (which  was,  however,  strongly 
opposed,)  preparations  for  which  had  beOn  made.  The  re- 
publicans were  beforehand  with  us,  and  in  1793  declared 
hostilities  against  England :  the  Stadtholder  of  the  United 
Provinces  and  Russia  soon  after  joined  in  the  alliance  against 
France. 

Meantime  Dumourier,  having  conquered  all  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  except  Luxemburg,  was  ordered  to  invade  Hol- 
land, and  confided  to  General  Miranda  the  siege  of  Maestricht. 
He  himself  took  Breda  and  several  other  places;  but  while  he 
was  employed  in  the  blockade  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  the  Bri- 
tish army,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  York,  landed  in  Hol- 
land and  recovered  Williamstadt  from  the  hands  of  the  French. 
The  Prince  of  Coburg  surprised  the  French  army  before 
Maestricht,  and  obliged  Miranda  to  raise  the  siege  of  that 
place,  having  defeated  the  republicans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  with 
prodigious  slaughter.  About  this  time  news  was  received  at 
Paris  of  the  unfavourable  posture  of  affairs  in  St.  Domingo, 
and  of  the  surrender  of  Corsica  to  the  British.  The  Spaniards 
had  invaded  a  part  of  Roussillon,  with  an  ardour  and  vigilance 
that  were  not  expected  from  such  a  foe ;  and  in  La  Vendee 
an  insurrection  had  been  kindled  by  the  royalists.  The  forces 
there  collected  assumed  the  title  of  the  Catholic  army,  and 
rallied  in  the  name  of  God  and  the  king.  It  was  headed  by  the 
nobility,  who  had  not  emigrated  thence  so  much  as  from  the 
other  parts  of  France.  Alarmed  at  these  disasters,  Dumou" 
rier  returned  into  the  Netherlands,  and  compelled  the  Austrian 
advanced  posts  to  retire  from  Tirlemont.  On  the  27th  of 
March,  1793,  a  general  engagement  took  place  at  Neerwin- 
den,  where  the  French  were  defeated  with  the  Inss  of  4,000 
men  and  several  pieces  of  cannon.  They  are  said  to  have 
displayed  singular  courage  and  address  upon  this  occasion, 
but  they  were  overpowered  by  the  superior  numbers  and  more 

23* 


246  OKNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

roj^iilar  discipline  of  their  enemies.  Shortly  after  this  event, 
Dumoiirier  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Convention,  and 
four  coMiMiissioners  were  actuallv  cMipowcrod  to  arrest  liiiu  ; 
but  on  his  discoverint;  tlicir  intentions,  he  caused  them  to  be 
immediately  conveyed  to  Clairfayt's  quarters  at  Tournay,  as 
hostages  for  the  safely  of  the  royal  family.  He  then  ventured 
to  sound  his  army  rcspectinir  the  restoration  of  monarchy  in 
the  person  of  the  daupliin  ;  but  the  mere  proposal  excited 
such  general  indignation,  that  he  vi^as  instandy  obliged  to  flee 
to  the  allies  for  protcition,  after  narrnwly  escaping  a  tremen- 
dous discharge  of  uiuskelry,  which  his  exasperated  troops 
poured  upon  him  and  his  faithful  attendants.  The  latter  end 
of  June  was  only  distinguished  by  some  petty  skirmishes  be- 
tween the  two  grand  armies  ;  but  in  the  ensuing  month,  the 
Austrians  gained  some  advantatrcs  of  greater  importance.  The 
garrison  of  Conde,  after  sustaining  a  l)lockade  of  three  months, 
was  obliged  to  capitulate  to  the  Prince  of  Wirlemberg,  and 
Valenciennes  surrendered  to  the  Duke  of  York,  who  took 
possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  emperor.  About  the  same 
time  Mentz  was  reduced,  after  a  most  tedious  siege,  by  the 
King  of  Prussia. 

A  glorious  naval  victory  was  gained  by  Lord  Howe  over 
the  French  fleet  of  twenty -seven  of  the  line,  ofl'  Hrest,  in  June, 
J7!)t. 

The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  continued  to  desolate 
France  l)y  the  most  horrid  butcheries  and  persecutions.  Dan- 
ton  withdrew  from  the  Convention,  ami  left  all  the  power  in 
the  liands  of  Hobcspicrre,  (^>llot  D'llerbois,  IJilJaud  Vareimes, 
Couthon,  and  St.  Just.  Their  first  act  of  authority  was  to 
apprelu-nd  all  suspected  persons,  and  to  trv  them  by  revohi- 
tionary  committees,  tlie  powers  of  whii-h  wert;  so  \uilimited 
that  they  could  readily  seize  on  the  four-fifths  of  the  popula- 
tit)n  of  France.*  One  of  their  earliest  victims  was  general 
Custine,  wliose  murder  was  followed  by  that  of  Marie  Antoi- 
nette of  F'rant-e,  the  unfortunate  widow  of  Lewis  XVLt     She 

•  On  the  fiih  of  October,  (IT)  Vcndcmiaire,)  the  Convention  ordered  thw 
GrrRorian  calendar  to  l)c  si  i)|)rrsscd,  nri<l  Kubstitulcd  in  its  place  a  new  era 
and  republican  call  ndor,  which  brgan  from  the  22d  of  September,  179.3. 
The  SiindfljH  wore  struck  oiil,  and  the  months  divided  into  decades. 

■f  The  queen's  imputed  ['artiniily  to  her  nalive  land,  whiiher,  it  was 
faUelv  BKnerled,  nhe  had  sent  larce  sutiiH  of  money,  had  made  her  very 
unpopular  in  France.  'I'he  unfoitunale  atl'air  of  ihc  diamond  necklace,  in 
which  the  namen  of  the  noverei(jnn,  and  of  a  prince  of  the  church,  appeared 
in  connection  with  that  of  a  vile  impoRtor  and  her  asHociates,  tended  to 
auj^tnent  the  public  dislike.     The  cardinal  whose  credulity  had  been  i4 


XLII.] 


GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  241 


had  suffered,  during  three  months,  all  the  horrors  of  a  close 
captivity  in  the  prison  of  the  Conciergorie,  from  whence  she 
was  led  before  tlie  revolutionary  tribunal.  She  perislied  on 
the  16th  of  October,  1793,  having  survived  her  husband  nearly 
nine  months.*  The  numberless  cruelties  and  massacres  per- 
petrated in  many  parts  of  France  at  this  time,  exceed  all  that 
imagination  can  picture  to  itself.  The  cities  of  Lyons,  Mar- 
seilles, and  Toulon  entered  into  a  confederation  against  the 
Conventioi.al  Government;  Marseilles  soon  submitted,  Lyons 
was  closely  besieged ;  but  the  people  of  Toulon  entered  into 
a  negotiation  with  the  English  Admiral  Hood,  who  was  then 
cruising  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  he  took  possession  of  the 
town  and  shipping,  in  the  name  of  Lewis  XVIL  The  city 
of  Lyons  surrendered  in  October,  after  a  long  and  desperate 
siege,  during  which  the  greatest  horrors  were  committed  by 
the  satellites  of  the  Convention.  It  is  impossible  to  follow 
Collot  D'Herbois  in  the  hellish  devices  to  which  he  resorted 
to  torture  his  victims.  The  guillotine  having  been  employed 
till  the  executioner  was  fatigued,  another  method  was  resorted 
to,  and  the  rest  of  the  destined  sufferers  were  driven  by  crowds 
into  the  Rhone,  or  shot  in  the  public  squares.  Soon  after  the 
queen  had  been  brought  to  the  scaffold,  the  Convention  en- 
tered upon  the  trial  of  Brissot,  who  was  executed  with  one- 
and-twenty  others  belonging  to  the  Convention.  The  wretched 
and  intriguing  Egalite  was  soon  after  brought  to  the  block. 
He  was  accused  of  having  aspired  to  the  sovereignt)^  from 
the  commencement  of  the  Revolution ;  though  with  what 
truth  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  He  was  conveyed  in  a  cart 
to  the  place  of  execution,  and  suffered  amidst  the  insults  and 
reproaches  of  the  populace,  whose  contemptible  idol  he  had 
been.t     The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  sent  a  new  army 

basely  imposed  upon,  was  sent  into  exile,  as  soon  as  the  tribunal  had  pro- 
nounced him  innocent;  this  harsh  measure,  the  odium  of  which  fell  on 
the  queen,  added  greatly  to  the  number  of  her  enemies,, 

*  Throu2;h  the  charitable  exertions  of  some  pious  ladies,  a  nonjuring 
priest  found  access  to  her  prison,  from  whose  hands  she  had  the  happiness 
to  receive  the  last  consolations  of  religion.  The  constitutional  priest,  Gi- 
rard,  wh.)  was  appointed  to  accompany  the  queen  to  execution,  said  to  her ; 
"  '  Voici,  Madame,  I'instant  de  vous  armer  de  courage.'  *  De  courage  I' 
repondit  fierement  la  fiUe  des  Cesars,  '  il-y-a  si  long  terns  que  le  malheur 
m'en  a  fait  faire  I'apprentissage,  que  ce  n'est  pas  (juand  le  Cicl  va  fisir 
mes  maux  que  je  commencerai  a  en  manquer.' " — Tableau  Synoptiqiie. 

■\  L'Abbe  Carron,  in  his  "  Vie  des  Justes,"  observes,  that  there  are 
crimes,  which,  though  they  will  never  be  pardoned  at  the  tribunal  of  men, 
may  yet  find  forgiveness  at  the  tribunal  of  the  God  of  mercy ;  and  there- 


248  GENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

imo  La  Vendoe,  with  instructions  to  deliver  up  that  unfortu 
nale,  but  loyal  country,  to  fire  and  piilairc.  Carrier,  one  of 
the  most  nirocious  monsters  of  the  Kevolution,  was  sent  to 
Naiiles,  He  there  sjiared  neither  age  nor  sex.  On  pretext 
of  removing  his  prisoners  from  one  place  of  confinement  to 
another,  lie  caused  them  to  he  bound  together,  and  embarked 
in  boats  so  contrived,  by  means  of  a  valve  at  the  boltom,  as  to 
become  filled  with  water  on  reaciiiug  the  middle  of  the  Loire. 
A  great  number  of  these  victims  were  priests,  who  had  se- 
cretly remained  in  the  kingdom,  in  order  privately  1o  assist 
those  Christians  wlio  still  continued  firm  in  their  attachment 
to  the  failli  of  their  forefathers.  These  were  hunted  like  wild 
beasts  from  the  subterraneous  dwellings  in  which  they  cele- 
brated the  holy  mysteries,  like  the  apostolical  men  of  tlie  pri- 
mitive church;  and  which  they  often  left  at  the  hazard  of  their 
lives,  to  attend  the  sick  and  dying.  Those  who  were  taken 
and  not  destroyed  at  Nantes,  in  the  manner  already  related, 
were  conveyed  to  Rochefort,  to  be  embarked  for  Cayenne. 
Their  number  amounted  to  seven  hiuidred  and  sixty,  who 
were  stowed  in  two  frigates  ;  five  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
perislieil  during  the  voyage,  whicli  lasted  ten  mouths.  A  law 
permitting  priests  to  marry,  and  a  law  of  divorce,  were  passed 
by  the  Convention  ;  but  after  having  endeavoured  to  efface 
every  religious  institution,  and  after  estal)lishing  temples  de- 
dicated to  reason,  the  necessity  of  a  belief  in  God  was  still 
recognised ;  Robespierre  then  proposed  to  have  a  solemn 
public  festival  in  honour  of  the  Supreme  Brins^,  to  be  cele- 
brated in  the  Champ-de-Mars,  June  the  8th,  17'.)L  The  cru- 
elties of  Carrier*  drew  over  many  partisans  to  Charette,  the 
royalist  general;  and  it  has  been  calculated  tliat  the  war  of  Tja 
Vendee  cost  the  French  more  men  than  had  been  sacrificed 
in  hostilities  with  the  different  continental  powers.  In  the 
south  of  France,  neiilier  the  exertions  of  the  allies,  nor  the 
surrender  of  the  Toulonese,  were  sufficient  to  establish  a  mo- 
narchical government.  The  garrison  of  'I'oulon  having  made 
a  vi(Torr)us  sortie,  (1793,)  in  order  to  destroy  some  batteries 
whii'h  the  French  were  erecting,  and  succeeded  in  the  attempt, 
unfortunauly  pursued  the  French,  till  they  unexpectedly  en- 
fore  ritos  with  snti-ifiirtion  an  authrntir  and  oilifyinir  ncrount  of  tlie  livrly 
ri'pcntanco,  rpsiunnticin,  ami  ilrsirc  nf  aliminn  '"'  ilivino  jiislicc  for  his  Sinn, 
express*-!!  Iiy  ihc  Duke  of  (IrU-ans,  in  his  hist  moments,  to  the  priest  (M 
Lothringcr)  who  assihteJ  him  on  that  solemn  orrasion. 

•   Carrier  and  other  aeromiilires  in  the  nffiir  of  Nantes,  paid  the  furfetl 
of  their  Crimea  on  the  ICih  of  December,  1794. 


XLII.]  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  249 

countered  a  considerable  force.  At  this  moment  General 
O'Hara,  who  was  commander-in-chief  at  Toulon,  came  up, 
and  while  he  was  endeavouring  to  bring  off  his  troops  with 
regularity,  received  a  wound  in  his  arm,  and  was  made  pri- 
soner. Soon  after  his  capture,  the  town  was  evacuated  by 
the  allies.  It  was  attacked  by  the  republicans  on  the  19lh  of 
December,  at  five  in  the  morning,  and  at  six  the  republican 
flag  was  flying  on  one  of  the  strongest  posts.  The  town  was 
then  bombarded ;  and  the  allies  and  part  of  the  inhabitants 
having  set  fire  to  the  town  and  shipping,  precipitated  their 
departure,  which  was  attended  with  the  most  melancholy  con- 
sequences. Numbers  who  were  left  behind,  crowded  to  the 
shores,  demanding  the  protection  they  had  been  promised  on 
the  faith  of  the  British  crown.  Some  plunged  into  the  sea, 
others  shot  themselves,  in  order  to  escape  the  tortures  they 
might  expect  from  the  republicans.  During  this  time,  the 
flames  were  spreading  in  all  directions ;  and  the  ships  that  had 
been  set  on  fire  were  every  moment  expected  to  explode,  and 
blow  up  all  around  them.  Nothing  could  equal  the  horror  of 
the  sight,  except  the  still  more  appalling  cries  of  distraction 
and  agony  that  filled  the  ear,  for  husbands,  fathers,  and  child- 
ren, left  on  shore.  In  vain  did  these  beg  their  lives  on  their 
knees  :  they  were  massacred  without  mercy,  or  distinction  of 
age  or  sex.  The  most  moderate  calculation  makes  the  num- 
ber of  these  sufl'erers  amount  to  2,000.  Many  more  owed 
their  safety  to  the  generosity  of  the  Spanish  Admiral,  Lan- 
garra,  who,  equipping  a  considerable  number  of  transports, 
hastened  to  their  assistance. 

The  siege  of  Toulon  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  the 
celebrated  Bonaparte  signalized  his  military  abilities.  He 
was  then  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  the  qonvenlional  forces  sent 
against  that  town,  and  in  consequence  of  the  intrepidity  dis- 
played by  him  in  the  reduction  of  a  fort,  Barras,  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people,  who  was  deputed  to  superintend 
the  siege,  procured  him  the  rank  of  general  of  the  artillery.* 

*  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  son  of  Charles  Bonaparte  and  Letitia 
Ramolyno,  was  bom  in  Ajaccio,  a  town  of  Corsica,  August  I5th,  1769. 
His  father,  whose  ancestors  were  from  Italy,  was  also  a  native  of  Corsica. 
Some  years  after  the  conquest  of  the  island  by  the  French,  (1769,)  he  was 
eent  in  the  deputation  to  the  King  of  France,  and  continued,  notwithstand- 
ing his  impoverished  condition,  to  live  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Go- 
vernor of  Corsica,  who  placed  his  second  son,  Napoleon,  at  the  military 
academy  of  Brienne,  in  Champagne,  where  he  was  instructed  in  the  usual 
branches  of  education,  became  versed  in  history  and  geography,  and  at- 
tained to  great  proficiency  in  the  mathematics.    Thence  he  removed  to  the 


850  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

In  the  latter  end  ot"  Marrli,  Danton  and  several  of  the  princi- 
pal revolutionists  were  arrested  and  executed  as  conspirators 
against  the  repiihlic.  The  government  of  France  now  hccaine 
almost  entirciv  vested  in  one  man,  the  usurper  liohcspierre, 
a  name  which  will  he  transmitted  with  infamy  to  the  latest 
posterity.*  Under  his  sanguinary  administration,  the  prisons 
of  Paris  contained  at  one  time  l)etween  7.000  and  8,000  per- 
sons, some  of  whom  were  almost  daily  led  to  execution.  In 
one  of  these  harharous  slaughters,  the  admirahle  and  virtuous 
Princess  Elizaheth,  sister  to  Lewis  XVI.,  was  included:  she 
suffered  the  last  of  twenty-six  persons,  whom  she  animated, 
by  her  words  and  example,  to  meet  death  with  constancy  and 
resignation.  But  the  fall  of  the  tyramiical  demagogue  rapidly 
approached.  A  strong  party  was  secretly  formed  against  him 
in  the  Convention,  headed  Ijy  Tallii-n,  Legendre,  and  some 
others.  Robespierre  and  his  brother  were  arrested,  and  having 
found  means  to  escape,  trained  some  partisans  in  order  to  form 
a  new  ('onvenlion  ;  but  being  deserted  by  the  peoi)le  and  the 
national  guard,  they  were  attacked;  and  hiuling  all  elTorts  to 
resist  useless,  they  endeavoured  to  turn  their  arms  against 
themselves.  They  were,  however,  conducted  before  the  re- 
volutionary tribunal,  and  the  two  Rohcspierres  and  nineteen 
others  executed,  the  2Rth  of  July,  1791. 

In  the  campaign  of  this  year,  the  arms  of  the  new  republic 
were  successful  on  every  side  against  the  allies.  In  Flanders, 
General  Jourdan  gained  the  battle  of  Flenres  ;  and  Charleroi, 
Ipres,  Bruges,  and  ('ourtray  surrendered  to  the  French.  Ostend 
was  evacuated,  Mons  was  taken,  and  the   Prince  of  Cuburg 

military  nrailcmy  nt  Paris,  in  1785,  and  in  his  ninctoonth  year  rntered  .in 
a  cailct  otViciT  in  thf  rciyal  artillery.  I)iiurriftini>  rclalrs  of  liiin  at  this 
time  ihi'  foilowini;  rhnractcristir  rinrrdolc;  On  the  fal:il  "Oth  ot"  June,  ho 
followed  from  curiosity  llie  crowds  who  were  hastening  to  the  attack  uf  the 
Tuileries,  and  stoiwl  opposite  to  the  [lalace,  when  the  unfortunate  monarch 
appeared  at  the  window,  with  the  red  cap  of  liberty  on  his  head.  Nolhinc; 
could  exreeil  IJonaparle's  inilii;natiori  at  this  si^ht.  "  What  madness  !" 
said  he  to  Unnnienne,  who  acrorjipanied  him  ;  "  how  coulil  ihey  allow  these 
ncoumlrels  to  enter  !  they  ont;ht  to  have  l)lown  four  or  five  hutidrcd  into  the 
air  with  cannon,  the  rest  would  then  have  taken  to  their  heels."  Shortly 
nficr  h»  withdrew  into  (^'orsica,  and  did  not  till  the  followin;;  year  return  to 
I'aris,  where  he  remained  unemployeil  in  any  ihinn  of  consei|uenre,  till  his 
eervires  on  the  important  day,  called  "  of  the  sections,"  Uiil  the  foundation 
<*f  his  future  ureatness. 

•  Robespierre  was  formerly  a  sinijinK-lioy  in  the  cathedral  of  Arras,  and 
owed  his  promotion  to  a  post  in  ihi'  law,  to  the  Bisliop  of  Arras,  whom  he 
repaid  with  the  hlarkcsl  ingratitude.  He  was  related  to  Damiens,  the  a»- 
fl^abin  of  Lcwiii  XV 


XLII.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  251 

obliged  to  abandon  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands,  while  the 
victors,  without  opposition,  entered  Brussels  and  Antwerp. 
Landrecy,  Quesnoi,  Valenciennes,  and  Conde  were  successive- 
ly retaken  ;  and  tlie  French  armies,  pursuing  their  course,  took 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  defeated  Clairfayt  near  Juliers,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  Cologne  and  Bonn.  Maestricht  and 
Nimeguen  were  likewise  conquered.  The  United  Provinces 
began  now  to  be  seriously  alarmed,  and  the  states  of  Friesland 
determined  to  acknowledge  the  French  republic,  to  break  their 
alliance  with  England,  and  to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
France.  In  December,  the  French  made  a  feeble  attempt  to 
cross  the  Waal,  and  were  repulsed  with  loss ;  but  the  frost 
soon  after  setting  in  with  unusual  rigour,  the  river  was  frozen 
over  ;  having  crossed  it,  they  attacked  the  allies,  and,  according 
to  the  report  of  General  Pichegru,  "  were,  as  usual,  victorious 
in  every  quarter."  The  general  attack  was  made  upon  Wal- 
raoden's  position,  between  Nimeguen  and  Arnheim  ;  and  the 
allies,  alike  unprepared  for  resistance  or  for  flight,  suffered 
equally  from  the  elements  and  from  the  enemy.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  stadtholder  issued  mauifestoes,  proclamations, 
and  exhortations  to  the  Dutch  peasantry,  conjuring  tliem  to 
rise  in  a  mass  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  French 
continued  to  advance,  and  the  allies  to  flee  before  them,  till 
Utrecht  surrendered  to  them,  on  the  10th  of  January,  1795, 
and  Rotterdam  and  Dort  a  few  days  after.  The  utmost  con- 
sternation now  prevailed  among  the  partisans  of  the  stadtholder. 
The  Princess  of  Orange,  with  the  female  and  younger  part 
of  the  family,  escaped  on  the  15th,  carrying  with  them  all 
their  plate,  jewels,  &c.  The  stadtholder  and  the  hereditary 
prince  embarked  at  Scheveling  on  the  19th,  in  an  open  boat, 
and  arrived  safe  at  Harwich.  In  England,  the  palace  of 
Hampton  Court  was  assigned  him  for  his  residence.  The 
very  day  after,  Pichegru  entered  Amsterdam  in  triumph,  and 
was  received  by  the  inhabitants  with  the  loudest  acclamations. 
The  whole  of  the  United  Provinces  either  submitted  to,  or  was 
reduced  by  the  French  in  a  few  weeks ;  and  sliordy  after  the 
government  was  changed  and  modelled  nearly  after  the  French 
plan.  In  the  mean  time,  the  King  of  Prussia,  finding  he  could 
derive  no  advantage  from  the  war,  began  to  relax  his  efforts. 
The  Prussian  and  Austrian  forces,  which,  as  well  as  their 
leaders,  were  on  bad  terms  with  each  other,  began  to  retreat 
towards  the  Rhine,  which  they  soon  after  passed.  A  negotia- 
tion between  Prussia  and  France  followed,  which  ended  in  a 
treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Basle,  in  April,  1795,  by  which  h:3 


'^52  GENERAL    HISTOUY    OF    EUROPE.  [^CHAP 

Prussian  niajcsly  cnlirelv  aliandonod  the  roalition.  The  French 
arm.s  luul  been  equally  successful  in  Spain:  after  having  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  rich  provinces 
of  Biscay  and  ('alalonia,  the  troni)s  were  in  full  march  for 
the  capital  of  the  kinj^dom,  when  orders  were  despatched  to 
conclude  a  treaty  with  France,  which  was  also  signed  at  Hiisle, 
in  Julv,  in  virtue  of  which  his  Catiiolic  majesty  ceded  all  his 
part  of  llispaniola  to  France,  and  the  Convention  restored  the 
recent  conquest.s  in  Spain. 

About  the  middle  of  this  year,  (179.5,)  died  the  son  of  the 
unfortunate  Lewis  XVI.  lie  expired  in  the  prison  of  the 
Temple,  where  he  had  been  confined  since  the  fatal  autumn 
of  1794.  Moved,  perhaps,  by  this  event,  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety  proposed  the  exchange  of  the  princess,  his  sister, 
(who  was  likewise  a  prisoner  in  the  Temple,)  for  the  deputies 
delivered  up  to  Austria  by  Dumouriez,  and  for  two  ambassa- 
dors, who  had  been  seized  by  an  Austrian  corps.  The  emperor 
acceded  to  the  proposal,  and  the  exchange  was  effected.  The 
convention  at  length  set  forth  the  new  constitution,  called  of 
the  year  III.,  by  which  the  government  was  confided  to  a  le- 
gislative body,  divided  into  two  elective  chambers,  and  an 
executive  of  five  persons,  to  be  called  the  Directory.  To 
insure,  at  least  in  part,  their  own  re-election,  the  meml)er3  of 
the  Convention  declared  that  two-thirds  of  the  new  legislators 
should  be  taken  from  among  them.  This  was  violeiuly  op- 
posed by  the  Parisian  sections,  and  a  confiict  took  place  on 
the  .5th  of  October,  179.5,  between  the  citizens  and  the  regular 
troops,  in  wtiich  more  than  a  thousand  lives  were  sacrificed. 
General  Hoiiaparte  sided  with  the  Convention,  and,  by  his 
skill  in  the  disposal  of  the  artillery,  greatly  contributed  to  tiie 
discomfitur<'  of  the  sections.  Oii  the  motion  of  Barras,  he 
was  named  seconil  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  interior, 
as  a  recompense  for  his  services  on  this  occasion.  A  few  days 
after,  the  National  Convention  resiirned  its  autlioritv  to  the  new 
legislature,  and  the  directors  assumed  the  reins  of  the  execu- 
tive government.  General  Harras  being  one  of  the  five,  the 
chief  command  devolved  upon  Bonaparte,  who  removed  to 
a  man-niiii-eiit  hotel  and  gave  sumptuous  entertainments,  to 
which  ladies  of  the  first  rank  were  often  inviK.-d.  Among 
these  was  the  amiabh;  .losephinc,  widow  of  Vicomte  Bean- 
harnais,  who,  after  havinir  twice  presided  in  the  National 
Convention,  perished  on  the  revolutionary  scaffold.  She  had 
come  to  Paris  to  sue  for  the  restoration  of  his  property,  which 
had    been    confiscated,   and   Bonaparte  often    met    her  at  th« 


XMII.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  253 

house  of  Barras,  To  this  lady  he  was  united  by  a  civi. 
ceremony  before  the  Paris  municipality,  in  March,  1796.  He 
only  remained  in  Paris  twelve  days  after  the  nuptials,  being 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy. 

In  the  course  of  the  preceding  year,  an  expedition  had  been 
planned  by  the  English  ministry  to  invade  the  coast  of  France, 
in  that  part  where  the  royalists  (known  by  the  name  of  Chou- 
ans)  were  in  arms  against  the  republic.  The  force  employed, 
consisted  chiefly  of  emigrants.  They  landed  in  the  Bay  of 
Quiberon,  and  took  the  fort  of  the  same  name  :  but  they  were 
soon  defeated,  and  about  10,000  killed  or  made  prisoners. 
Many  of  the  emigrants  were  tried  and  executed ;  and  before 
April,  1796,  the  force  of  the  insurgents  in  this  part  of  France 
was  entirely  broken,  and  their  chiefs,  Charette  and  Stofllet, 
taken  prisoners,  and  put  to  death.  In  Germany  the  French 
army  had  crossed  the  Rhine  and  blockaded  Mentz,  but  unsuc- 
cessfully ;  and  after  suffering  a  defeat  from  the  Austrians,  were 
obliged  to  repass  the  river.  A  suspension  of  arms  for  three 
months,  was  soon  after  agreed  to  by  the  generals  of  the  con- 
tending armies,  which  was  ratified  by  their  respective  powers. 


CHAPTER  XLIH. 

PRUSSIA,  RUSSIA,  SWEDEN,  AND  ENGLAND,  FROM  179.3  TO  1798. 

Catherine  H.  had  never  forgiven  Poland  the  Diet  of  1788, 
in  which  the  constitution  dictated  by  force  in  1775,  was  abro- 
gated ;  the  moment  of  vengeance  had  now  arrived.  Her  mi- 
nister at  Warsaw  had  orders  to  declare  war  against  the  Poles, 
who  received  the  declaration,  not  merely  with  firmness,  but 
with  a  generous  enthusiasm.  The  Russian  minister  published 
a  manifesto,  making  known  the  intention  of  the  empress,  to 
incorporate  with  her  domains  all  the  territory  of  Poland  which 
her  arms  had  conquered,  and  her  troops,  strengthened  by  the 
Prussians,  poured  into  that  unfortunate  country.  Frederic 
William,  at  the  head  of  his  forces,  fought  against  the  patriotic 
General  Kosciusko,  whose  talents  and  courage  were  unavailing 
against  multiplied  and  increasing  numbers.  The  inhuman 
Suwarrow  immediately  marched  to  Warsaw,  and,  after  an  ob- 
stinate resistance,  captured  the  suburb  of  Praga,  put  all  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  and  entered  the  city  in  triumph.  It 
is  computed  that  not  fewer  than  30,000  persons  perished  in 

24 


254  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHA» 

this  massacre.  'J'lic  courts  of  Pclcrsburir  ami  liorliii  diviiled 
tl>e  remains  of  lliis  unliappy  country,  and  the  courtiers  of 
Catherine  shared  among  tliein  the  possessions  of  tlie  pro- 
8cril)cd,  and  wished  to  annihilate  even  the  name  of  Poland. 
Tlie  Vistula  divided  Prussia  from  Austria,  and  tiie  Ho>r  sepa- 
rated Austria  from  Russia.  Warsaw  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  llie  Prussian  monarcii,  and  the  Niemen  marked  the  limits 
between  the  Russian  and  Prussian  territories.  JStanislaua 
Augustus  had  a  pension  allowed  him,  and  was  sent  to  live  at 
Grodno;  and  the  friends  of  the  brave  and  generous  Kosciusko 
were,  with  their  general,  conveyed  to  Petersburg,  and  immured 
in  dungeons.  They  were  afterwards  liberated  on  the  accession 
of  Paul  I.,  who  invited  Stanislaus  to  Petersl)urg,  where  he 
died  of  an  apoplexy,  in  1708.  From  this  period  (1790)  Po- 
land ceased  to  exist  as  a  kingdom,  till,  i)y  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  in  1815,  it  recovered  its  rank,  and  the  title  of  King 
of  Poland  was  conferred  on  the  Emperor  Alexander.  Cathe- 
rine met  with  a  humiliating  disappointment  this  year,  (17'J6,) 
in  the  failure  of  one  of  her  iavourite  plans,  the  marriage  of 
her  granddaughter,  Alexandra  Paulina,  with  the  young  King 
of  Sweden,  contrary  to  the  established  law  of  that  kingdom, 
which  ordained  lliat  the  queen  should  conform  to  the  Protest- 
ant Church.  Gustavus  IV.  was  at  Petersburg;  every  thing 
was  ])reparcd  for  tlic;  ceremony,  and  only  wailed  his  coming, 
when,  discovering  that  the  empress  did  not  intend  her  daugiiier 
to  embrace  the  Lutheran  tenets,  he  broke  off  the  business,  and 
soon  after  quitted  Russia.  Catherine  sickened  at  the  mortifi- 
cation, her  speech  faltered,  and  she  had  a  slight  (it.  Thirsting 
for  conquest,  and  inured  to  the  din  of  war,  she  turned  her  arms 
against  Persia.  Her  army  penetrated  into  Dagliestan  and  laid 
siege  to  Derbent,  the  keys  of  which  wvro.  delivered  to  tlie  ge- 
neral by  an  old  man,  who  had  surrendered  that  city  to  Peter  I., 
at  the  commencement  of  the  century.  Having  concluded  also 
a  new  treaty  with  Austria  and  Great  Britain,  the  jjcriod  seemed 
to  her  approaching,  when  she  should  reign  in  Constantinople; 
but  having  risen  on  the  10th  of  November,  and  transacted 
business  with  her  secretaries,  she  was  found  soon  after  pros- 
trate on  the  door,  without  sense  or  motion,  and  died,  aftei 
continuing  thirty-seven  hours  in  that  state,  in  the  sixty-seventh 
year  of  her  age.  The  reign  of  this  extraordinary  woman  ap- 
pears to  have  been,  for  her  suljjerts,  rather  l)rilliant  than  happy 
Within  the  circle  of  her  infliuMice,  her  governmcir.t  was  moih;- 
rate  and  benign,  but  at  a  distance,  terrible  and  despotic 
Justice,  order,  and  law,  were  sometimes  violated  under  tlio 


XLIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  255 

protection  of  her  favourites,  who  exercised,  with  impunity, 
the  most  odious  tyranny.  She  aspired  to  the  character  of  an 
author,  to  which  her  celebrated  "  Instructions  for  a  Code  of 
Laws,"  and  various  other  productions,  written  in  the  philo- 
sophical spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century,  seem  to  entitle  her. 
The  generosity  of  Catherine,  the  splendour  of  her  court,  her 
institutions,  her  monuments,  and  her  victories,  were  to  Russia 
what  the  age  of  Lewis  XIV.  was  to  France  ;  but  the  French 
constituted  the  glory  of  Lewis,  Catherine  that  of  the  Russians. 
No  excuses  can  be  offered  for  her  vices  as  a  woman;  but  as  a 
sovereign,  posterity  will  probably  allow  her  the  title  of  Great 

1796. — On  the  death  of  Catherine,  her  son,  Paul  Petrowitz 
ascended  the  throne.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  gave 
hopes  of  a  happy  continuance,  but  these  beginnings  were  of 
no  long  duration,  and  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  trifles  and 
ridiculous  ceremonials.  He  ordered  the  corpse  of  his  father 
to  be  taken  up,  and  two  of  the  murderers  of  the  unfortunate 
czar  were  fixed  upon  to  officiate  as  chief  mourners,  at  the 
funeral  service  for  him  and  his  empress. 

In  order  to  oppose  France,  and  re-establish  the  balance  of 
Europe,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  England.  In 
the  spring  of  1799,  the  Russian  army,  under  Suwarrow,  ef- 
fected a  junction  with  the  Austrians,  in  Italy ;  and  the  emperor 
also  declared  war  against  Spain  and  Holland. 

In  1797,  died  Frederic  William  II.,  regretted  only  by  his 
family  and  a  few  friends.  He  left  his  finances  much  deranged, 
by  his  profusions  and  the  expenses  of  the  war ;  and  though 
he  had  been  the  first  to  form  a  coalition  against  France,  he 
was  the  first  to  abandon  it.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Frederic  William  III. 

Among  other  projects  of  hostility  which  the  French  had 
meditated  against  Britain,  was  the  invasion  of  Ireland ;  a  pro- 
ject which  the  prevailing  civil  dissensions  seemed  likely  to 
favour.  During  the  session  of  1793,  several  laws  had  passed, 
in  the  Irish  Parliament,  favourable  to  the  Catholics,  par- 
ticularly that  by  which  freeholders  were  admitted  to  vote  at 
elections.  In  1795  they  had  been  led  to  expect  an  entire 
emancipation ;  but  the  bill  being  brought  in  by  Mr.  Grattan, 
was  rejected,  and  Lord  Fitzwilliam  recalled  to  England.  As 
a  mark  of  the  national  regret,  his  coach  at  his  departure  was 
drawn  by  gentlemen  dressed  in  black,  from  the  College  Green 
to  the  water-side,  and  the  day  was  observed  as  one  of  general 
mourning.  The  disaffected  party,  called  the  "  United  Irish- 
men," had  opened  a  communication  with  the  French  Directory, 


456  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

and  a  plan  of  invasion  was  concorted.  Tlie  attempt,  though 
it  proved  abortive,  exr.itcd  a  considorahlo  decree  of  alarm. 
The  Freiicli  llt(;t,  wliieli  had  l)een  l)locl\('d  up  in  Brest,  took 
the  opportunity  ol  a  tlii(;U  fng,  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the 
Eni^lish  admiral,  and  set  sail  for  Ireland  ;  hut  was  dispersed 
hy  violent  storms.  A  part  of  it,  however,  anchored  in  Hanlry 
Bay  ;  hut  the  violence  of  the  weather  preventing  the  French 
from  attempting  to  land,  they  quitted  the  coast  after  a  few 
days  ;  and  the  inhabitants,  who  were  a  good  deal  alarmed  at 
the  appearance  of  the  armament,  evinced  the  most  determined 
loyaltv,  and  manifested  the  greatest  readiness  to  meet  and  resist 
the  enemy,  wherever  he  might  attempt  a  descent. 

The  Prince  of  Wales  was,  in  April,  1795,  married  to  his 
cousin,  the  Princess  Caroline  of  Hrunswick.  Parliament, 
on  this  occasion,  setded  on  the  prince  an  annual  revenue  of 
d£P25,000,  together  with  that  of  the  ducliv  of  Cornwall,  es- 
timated at  ,€13,000  ;  out  of  this  income  X'73,000  were  appro- 
priated to  the  payment  of  the  prince's  debts. 

In  conseciuence  of  the  reverses  which  liad  attended  the  arms 
of  the  allied  powers,  warm  debates  took  j)lacc  in  tiie  British 
cabinet,  and  peace  was  earnesUy  recommended  by  the  leaders 
of  the  opposition ;  but  another  victory  at  sea,  gained  by  Lord 
liriciport,  ofl'  L'Orient,  in  1795,  tended  to  secure  the  naval 
superiority  of  the  Englisli.  Tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Ceylon  were  also  taken  by  them  ;  and  in  tbe  following  year, 
Ambovna,  Handa,  and  neinerara  fell  into  their  hands.  The 
Spanish  and  Dutch  were  grievous  sufl'erers  this  year,  (1797,) 
in  two  great  naval  engagements,  which  were  both  equally  glo- 
rious to  the  IJritisli  arms.  The  first  of  these  memorable  ac- 
tions took  place  oil'  Cape  St.  Vinc<'nt,  It  was  gained  l)v  Sir 
John  Jervis,  (afterwards  created  Earl  St.  Vincent,)  with  fifteen 
sail  of  the  line,  over  the  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven,  with 
the  loss  of  onlv  three  hundred  men  on  the  side  of  the  British, 
in  killed  and  wounded.  The  victory  gained  by  Admiral  (after- 
wards Lord)  Duncan,  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  at  Camperdown, 
was  r(iually  rom|)letc  on  the  side  of  the  British,  but  less  in- 
glorious to  ilu;  Dutch.  When  Admiral  Winter's  ship  struck 
to  the  Venerahlc,  he  was  the  only  man  on  the  quarter-deck, 
who  w.'is  n»)t  either  killed  or  wounded.  The  importance  of 
this  victory  was  not  then  fully  known,  b\it  it  afterwards  ap- 
peared, that  the  fleet  was  desi^^ued  to  assist  the  French,  in  their 
intended  invasion  of  Fnijland.  for  which  vast  preparations  were 
makiiiL''  in  all  the  ports  of  I'Viiuccr. 

'I'he  difliculties  under  wiiich  Great  Britain  laboured,  wero 


XLIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  257 

further  increased  in  1797,  by  the  Bank  of  England  suspend- 
ino-  payment.  The  immense  sums  it  had  been  called  upon 
♦.o  advance  in  cash,  for  the  foreign  subsidies,  rendered  it  una- 
ble to  supply  all  demands.  Mr.  Pitt,  therefore,  obtained  an 
order  from  the  Privy  Council,  to  prohibit  the  issue  of  specie 
from  the  bank. ;  and  a  bill  soon  after  passed  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  to  continue  and  confirm  this  restriction  for  a 
limited  time.  Two  years  later,  an  income  tax  was  imposed, 
which  was  fixed  at  ten  per  cent.,  to  begin  with  incomes 
exceeding  sixty  pounds  per  annum.  This  same  year,  (1799,) 
died  the  celebrated  Edmund  Burke,  admired  in  the  British 
senate  as  an  accomplished  orator  and  an  enlightened  statesman. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

CONTINUATION  OF  THE  WAR  FROM  1796,  TILL  THE  PEACE 
OF  AMIENS,  1802. 

In  the  course  of  the  year  1796,  another  attempt  had  been 
made  by  the  British  cabinet,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  France  ;  but,  as  it  proved  unsuccessful,  vigorous  prepa- 
rations were  again  made  for  continuing  the  war.  Never  did 
the  energy  of  the  British  nation  display  itself  more  than  on 
this  occasion.  The  campaign  opened  in  the  south  by  the 
republican  troops,  under  the  command  of  General  Bonaparte, 
and  was  the  commencement  of  his  career  of  military  glory. 
When  he  arrived  to  take  the  command  of  the  army,  he  found 
it  almost  destitute  of  common  necessaries,  and  acting  entirely 
on  the  defensive,  on  the  rocky  bank  of  the  river  Genoa.  The 
French  army  amounted  to  only  60,000  men,  while  that  of 
Austria  consisted  of  80,000  veterans,  besides  auxiliaries.  Bo- 
naparte harangued  his  troops,  and  pointed  out  their  desperate 
situation,  from  which  nothing  but  a  valorous  effort  could  extri- 
cate them.  Under  this  impression  he  led  them  against  the 
enemy,  and  on  the  11th  of  April,  at  the  battle  of  Montenotte, 
obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Austrians,  under  General 
Beaulieu,  which  was  followed  within  five  days  by  two  others 
of  equal  importance.  The  Piedmontese,  harassed  by  repeated 
defeats,  withdrew  into  the  vicinity  of  Turin,  and  the  King  of 
Sardinia  was  compelled  to  purchase  peace,  by  the  cession  of 
Savoy  and  part  of  Piedmont  to  France.  Bonaparte,  at  the 
head  of  his  victorious  army,  now  pursued  the  retreating  Aus> 

24* 


258  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EITROPE.  [cHAP 

tri;iiis,  ami  advniircd  I)y  rapid  marrhos  towards  Milan.      The 
Dukf  oi  rarina,  liko  {he  Kiii<r  of  Sardinia,  was  compelled  to 
sue  for  peace,  which  Honaiiarte  a^jrced  to,  on  condition  of  his 
paying  ToO.OOO  livrcs  in  sjx'cie,  besides  siipplyinir  the  Trencli 
lroo|)s  with  idothing  and  provisions,  and  allowing  twenty  pic- 
tures to  be  chosen  out  ol   the  gallery  of  the  stale,  to  be  sent 
to  Paris.     On   the   11th  of  May  was  fought  the  memorable 
battle   of  Lodi.      The    French    advanced    guard   attacked   and 
drove  in  the  Austrian  outposts,  and  j)ursued  them  full  gallop 
through    the    town.      The  Austrian    general,  Beaulieu,  was 
posted  on  the  other  side  of  the  bridge,  where,   with  thirty 
j)ieces  of  cannon,  and  the  whole  of  his  army  drawn  uj)  in  line 
of  batde  behind  the  artillery,  he  kept  up  a  tremendous  fire  of 
round  and  grape-shot  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  French.    Bo- 
naparte, seeing  there  was  not  a  moment  to  lose,  ordered   the 
grenadiers  to  force  tlic  passage  of  the  Ijridge  witli  the  bayonet. 
This   was  instanUy  executed ;  the  Auslrians  gave  way,  nor 
could  Beaulieu  prevent  their  lleeinij  from  the  field  and  leavin<» 
in  the  hands  of  tiie  French  all  their  artillery.      Bonaparte  now 
pushed  forward  with  his  usual  rapidity,  giving  his  enemy  no 
time  to  rest.     On  ihe  12th  of  May,  Pizzghitonc;  surrendered 
to  the  French  ;  Cremona  yielded  without  fighting;  l*avia  also 
opened  her  gates  ;  and  on  the  15th,  the  French  entered  the 
city  of  Milan.     Here  they  found  every  thing  they  slooil  in 
need  of,  and   halted  a  few  days  to  refresh   themselves.      The 
castle  of  Milan,  however,  still  held  out  for  the  lOmjJeror  of  Ger- 
many; but  Bonaparte,  desirous  to  pursue  his  conquests,  marched 
from  that  city,  leaving  troops  cnotiirh  to  form  the  blockade.   On 
his  arrival  at  Lodi,  he  was  informed  that  Milan  and  I'avia  had 
revolted  three  hours  after  his  departure,  and  that  the  tocsin  or 
alarm-bell  had  been  rung  throughout  Lfunbardy,  to  raise  the 
people   against    him.      He    immediately   proceeded   to  Pavia, 
with  three  hundred  cavalry  and  a  battalion  of  his   grenadiers, 
broke  down  the  gates  of  the  town,  instantly  ordered  the  whole 
of  the  munici|)ality  to  be  shot,  and  carried  off  two  hundred 
of  the  principal  iidiaiiitants  as  liostag(!s.     On  the  1st  of  June, 
General   M.-issena's  division  took  Verona,  and  Bonaparte,  on 
l!ie  ;M,  established   Ids  head-quarters  there.      iMi'anwhilc,  the 
armistice,  which   had   been  concluded  on  the  Bhine,  was  at 
length  declared  to  be  at  an  end,  and  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
and  the   Maese,  under  (ieneral  .Tourdan,  after  gaining  consi- 
derable advantages  over  the  A\istrians,  advanced  into  the  heart 
of  th(!  empire  ;   while   another  armv,  vinder  (Jeneral  Moreau, 
passed  the  Khine  at  iStrasburg,  took  the  fort  of  Kehl,  and 


fUV.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  259 

penetrating  through  Bavaria,  nearly  to  Ratisbon,  endeavoured 
to  form  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Jourdan.  This  attempt, 
however,  did  not  succeed  ;  both  armies  experienced  a  reverse 
of  fortune,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  till  they  re-crossed  the 
Rhine.  The  situation  of  General  Moreau  was  highly  critical, 
and  his  retreat  is  acknowledged,  on  all  sides,  to  have  been 
conducted  with  great  military  skill.  The  Archduke  Charles, 
who  commanded  the  Austrian  army,  followed  Moreau  in  his 
retreat,  and  laid  siege  to  the  fort  of  Kehl,  which  he  took, 
after  a  most  obstinate  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  French. 
To  restore  the  affairs  of  Italy,  the  emperor  assembled  a  new 
army,  composed  of  the  flower  of  the  German  troops  serving 
on  the  Rhine ;  and  gave  the  command  of  it  to  General 
Wurmser,  one  of  the  oldest  and  ablest  of  the  imperial  generals. 
This  force,  on  its  first  arrival,  was  successful ;  the  French 
were  repulsed,  defeated,  and  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Mantua.  Bonaparte,  however,  soon  returned  to  the  charge  ; 
and  after  a  series  of  hotly-contested  actions,  the  army  of 
Wurmser  was  so  reduced  and  harassed,  that  he  was  obliged 
to  shut  himself  up  in  Mantua,  where  he  was  closely  besieged 
by  the  victors,  who,  after  gaining  the  battle  of  Roveredo,  and 
taking  possession  of  Trent,  became  masters  of  the  passes  that 
led  to  Vienna.  The  Austrians,  at  the  same  time,  made  a 
great  effort  to  rescue  the  gallant  Wurmser  and  his  besieged 
army;  but  the  battle  of  Arcole,  on  the  15th  of  November, 
completely  defeated  their  design,  and  Mantua  was  at  length 
obliged  to  surrender,  after  a  siege  of  six  months.  The  gar- 
rison, which  consisted  of  the  remains  of  the  Austrian  army, 
under  General  Wurmser,  amounted  to  15,000  men,  who  were 
made  prisoners  of  war.  Bonaparte  treated  the  unfortunate 
general  with  great  respect,  and  ordered  him  to  be  conducted 
to  Germany,  with  an  escort  of  Austrian  cavalry.  The  victo- 
ries of  Bonaparte  compelled  the  Pope,  the  King  of  Naples, 
and  the  inferior  princes  of  Italy,  to  conclude  such  treaties  as 
the  French  thought  proper  to  dictate.  By  the  treaty  of  To- 
lentino,  signed  on  the  19th  of  February,  1797,  Pius  VI.  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  Avignon  and  the  country  Venaissin, 
relinquished  the  legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Romagna, 
and  also  surrendered  many  of  the  statues  and  pictures  which 
had  acquired  so  high  a  celebrity  to  Rome. 

In  the  mean  time,  after  the  taking  of  Mantua,  Bonaparte 
penetrated  into  the  Tyrol,  and  directed  his  course  towards  the 
imperial  capital.  The  Archduke  Charles  opposed  him,  but 
WDs  unable  to  check  his  progress.     The  republican  armies 


260  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAI 

had  at  lonirth  advanced  so  near  to  Vienna,  that  the  utmost 
alarm  and  confusion  prevailed  in  that  city:  the  bank  suspended 
its  payments,  and  the  emperor  was  preparing  to  forsake  his 
capital  and  remove  to  Olinutz.  In  this  critical  situation  of 
affairs,  his  imperial  majesty  opened  a  negotiation  with  IJona- 
partc ;  a  short  armistice  was  agreed  to,  and  the  preliminaries 
of  peace  between  the  emperor  and  the  French  were  signed  at 
Leoben,  in  April,  1797,  i)y  whicli  the  emperor  renounced  his 
right  to  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  acknowledged  the 
French  Republic.  Bonaparte  had,  previously  to  his  quitting 
Italy,  established  the  Cisalpine  Kepublic,  to  which  he  united 
Modena,  lieggio,  Massa,  and  Carrara.  Its  independence  was 
acknowledged  and  proclaimed  on  the  2d  of  July.  A  revolu- 
tion was  effected  at  Genoa,  in  the  month  of  May,  the  same 
year :  the  people,  after  taking  possession  of  the  arsenal,  set 
lip  a  democratical  form  of  government,  under  the  name  of  the 
Ligurian  republic.  The  ancient  republic  of  Venice,  about  the 
same  time,  fell  under  the  dominion  of  France.  A  tumult 
liaving  suddenly  taken  place,  in  which  a  number  of  the  French 
soldiers  were  murdered  in  the  hospitals  of  that  city,  the  French 
armies,  on  their  return,  abolished  the  ancient  ducal  govern- 
ment, planted  the  tree  of  liberty  in  St.  Mark's  place,  esta- 
blished a  municipality,  and  proposed  to  annex  the  city  and 
territory  to  the  new  Cisalpine  Republic.  The  definitive  treaty 
between  France  and  the  emperor  was  signed  at  Campo  Formio, 
on  the  17th  of  October,  171)7.  Hy  it  the  emperor  ceded  to 
France  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  and  all  his  former  terri- 
tory in  Italy.  He  received,  in  return,  the  city  of  Venice, 
Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the  Venetian  islands  in  the  Atlriatic :  the 
French  were  to  possess  the  other  Venetian  islands. 

While  the  negotiation  which  terminated  in  this  treaty  was 
carrying  on,  the  disputes  between  the  majority  of  the  Direc- 
tory and  the  Legislative  (chambers  were  producing  new 
scenes  of  violence  in  France.  The  deputies  composing  the 
council  of  five  hundred,  who  had  acquired  this  year  a  consi- 
derable increase  in  power,  censured  and  opposed  several  of 
the  measures  pursued  by  the  Directory,  and  the  laws  against 
priests  and  emiijrants  were  relaxed.  But  unforlunatcly  the 
army  of  Italy  took  part  with  the  Directory  ;  and  \f  liile  the 
conduct  of  the  opposite  party  was  slow  and  irresolute,  liarras 
resf)lved  on  a  prompt  and  violent  measure,  which  effectually 
decided  the  contest.  Having  secured  the  co-operation  of  a 
Bufficient  body  of  troops,  under  the  command  of  Augereaii, 
whom  Bonaparte  had  sent  to  Paris  for  that  purpose,  he  caused 


XLIV.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  281 

the  acts  in  favour  of  nonjuring  priests  and  emigrants  to  be 
rescinded  ;  while  fifty-four  members  of  the  two  councils  were 
arrested  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  or  exile.  Among 
the  proscribed  were  included  the  Director  Barthelemy  and 
General  Pichegru,  who,  with  many  others,  were  transported 
lo  Cayenne,  whence  they  afterwards  found  means  to  returr. 
to  Europe.* 

The  power  of  the  Directory  being  now  absolute,  (1798,) 
they  projected  new  schemes  of  ambition  and  conquest,  in  order 
to  give  employment  to  the  armies,  and  aiford  them  an  oppor- 
tunity of  enriching  themselves  by  plunder.  They  found  a 
pretext  to  invade  and  conquer  Switzerland  ;  levied  heavy  con- 
tributions on  the  inhabitants ;  changed  the  form,  and  even  the 
name  of  the  republic  into  that  of  the  Helvetic  Republic,  after 
dismembering  from  it  the  bishopric  of  Basle,  which  France 
retained  for  herself. 

Our  attention  must  now  again  be  directed  to  the  unfortunate 
situation  of  Ireland,  where,  irritated  by  injustice  and  oppres- 
sion, the  malcontents  resolved  to  try  the  fortune  of  war.  A 
general  insurrection  was  concerted  ;  the  castle  of  Dublin,  the 
camp  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  artillery,  were  to  be 
simultaneously  seized  by  night,  but  the  plans  of  the  conspira- 
tors were  defeated.  Government  having  received  precise  in- 
formation, caused  fourteen  of  the  delegates  to  be  seized  in 
Dublin.  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald,  who  was  one  of  the  num- 
ber, made  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  shot  one  of  the  officers 
appointed  to  arrest  him ;  the  wounds  he  himself  received 
were  so  severe  as  to  cause  his  death.  No  resource  now  re- 
maining to  the  rebels  but  open  force,  they  assembled  to  the 
number  of  15,000,  and  succeeded  in  taking  Enniscorthy  and 
Wexford.  Several  actions  ensued  with  various  success,  till 
at  length  General  Lake,  having  assembled  a  large  body  of 
forces,  attacked  the  main  body  of  the  insurgents  on  Vinegar 
Hill,  and  after  an  obstinate  contest,  totally  defeated  them,  in 
June,  1798. 

It  was  fortunate  for  the  British  empire  that,  during  this 
alarming  crisis,  the  French  government  neglected  to  pursue 
the  plan  laid  out  for  them  by  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  and 
others  of  the  rebels,  and  delayed  sending  any  succour  to  the 
insurgents  till  the  month  of  August,  when  a  small  force,  under 

•  That  there  existed  at  this  time  a  strong  party  in  the  Chambers  favour- 
able to  the  restoration,  is  proved  by  the  fact  of  Louis  XVIII.  sending,  in 
1824,  letters  of  nobility  to  all  the  then  surviving  members  who  were 
trrested  on  this  occasion. 


262  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [cHAP. 

General  lliimberl,  laiideil  at  Killala.  Tlio  general  entered  the 
bav  luuier  Eiiolish  colours,  and  at  tiie  head  of  alxmt  300  men 
advani-ed,  hi  the  evening,  towards  the  town,  liilelliffence  was 
immediately  sent  oil'  to  J{allina,  and  the  yeomanry  drew  up  to 
meet  tlie  French  advancetl  iiuard,  Ixit,  overpowered  hy  luini- 
bers,  were  compelled  to  yield.  Leavinir  Killala  in  the  posses- 
sion of  200  men,  Humbert  pushed  forward  and  took  possession 
of  Hallina;  he  was  there  j<»:ned  hy  several  hundreds  of  in- 
surgents, to  whom  he  distributed  arms  and  uniforms.  Tiie 
king's  forces  retreated  in  disorder  to  Tuam,  about  forty  miles 
from  the  scene  of  action.  The  Manjuis  Cornwallis,  who  had 
succeeded  Lord  Camden  as  viceroy,  determined  to  march  in 
person  against  tiie  invader.  lie  proceeded  on  the  road  to 
Castlebar,  but  before  he  arrived  there,  he  received  intelligence 
that  the  enemy  had  abandoned  tliat  post,  had  inarched  to  Fox- 
ford,  and  was  joined  by  multiludes  of  the  Irish  peasantry. 
The  advanced  guard  of  the  French  was  opposed  on  the  5th 
of  September  by  Col.  V^ereker,  who  had  hastened  from  Sligo 
with  a  small  detachment  of  infantry  ;  but  who,  after  a  smart 
action  of  an  hour's  continuance,  was  forced  to  retreat  with  his 
little  army  to  Ballyshannoii,  whither  he  was  closely  followed 
by  the  troops  of  Col.  Crawforil  and  General  I^ake ;  while 
Lord  Cornwallis,  with  the  grand  arm)',  marched  into  the 
county  of  LongfortI,  in  order  to  intercept  the  enemy  in  his 
way  to  Oranard.  'I'lius  surrounded,  Humbert  was  compelled 
to  surrender;  the  Irish  auxiliaries,  who  had  accompanied  the 
French  into  the  field,  were  excluded  from  quarter;  and  about 
five  hundred  of  them  were  slain.  The  town  of  Killala  was 
recovered  by  a  larger  body  of  troops,  under  the  command  of 
Major-Cieneral  French.  With  the  conquest  and  retreat  of 
this  French  army,  ended  the  rebellion  of  1798.  No  certain 
estimate  can  be  made  of  the  number  of  those  who  lost  their 
lives  in  this  unfortunate  contest;  but  the  accounts  received  in 
the  war-oflice  make  the  number  of  the  military  who  perished 
in  it  amount  to  19,700  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  loss  of  the 
Irish     exceeded  .')0,000  men. 

The  Congress  of  Kadstadt  assend)led  in  January,  1798,  to 
setth^  the  disputes  between  France  and  the  Ciermanic  I'^mpire. 
While  the  discussions  were  spun  out  to  an  immoderate  length, 
an  event  occurred  in  Italy,  which  endangered  the  temporal 
sovereignty  of  the  See  of  Rome.  Joseph  IJonaparte,  the 
French  ambassador  in  tlu-  pajial  capital,  had  long  fomented 
disturt)ances  among  ihc  populace,  who,  at  lensrlh,  became  so 
mutinous  that  a  small  detuchment  of  the  papal  troops  was  one 


XLIV.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  263 

day  called  out  to  suppress  a  sedition,  and,  in  a  contest  which 
ensued,  an  individual  who  had  used  the  most  inflammatory 
language,  and  who  proved  to  be  the  French  General  Duphot, 
was  slain.  On  pretence  of  revenging  this  insult  to  the  national 
honour  of  the  republic.  General  Berthier  invaded  the  Roman 
territory,  which  he  entered  with  a  formidable  army.  The 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  in  which  the  Pope  and  the  majority  of 
the  Cardinals  had  sought  shelter,  surrendered  on  the  first 
summons,  and  the  tree  of  liberty  was  planted  by  the  populace 
in  front  of  the  capitol.  The  Roman  republic  having  been 
proclaimed,  General  Berthier  made  his  public  entry  into  the 
city.  On  that  day,  the  cardinal  ministers  resigned  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Roman  state,  several  having  previously  fled, 
among  whom  were  the  Cardinals  Albani  and  York ;  and 
solemn  thanks  were  offered  in  the  principal  churches  on  ac- 
count of  this  revolution.  The  Pope  submitted  to  this  change 
in  his  fortune,  with  uncommon  resignation.  When  informed, 
that  the  people  having  assumed  the  sovereignty,  his  reign  was 
at  an  end,  he  appeared  solely  anxious  about  his  spiritual 
dignity ;  and  being  told  that  this  remained  inviolate,  together 
with  his  person,  he  expressed  himself  contented.  He  was 
soon  after  forced  to  retire  to  Sienna,  as  his  presence  was 
thought  dangerous  at  Rome,  and  was  received  there  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  with  all  the  respect  due  to  his 
dignity  and  his  misfortunes.  But  for  fear  of  irritating  the 
French,  he  was  ordered  to  remain  incognito  in  the  environ.s 
of  that  city,  and  the  clergy  were  forbidden  to  give  any  demon- 
stration of  the  interest  which  they  took  in  his  altered  fortune. 
The  extortions  and  depredations  of  the  French  officers,  and 
the  insurrections  of  the  adherents  to  the  Popedom,  now  ren- 
dered Rome  a  scene  of  wretchedness  and  desolation.  Pius 
was  still  dreaded  and  persecuted  by  the  French;  he  was  de- 
serted even  by  the  principal  Catholic  princes ;  and  grief 
brought  on  a  dangerous  illness.  The  sufferings  of  a  sovereign, 
dignified  by  his  rank  among  the  princes  of  Christendom,  vene- 
rable by  his  great  age,  and  by  the  patience  with  which  he  bore 
his  misfortunes,  rendered  him  an  object  of  respectful  aitention 
to  Europe.  Both  Catholics  and  Protestants  united  in  com- 
miserating his  condition,  and  in  reprobating  the  unfeeling 
severity  of  an  unpitying  conqueror. 

The  Egyptian  expedition,  having  been  planned  by  Bona- 
parte, with  the  consent  of  the  French  Directory,  the  armament 
sailed  from  Toulon,  on  the  20th  of  May,  1798.  The  first 
enterprise  was  an  attack  upon  the  Island  of  Malta,  which  sur« 


2fi4  GENERAI,    msTORV    OF    riMlOPE,  ([CMAP 

rendered  after  a  feeble  opposition  ;  it  was  suspected  to  have 
been  won  rather  by  treachery  tlian  l)y  force.  However  that 
may  be,  the  standard  of  the  order  was  taken,  and  the  town 
given  up  to  the  French.  'I'o  preserve  this  celet)raled  order, 
whicli  liad  subsisted  seven  hundred  years,  and  defended  ntany 
of  the  Euroj)ean  tlirones  against  the  Ottoniins  and  pirates, 
the  title  of  (irand-master  was  conferred  on  Paul  I.,  Emperor 
of  Russia,  who  i)ecanie  the  protector  of  the  order  and  assumed 
the  decoration  of  its  sovereign. 

Scarcely  had  Malta  capitulated,  than  Admiral  Nelson  en- 
tered the  Mediterranean  with  seventeen  ships  of  the  line  to 
pursue  the  P'rench  fleet.  It  however  escaped ;  and  the  troops 
having  been  landed  at  Alexandria,  took  that  city  by  assault, 
with  but  a  trifling  loss  on  the  part  of  the  French.  After 
several  actions,  in  which  tiie  Mamelukes  and  their  followers 
were  constantly  defeated,  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  rendered 
the  French  masters  of  the  country,  and  Bonaparte  made  his 
entry  into  Grand  Cairo,  which  opened  to  him  its  gates.  To 
attacli  the  inhabitants  to  his  interest,  it  has  been  asserted  that 
he  professed  himself  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Mahomet, 
and  with  the  officers  of  his  staff,  assisted  at  the  religious  wor- 
ship of  the  Mussulmans.  The  conquest  of  F.^ypt  now 
seemed  complete,  when  the  expedition  received  a  terrible 
blow,  in  the  destruction  of  the  fleet,  which  lay  at  anchor  oflT 
Aboukir,  and  consistr'd  of  thirteen  ships  of  the  line  and  four 
frigates.  Admiral  Nelson,  who  w:is  in  active  pursuit  of  them, 
arrived  in  the  road  of  Aboukir  on  the  1st  of  August.  Though 
the  Frencli  fleet  was  anchored  as  near  the  coast  as  possible. 
Nelson,  by  a  Iiold  manceuvre,  brought  his  ships,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one,  between  the  enemy's  vessels  and  the  land. 
The  action  commenced  at  sun-set,  and  continued  with  una- 
bating  fury  till  nine  o'clock,  when  the  Orient,  <'ommanded  by 
the  French  Admiral  Hruix,  caught  fire  and  blew  up.  'I'he 
combat  was  not  suspended  until  noon  of  the  succeeding  day, 
when  the  victory  was  decisive  in  favour  of  the  British,  who 
captured  nine  ships  and  burned  another.*  'I'iiis  triumph  w;i8 
followed  by  a  new  confederation  against  France,  on  which, 
and  the  sul)sequent  operations,  it  had  a  marked  influence  :  it 
also  rendered  the  British  masters  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
intention  of  the  IVtMich  in  liieir  expedition  to  I'^gvpt,  was  to 
open  a  communication,  l)y  which  they  might  co-operate  with 
the  enemies  of  (Jreat  Britain  in  India.  About  the  time,  how- 
ever, that  they  elfected  their  landing  in  Egypt,  Tijijjoo  "^ai^ 
*  This  action  iii  called  the  Baltic  of  the  Nile. 


XLIV.j  OENERAL    HISTORV    Ot    EUROPE.  26fc 

lost  Ins  life  and  dominions,  in  a  war  of  short  duration,  but 
higlily  advantageous  to  the  English,  'i'he  active  operations 
of  the  army  were  conducted  by  General  Karris,  who  besieged 
and  took  Seringapatam,  tlie  capital  of  Tippoo's  dominions  ; 
which,  with  the  fortress  and  island,  and  part  of  the  late  sul- 
tan's territories,  was  united  to  the  British  possessions.  His 
body  was  found  amoug  the  slain,  and  interred  with  suitable 
honour. 

Bonaparte,  in  the  mean  time,  retained  possession  of  Egypt, 
and  in  order  to  secure  his  conquests,  advanced  into  Syria, 
February  9th,  1799.  The  expedition  commenced  with  the 
siege  of  El-Arych,  one  of  the  keys  of  the  Egyptian  frontiers  ; 
it  was  protected  by  a  camp  of  Mamelukes,  who  were  defeated 
by  General  Kleber,  and  the  city  surrendered,  after  a  siege  of 
eleven  days.  The  victorious  army  then  advanced  towards 
Jaffa.  Gaza  submitted  to  them  on  their  route,  but  Jaffa  was 
strongly  garrisoned,  and  when  summoned  to  surrender,  some 
of  the  soldiers  struck  off  the  head  of  the  officer  who  carried 
the  flag  of  truce,  and  fixed  it  on  a  pole,  in  sight  of  the  French 
army.  The  town  was  then  carried  by  storm,  after  a  dreadful 
carnage.  Among  the  prisoners  were  found  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  mountains  and  of  Nazareth,  who  had  been  re- 
leased after  the  siege  of  El-Aiych,  on  condition  of  returning 
to  their  respective  homes.  These  men  were,  by  Bonaparte's 
order,  on  the  following  morning,  drawn  out  to  the  number  of 
five  hundred,  on  a  rising  ground  near  Jaffa,  and  fired  upon  by 
a  division  of  French  infantry.*  These  successes  achieved, 
the  French  army  formed  the  siege  of  St.  John  D'Acre ;  but 
after  succeeding  in  dispersing  the  Mussulmans  assembled  on 
Mount  Thabor,  and  spending  sixty  days  before  the  place,  they 
were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  an  English  squadron,  under 
Sir  Sydney  Smith,  who,  acting  in  concert  with  the  Turks, 
compelled  Bonaparte  to  retreat,  with  the  remains  of  his  army, 
into  Egypt.  From  thence  he  took  an  opportunity  to  escape 
to  France,  where  he  became  the  author  of  a  new  revolution  in 
the  government. 

The  Turks   declared  war  against  France,  in   September, 

*  This  account  of  the  murder  near  Jaffa,  was  given  by  Napoleon  himself, 
to  Mr.  Warden,  Surgeon,  on  board  the  Northumberland,  during  Bona- 
parte's voyage  to  St.  Helena.  Mr.  O'Meara,  who  states  the  same  fact, 
makes  the  number  of  these  unfortunate  victims,  thus  wantonly  murdered 
in  cold  blood,  amount  to  12,000.  The  charge  of  his  having  p/isoned  his 
eick  soldiers  at  Jaffa,  Bonaparte  absolutely  denied.  Bourrienne  asserts  it 
to  be  true,  with  some  extenuating  circumstances. 

25 


266  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  FcHAP 

1798.  and  tlic  Emperor  of  Russia,  with  tlic  same  view,  made 
luriiiidal)le  proparalions  by  sea  and  Imid.  Tlie  Neapolitan 
troops  entered  the  papal  territory  to  attaek  tlie  Frencli,  l)Ut 
uere  defeated  at  (Mvita  Castclhma  by  the  rei)ul)lican  (Jeiieral 
Championet,  who  foreed  lliem  to  evacuate  Rome,  of  wiiicli 
they  liad  taken  possession.  After  various  successes  gained 
by  the  Generals  Duchesne,  Maeilonald,  Rev,  and  Ticmoinc, 
the  French  estai)lishcil  their  head-(|uarters  at  Santo  (icrmano, 
but  were  soon  after  repulsed  near  Capua.  The  Neaj)olitans 
quicklv  rallied,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  positions 
near  Tcano,  while  San  (Jermano  revolted  from  the  French. 
At  this  critical  period,  Prince  Piirnatelli  was  desjiatclied  by 
General  Mack,  the  viceroy,  with  powers  to  conclude  an  ar- 
mistice with  Championet,  on  any  terms,  provided  Naples 
remained  subject  to  its  kins^.  Tiie  oflTer  was  accepted  ;  but 
the  conditions,  though  highly  advantageous  to  France,  were 
disapproved  of  by  the  French  Directory.  The  suspension  of 
arms  occasioned  equal  dissatisfaction  at  Naples  :  the  Lazza- 
roni  took  possession  of  the  arsenal  and  fort,  and  chose  Prince 
Militerni  for  their  chief.  General  Mack,  in  order  to  save  him- 
self from  the  fury  of  the  populace,  surrendered  himself  a  pri- 
soner to  the  French. 

In  January,  17'J9,  the  Lazzaroni  attacked  the  French  army, 
but  were  defeated  and  driven  back  into  the  town.  Exposed 
to  anv  invasion  by  sea,  without  fortifications  on  the  side  of 
the  land,  and  abandonod  by  its  sovereign,  Naples  was  del'endcd 
for  three  days  by  30,01)0  Lazzaroni,  who  performed  prodigies 
of  valour,  fightinsr  in  the  streets,  amidst  the  si)reading  flames 
which  consumed  the  editices.  At  last,  after  torrents  of  blood 
had  been  spilt  on  both  sides,  the  French  colours  were  hoisted 
on  the  new  casde  and  on  fort  St.  Elme.  ('hampionet,  for  the 
humanity  he  displayed  on  this  occasion,  would  have  been  re- 
wanletl  with  a  civic  crown  by  ancient  Rome,  but  the  Directory 
of  Paris  denounced  him  before  a  council  of  war:  fortunately 
for  this  general,  a  change  in  the  government  takinjr  jdace  during 
his  trial,  he  was  not  only  saved,  but  the  conimand  of  the  army 
of  the  Alps  and  of  that  of  Italy  was  conferred  upon  him. 
Meantime  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  reduced  to  the  humili- 
ating nec«!ssity  of  abdicating  the  government  of  Piedmont,  t(» 
avoid  being  taken  prisoner.  In  December,  1798,  he  concluded 
an  armistice  witli  the  I-'rench  fJencral  .Toubert,  and  retired  into 
Sardinia;  the  tri-coloured  flag  was  displayed  at  'i'urin,  and 
Piedmont  I'ell  iindcrr  the  dominion  of  P' ranee.  Shortly  after, 
the  French  entered  Lucca,  which  abolished  the  aristocratical, 


XLIV  ]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  267 

and  assumed  a  popular  form  of  government.     On  the  otliei 
side,  Minorca  was  taken  by  the  Britisli,  commanded  by  Gene- 
ral Stuart.     In  Germany,  (1798,)  the  campaign  was  opened 
by  the  defeat  of  the  French  General  Jourdan.    A  treaty  having 
been  entered  into  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  the  troops 
of  the  latter  nation  took  the  field.    The  dissolution  of  the  con- 
gress of  Rastadt  was  marked  by  the  assassination  of  two  of 
the  French   ministers.     A  strange  mystery  still  hangs  over 
that  event.    In  their  progress  through  Italy,  the  French  made 
themselves  ijiasters  of  Tuscany,  but  were  checked  in  their 
career  by  the  Imperialists,  who  obtained  an  advantage  over 
them  in  two  actions  at  Verona.     The  Russian  General  Su- 
vvarrow  was  so  successful  in  his  operaUons,   that  the  allies 
■were  enabled  to  enter  Milan.     The  French  now  evacuated 
the  Roman  and  Neapolitan  territories  ;  the  disasters  which 
had  befallen  their  Generals  Moreau  and  Macdonald,  brought 
about  a  counter-revolution  in  Tuscany,  which  abolished  its 
democratic    form  of  government.     Modena  was  captured  by 
the  French,  who  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the  allies  in 
three  actions  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebbia.     In  consequence 
of  these  defeats,  the  cities  of  Turin  and  Bologna  fell  into  their 
hands,  and  the  surrender  of  the  French  garrisons  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Mantua  followed.     In  the  month  of  August,  Holland 
was  invaded  by  an  Anglo-Russian  army.     The  first  expedi- 
tion sent  thither,  was  commanded  by  the  gallant  Abercrombie, 
who  was   no  sooner  landed,  than  the  Dutch  evacuated  the 
Holder.    The  British  and  Russian  troops,  who  had  penetrated 
into  the  country,  were  attacked  a  few  days  after,  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  France  and  Holland,  which  they  repulsed. 
The  second  expedition,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  York, 
reached  Holland  about  the  middle  of  September.    After  seve- 
ral actions,  Avhich   were   fought  with   doubtful  success,  the 
country  being  found  to  be  no  longer  tenable,  and  the  invading 
army  having  been  disappointed  in  its  expectations  of  being 
joined    by   the   majority  of  the   Dutch ;    a  negotiation   was 
entered  into  with  the  French  General  Brune,  in  consequence 
of  which,  the  combined  English  and  Russian  army  evacuated 
the  Batavian  territory.     In  the  following  year,  (1799,)  the 
aged  father  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  torn  from  his  retire- 
ment by  the  French,  Avho  now  yielded  to  the  triumphant  arms 
of  Suwarrow,  and  was  carried  by  them  into  Valence  :  as  he 
passed  thitlier,  tliroiigh  Dauphine,  he  was   everywhere  re- 
ceived by  multitudes  of  people,  with  sentiments  of  sympathy, 
respect,  and  veneration.     After  an  indisposition  of  several 


268  GENERAL    HISTORY    Of    Kl'HOPE.  [CHAP. 

tlay?,  ho  expired  at  Valonre,  Aiipnst  lOlli,  in  tlie  eiirhly-se- 
cond  year  of  liis  age.  \i\  order  of  tlic  Freiicli  <r()veriuiient, 
uiislaekcd  lime  was  thrown  into  the  grave  to  consume  hia 
body.* 

In  tlie  view  of  our  doinestie  eoncerns,  every  other  conside- 
ration was,  for  the  jiresent,  absorbed  in  tlie  question  of  a  legis- 
lative union  with  Ireland.  Some  preliminary  diseussion  was 
introduced  in  a  debate  in  tlie  Knerlish  House  of  Commons  on 
t!.c  23d  of. January,  17!)1),  ami  llie  queslion  was  more  formally 
ti:id  amply  discussed  in  the  Irish  I'arliament,  which  was  opened 
on  the  22d  with  a  speech  from  the  lord  lieutenant,  indirecdy 
announcing  the  measure.  'J'he  union  bill  was  carried  in  the 
House  of  Lords  without  a  division;  and  in  the  House  of 
(/'ommons  by  a  majority  of  sixty — the  ayes  being  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty,  and  the  noes  one  hundred.  The  summary 
of  its  enactments  was,  that  on  the  1st  of  .January,  1801,  the 
kingdoms  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  should  be  united  in 
one;  that  the  succession  to  the  imperial  crown  of  these  realms 
should  continue  limited  and  settled  according  to  existing  laws  ; 
that  Ireland  should  be  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament 
by  twenty-eight  lords  temporal  elected  for  life,  four  lords  spi- 
ritual taking  their  places  by  rotation,  and  one  hundred  com- 
moners ;  that  in  trade,  navigation,  and  commerce  in  general, 
the  people  of  England  and  of  Ireland  should  possess  eijual 
rights  and  advantages;  that  the  pul)lic  debt  iiu-urred  l)y  either 
kiuL'^dom  previous  to  the  union,  and  the  sinking  fund  for  its 
reduction,  should  continue  to  be  separately  defrayed  by  each 
kingdom  respectively,  in  the  proportion  of  fifteen  parts  for 
Great  Hrilain  and  two  for  Ireland,  <fec.  Disunion  and  ilissen- 
sion,  in  the  mean  time,  distracted  the  British  councils.  The 
subject  of  ("atholic  emancipation,  which  occasioned  a  division 
in  her  cabinet,  was  said,  by  the  party  who  resigned,  to  be  ne- 
cessary to  complete  and  give  effect  to  the  measures  of  the  Irish 
union  ;  which,  without  extending  the  benefit  of  full  freedom 
to  the  ('atholics,  would  be  a  lifeless  measure.  Finding  it  im- 
possil)le  at  present  to  attain  this  object,  to  which  they  attached 
BO  much  import^anee,  they  did  not  think  it  consistent  widi  the 
duty  they  f)wed  their  country,  any  longer  to  maintain  res|)on- 
eible  situations  in  his  majesty's  councils.  Mr.  I'ilt,  therefore, 
and  his  colleagues,  determined  to  give  in  their  resignations, 
as  soon  as  the  state  of  the  pidilic  business  would  allow.     'I'hc 

•   Dr.  Mavor. 

The  illiiHtrinuH  Cifncrol  Washington  died  this  year,  (1799,)  at  Mount 
Vernon,  aged  sixly-Hovcn. 


XLIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  269 

expenses  of  England  this  year  amounted  to  £41,000,000: 
and  a  scarcity  of  corn  greatly  augmented  the  general  distress. 
The  conduct  of  the  directorial  government  of  France  had 
been  marked  from  its  earliest  establishment  by  a  system  of 
rapine  and  fraud,  which  had  brought  France  to  the  eve  of  a 
civil  war.  The  forced  loan,  and  the  iniquitous  law  which 
seized  on  the  persons  and  confiscated  the  property  of  the  rela- 
tions of  emigrants,  had  completed  the  wretchedness  of  the 
subjugated  French ;  when  a  sudden  revolution,  effected  by 
Bonaparte,  the  9th  of  November,  1799,  overturned  the  Direc- 
tory, and  setup  the  Consular  government,  at  the  head  of  which 
he  placed  himself.  Cambaceres  was  second  consul,  and  Le- 
brun  the  third.  A  senate  was  composed  of  eighty  members, 
a  tribunal  of  one  hundred,  and  a  legislative  body,  which  was 
not  permanent,  of  three  hundred.  Bonaparte's  first  measure 
was  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  treat  with  Great  Britain.  In  the 
pacification  of  La  Vendee  he  was  more  successful.  Rela- 
tively to  Egypt,  the  treaty  of  El-Arych,  by  which  the  French 
consented  to  evacuate  that  country,  was  not  acceded  to  by  the 
British  ministry.  Meantime,  General  Suwarrow,  who  in  five 
months  had  gained  as  many  pitched  battles,  made  himself 
master  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  north  of  Italy ;  but  the 
battle  of  Novi,  fought  on  the  16th  of  August,  was  the  greatest 
triumph  of  this  celebrated  general.  In  it,  the  French  com- 
mander. General  Joubert,  was  slain ;  and  of  all  the  conquests 
the  French  had  made  in  Italy,  Genoa  alone  remained  to  them, 
which  was  now  blockaded  by  Lord  Nelson,  and  ready  to  yield 
to  the  horrors  of  famine.  But  Suwarrow,  having  with  difii- 
culty  passed  Mount  St.  Gothard,  in  order  to  join  General 
Korsakoff  in  Switzerland,  was  defeated  by  Massena,  and  re- 
tired into  the  Tyrol.  His  defeat  was  fuilowed  by  that  of 
Korsakoff,  and  by  the  death  of  the  Austrian  General  Holzs, 
which  obliged  him  to  seek  safety  by  flight.  The  events  we 
have  related  in  Italy,  afforded  an  opportunity  to  the  cardinals 
to  meet  for  the  election  of  a  Pope.  The  conclave  was  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  at  Venice,  in 
March,  1800.  The  ecclesiastic  honoured  with  the  pontificate, 
was  Cardinal  di  Chiaramonti,  a  man  of  good  sense,  exemplary 
virtue,  and  unassuming  manners.  As  it  is  customary  for  the 
new  pontiff  to  assume  the  name  of  the  Pope  who  had  promoted 
him  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  Chiaramonti  took  that  of  Pius 
VII.  The  emperor,  on  his  election,  presented  him  with  a 
sum  of  money,  and  soon  after  delivered  up  to  him  the  greater 
part  of  the  ecclesiastical  state.     Pius  VII.  took  possession  of 

25* 


J70  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

the  see  of  Rome  in  July,  :intl  began  to  exercise  the  sovereignty 
wilh  groat  cljiriiitv  and  iiiodcradoii :  he  was  soon  after  ackiiow- 
ledgeil  l)y  tin;  I-'rcnch.  Tlii-y  ajjpoiiitcd  as  ininisicr  jilciiipo- 
tentiary,  M.  Cacault,  wliose  conciliating  disposition  smoothed 
many  of  tlic  diiricidtics  that  occurred  in  the  negotiations 
between  the  rej)ublic  and  the  holy  sec.  Tlic  Austrian  Ge- 
neral Melas,  having  entered  Italy  in  April,  possessed  him- 
self of  Savona  and  Vada,  whicli  separated  Genoa  from  the 
French  army;  and  llie  latter,  under  Masscna,  sustained  a  con- 
siderable hjss  at  Fontana  Huona,  while  tlie  imperialists  took 
possession  of  Mount  Cenis,  and  repulsed  Masscna  on  his  at- 
teuiplini:  to  leave  Genoa:  famine  at  length  compelled  iiim  to 
surreiiiler  the  town  on  honourable  terms.  Tlic  first  consul 
soon  after  left  Paris,  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  of  re- 
serve intended  to  retrieve  the  afl'airs  of  the  French  in  Italy. 
He  passed  Mount  St.  Bernard  on  the  7lh  of  May,  and  on  the 
same  day,  three  divisions  of  the  French  army,  under  Moreau, 
penetrated  Italy  by  Switzerland.  Bonaparte  entered  Milan 
on  the  1th  of  June  ;  and  this  step  was  followed  by  the  batde 
of  Montebello,  gained  on  the  Ulh,  and  l)y  that  of  Marengo, 
which  on  the  14th  decided  the  fate  of  Italy.  General  Melas 
liad  disputed  the  field  against  the  French  with  oljstinate  cou- 
rage, and  had  thrice  forced  them  to  fall  back  and  retreat,  when 
General  Dessaix  came  up,  and  decided  the  victory  in  favour 
of  the  republicans.  The  army  rallied  and  returned  to  the 
charge  with  such  uncommon  bravery  and  resolution,  that  the 
Austrians  were  all  routed  :  the  slaughter  was  dreadful,  nor  did 
it  cease  till  night  had  veiled  the  scene  of  carnage.  It  was  ten 
o'clock  when  IJcuiapartc  quitted  the  field  victorious;  but  the 
French  lost  one  of  their  best  geyerals,  Dessaix,  who  fell  at 
the  moment  of  victory,  'i'he  Austrians  next  day  requested 
an  armistice,  which  was  granted  :  eight  fortified  towns  were 
successively  given  up  by  tlicin  to  the  French,  and  they  re- 
tired to  Mantua.  Bonaparte  having  ordered  the  demolition 
of  all  the  fortresses  in  the  Milanese  and  Pitidmonlese,  departed 
with  (General  Berthier  and  his  stalf  for  Milan,  where  he  es- 
tablished the  ("isalpine  Repui)lic,  and  assisted  at  a  solemn  Tt 
Drum  in  tlu;  cathedral  church.  He  also  re-organized  the 
celebraleil  university  of  !*avi  i,  which  had  been  closed  since 
the  invasion  (»f  the  combined  powers  in  17'.''J,  leaving  to  (Ge- 
neral Massena  the  command  of  the  army.  On  the  2d  of  July, 
he  re-entered  Paris,  having  in  fifly-eiirlit  days  com|)leted  a 
BiM'ond  time  the  concpiest  of  Italy.  Besides  the  disasters 
which  had  attended  the  arms  of  Austria  in  Italy,  other  losses 


XUV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  271 

compelled  her  to  sue  for  peace.  The  preceding  campaign  had 
been  attended  with  very  ill  success  ;  and  the  memorable  bat- 
tle of  Hohenlinden,  gained  by  General  Moreau  over  the  Arch- 
duke John,  in  December,  1800,  covered  that  commander  with 
laurels,  wliile  General  Augereau  defeated  the  imperialists  at 
Nuremberg.  These  victories  brought  on  the  definitive  treaty 
of  peace  between  France  and  Austria,  which  was  signed  at 
Luneville  in  February,  1801.  By  this  treaty,  the  cession  of 
the  Belgic  provinces,  which  had  been  made  to  France  at  the 
treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  was  renewed,  and  Austria  relin- 
quished all  that  she  possessed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

The  fort  and  island  of  Goree  surrendered  this  year  to  a 
small  British  squadron;  in  the  month  of  September  the 
island  of  Malta  passed  under  the  domination  of  Great  Britain, 
after  having  been  blockaded  during  two  years;  and  the  Dutch 
settlement  of  Cura^oa  was  taken  in  the  same  month  from 
the  French,  who  had  conquered  it.  Two  expeditions  to  the 
coast  of  Spain,  one  against  Ferrol,  the  other  against  Cadiz, 
terminated  unsuccessfully.  A  convention  for  an  armed  neu- 
trality, directed  against  Great  Britain,  was  entered  into  by 
Russia  and  Sweden,  and  afterwards  acceded  to  by  Prussia  and 
Denmark.  In  return,  an  embargo  was  laid  at  the  close  of  the 
month  of  January,  1801,  on  all  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swe- 
dish ships,  in  the  ports  of  Great  Britain.  To  exclude  the 
British  vessels  from  the  navigation  of  the  Elbe,  the  Danes 
resorted  to  the  measure  of  the  temporary  possession  of  Ham- 
burgh, at  the  same  time  that  the  Prussians  seized  on  Hanover. 
These  hostile  proceedings  gave  rise  to  the  batde  of  Copenha- 
gen ;  Lord  Nelson,  with  twelve  ships  of  the  line,  attacked  the 
Danish  fleet,  (April  2d,)  which  was  defended  by  formidable 
batteries.  The  action  was  continued  with  unabating  severity 
for  four  hours,  until,  at  length,  the  British  admiral,  to  spare 
the  further  effusion  of  blood,  proposed  an  armistice,  which 
was  acceded  to  by  the  Danes,  only  when  all  their  ships,  con- 
sisting of  seventeen  sail  of  the  line,  were  sunk  or  captured. 
The  Emperor  Paul  died  before  he  could  execute  the  vast  and 
angry  projects  he  had  conceived  against  England  ;  he  was 
found  dead  in  his  bed  on  the  22d  of  March,  having  been 
carried  off  by  an  apoplectic  fit,  as  it  was  expressed  in  the 
proclamation  made  on  the  following  day,  which  announced 
the  accession  of  his  son  Alexander  to  the  throne.*  The 
Swedes  next  seceded  from  the  northern  alliance,  and  shortly 

*  The  violent  temper  of  Paul  created  him  many  enemies,  and  he  is 
supposed  to  have  been  strangled. 


272  OENKRAL    mSTOHY    OF    EPROPE.  [^CHAP 

aflrr  a  convention  was  signed  between  Great  Britain  and 
Russia. 

War  was  prorlaimod  liv  Spain  ajrainst  P()rtiiij':il,  in  the 
month  of  Feliniary,  1801  ;  and  in  the  followino-  April,  a  Spa- 
nish army,  headed  liy  the  I'rince  of  Peace,  invaded  tlie  Portu- 
guese territory,  and  reduced  all  the  fortified  places  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Altcntejo.  Hy  the  treaty  of  peace  which  followed 
between  the  two  powers  in  June,  Spain  obtained  die  province 
of  Olivenza;  the  (luadiana  was  made  the  boundary  between 
the  two  kiufrdoins,  and  the  ports  of  Portuiral  were  closed 
against  England.  By  a  convention  concluded  between  France 
and  Spain  in  the  month  of  Marcli,  the  states  of  the  Infint 
Don  liCwis,  Duke  of  I'arma,  were  placed  at  the  disposition 
of  France,  and  Tuscany  was  ceded  to  the  infante,  widi  the 
tide  of  King  of  Etruria.  In  the  month  of  August  following, 
the  king  and  queen  made  their  entrance  into  Florence.  Na- 
ples shordy  after  made  peace  with  France.  'iMie  treaty  of 
friendship  between  the  French  republic  and  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria  was  concluded  in  August:  the  latter  renovinced  by  it 
all  claim  to  his  ancient  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine.  Russia  soon  adopted  the  same  measure;  and  on  the 
9th  of  October,  the  preliminaries  of  peace  between  France  and 
Turkey  were  signed,  by  which  Russia  and  France  guarantied 
to  the  Ottoman  Porte  the  rej)ul)lic  of  the  Seven  Islands,  and 
the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea  was  secured  to  die  French  flag. 

The  Britisli  expcdilion  against  Egvpt  reached  its  destina- 
tion at  the  commcncenicnt  of  March,  and  a  part  of  the  army 
of  reserve,  commanded  by  Major-general  I\loore,  landed  on 
the  8th  of  that  nif)nt!i.  Tfie  whole  of  the  troops  having  been 
afterwards  landed,  moved  forward  on  the  12th  ;  and,  on  the 
following  day,  the  French  were  brought  to  action,  and  forced 
to  retreat,  'i'he  castle  of  Aboukir  surrendered  to  the  F]nglish 
on  the  18th,  and  on  the  2Ist  was  fought  the  ever-memorable 
contest,  which  gave  a  new  lustre  to  the  British  arms,  i)ut  in 
which  the  gallant  veteran  and  commander-in-chief.  Sir  Ral|)h 
AbercTombic,  f<ll.  The  loss  of  the  French  in  the  batU(!  of 
Alioukir  has  been  calmilated  at  JJ.OOO  men,  with  many  of 
their  principal  oflTicers.  That  of  the  victors  amounted  to 
about  thirteen  hundred  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 
The  capture  of  several  inferior  posts  was  followed  by  the 
Murrender  of  the  cities  of  Cairo  and  Alexandria  to  the  Pritish, 
And  these  successes  led  to  the  evacuation  of  I'jgypl  by  the 
French.  This  event  and  the  brilliant  victf)ries  irained  by 
(jreat  Britain  in  the  naval  campaign  of  1801,  led  to  negotia- 


XLIV."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  273 

tions  for  peace  between  that  power  and  France.  By  the  defi- 
nitive treaty  of  Amiens,  which  was  signed  on  the  27th  of 
March,  1802,  Great  Britain  ceded  all  the  possessions  and 
colonies  she  had  acquired  during  the  war,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Spanish  Island  of  Trinidad,  and  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  Ceylon. 

The  authors  who  debased  their  talents  by  promoting  the 
progress  of  irreligion  and  impiety  in  France,  during  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century,  have  been  already  noticed.  The  two 
Daciers  were  celebrated  for  their  translations  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin  authors,  and  for  their  commentaries  upon  them. 
M.  Dacier  belongs  properly  to  the  preceding  century: 
Madame  Dacier  died  in  1720.  The  learned  Benedictine 
monk,  Calmet,  who  is  noted  for  his  commentaries  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  other  works,  died  in  1767.  In  England, 
Doctor  Samuel  Johnson,  whose  efforts  to  arrest  the  revolu- 
tionary principles  of  the  age,  in  his  Rambler  and  Idler, 
recommended  him  to  the  personal  notice  and  patronage  of  his 
sovereign,  and  who  is  noted  for  his  philological  learning,  died 
in  1785.  Oliver  Goldsmith,  a  poet,  and  the  compiler  of  many 
different  works  for  youth :  Young  and  Cowper,  both  moral 
poets,  deserve  remembrance.  Hume,  Robertson,  and  Gib- 
bons, historians  ;  whose  talents,  however,  did  not  raise  them 
above  the  prejudices  of  their  nation  and  age,  and  whose 
writings  cannot,  tlierefore,  be  recommended  to  those  who  seek 
for  truth,  the  first  quality  of  an  historian.  Italy  during  this 
century  gave  birth  to  Metastasio,  who  was  poet  laureat  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.,  and  died  in  1782.  Germany  boasts  of 
Klopstock,  the  author  of  the  "  Messiah."  In  music,  too,  tho 
first  composers  and  performers  were  all  of  that  nation.  Handel, 
patronised  by  George  III.,  may  be  almost  said  to  belong  to 
England,  where  he  composed  his  celebrated  oratorios  ;  Hamal 
died  in  1778,  Mozart  in  1792.  Haydn  and  Beethoven  were 
still  living  at  this  period.  Painting  is  indebted  to  the  same 
sovereign  for  the  rapid  progress  it  made  in  this  island  during 
his  reign.  George  III.  founded  the  Royal  Academy  in  Lon- 
don, for  the  advancement  of  this  art,  as  well  as  of  engraving, 
sculpture,  and  architecture ;  and  the  names  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  and  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  portrait-painters,  and  of 
Benjamin  West,  historical  painter,  stand  pre-eminent.  His 
majesty  also  erected  the  Royal  Institution  in  1800,  the  grand 
object  of  which  is,  to  render  modern  improvements  applicable 
to  the  conveniences  of  mankind.  Its  reputation  was  at  tha\ 
time  enhanced  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in 
chymistrv. 


J74  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAlP 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

STATE  OF  EUROI'E  IN  GENERAL,  AND  THAT  OF  ENGLAND  IN  PAR 
TICULAU,  IKttM  THE  PEACE  OK  AMIENS  TO  THE  RENEWAL  Ot 
WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND. 

1802. — A  SHORT  interval  of  nominal  peace,  bnt  not  of  ge- 
neral tranquillity,  followed  the  ratilication  of  the  treaty  of 
Amiens.  On  tiie  continent  of  Europe,  in  the  British  dominions, 
and  in  the  West  Indies,  such  events  took  place  during  tliis  in- 
terval, as  ol)lif»-e  the  historian  still  to  tell  of  war,  and  treason, 
and  their  attendant  miseries. 

Bonaparte  tried  to  consolidate,  during  peace,  the  glory  which 
lie  had  ar(|uir('d  in  war,  and  his  elTorts  were  not  unsuccu'ssful. 
The  olhce  of  iirst  consul  for  life,  with  permission  to  ai)point 
his  successor,  was  conferred  upon  him.  He  was  empowered 
to  nominate  the  senate,  to  interpret  all  the  articles  of  the  con- 
stitution, to  suspend  the  functions  of  juries,  and  to  appoint  the 
consuls.  The  members  of  the  grand  council  of  the  J^egion  of 
Honour*  were  named  meniliers  of  the  senate.  The  presidency 
of  the  trilmnal  of  ultimate  appeal,  and  a  power  of  censure 
over  all  the  other  tribunals,  were  given  to  a  grand  judge  of 
IJonaparte's  nomination.  The  unlimited  confidence  reposed 
bv  the  French  nation  in  their  new  ruler,  seemed  in  a  threat 
measure  justified  by  the  anxiety  with  which,  afu^r  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  he  consulted  and  gratitied 
their  interests  and  wishes. 

'J'he  revival  of  the  arts,  the  improvement  of  commerce, 
manufactures,  and  airriculture,  plans  of  education,  the  remo- 
delling and  rcpairingof  bridges, canals, and  highways, alternate- 
ly occupied  his  attention.  Findin<j  that  the  re-establishmf-nt 
of  religion  was  desired  by  the  nation  at  large,  he  concluded  a 
Convention,  usually  called  the  Concordat,  with  the  I*ope,  by 
which  the  Catholic  reliirion  was  dcdariMl  to  lie  that  of  the 
great  majority  f»f  I'Venchmen  ;  it  stipulated  that  a  new  cir- 
cumscription should  be  made  of  the  French  bishoprics,  and 
for  this  end  demanded  from  the  ancient  bishops  of  France  the 
resignation  of  tli(;ir  sees,  a  sacrifice  which  his  holiness  firmly 

•  The  Legion  of  Honour  wbh  n  military  ordnr  of  noliility.     It  consisted 
of  fifteen  cohorts  and  a  council  of  a  hninislrntion.     'I'lic  first  consul  wa« 
rhiiT  of  the  legion  and  uf  the  council,  and  Joscjih  Bonaparte  wna  grand 
maater  of  the  order. 


XLV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROI'E.  275 

expected  they  would  make  for  Uie  sake  of  peace  and  unity.* 
Tlie  Concordat  also  provided  that,  the  right  of  nomination  to 
ecclesiastical  sees  should  be  exercised  by  the  first  consul,  and 
that  of  canonical  institution  by  the  Pope  ;  that  the  intruded 
constitutional  bisliops  should  not  be  selected,  unless  they  first 
made  their  submission,  according  to  the  form  prescribed  by 
the  Pope  to  his  legate.  Cardinal  Caprara;t  that  the  bishops 
should  swear  allegiance  to  the  government,  which  should  pay 
them  and  the  inferior  clergy  an  annual  stipend ;  that  none  but 
native  Frenchmen  should  officiate  as  ministers  of  relig-ion  in 
France ;  that  these  ministers  sliould  have  no  connection  with 
foreign  powers ;  and  tliat  the  professors,  in  all  seminaries, 
should  be  chosen  by  die  chief  consul.  The  final  ratification 
of  the  Concordat  was  announced  by  proclamation,  on  the  17th 
of  April,  and  the  event  solemnly  celebrated  in  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame. J  In  the  same  month  was  published  a  decree 
of  amnesty,  by  which  the  emigrants,  with  several  exceptions, 
Avere  permitted  to  return  to  France,  and  such  part  of  their 


*  In  reply  to  this  demand,  thirty  bishops  sent  in  their  resignation  ;  thirty- 
eight  refused  it. 

■f  Several  constitutional  bishops  evaded  this  command,  and  with  the  Con- 
cordat were  published  organic  laws,  which  had  not  been  approved  of  by 
the  legate. 

t  Bonaparte  is  said  to  have  conceived  the  first  idea  of  a  Concordat,  oq 
the  battle-field  of  Marengo ;  though  he  had  long  before  been  heard  to 
exclaim,  alluding  to  the  Pope  and  cardinals — "  Why  do  they  not  treat  with 
me]  I  am  the  best  friend  of  Rome."  He  complained  much,  however,  of 
what  he  called  the  useless  delays  of  the  Court  of  Rome,  and  wished  to  in- 
troduce into  ecclesiastical  affairs  that  celerity  which  distinguished  his  mili- 
tary operations.  Finding  the  Pope's  legate  in  Paris  slow  in  bringing  the 
affair  to  a  conclusion,  he  wrote  to  the  minister,  Cacault,  desiring  him  to 
demand  imperatively  a  Concordat,  within  three  days,  and  enjoining  him  to 
quit  Rome  in  case  of  noncompliance.  Cacault,  who  knew  more  about  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  than  the  first  consul,  persuaded  Cardinal  Consalvi  to 
undertake  a  journey  to  Paris,  and  make  arrangements  with  Bonaparte  in 
person :  while,  according  to  his  instructions,  he  himself  withdrew  to  Florence, 
leaving,  however,  his  secretary  in  Rome,  so  that  the  official  relations  re- 
mained uninterrupted.  The  genius  and  conciliating  manners  of  the  car- 
dinal disarmed  the  rising  indignation  of  the  first  consul,  who  approved  of 
what  had  been  done,  and  the  Concordat  was  promulgated  in  April.  About 
this  time,  Talleyrand,  at  his  own  request,  received  from  Rome  a  brief,  dis- 
pensing with  the  performance  of  his  ecclesiastical  functions,  and  allowing 
him  to  reassume  the  secular  habit.  It  was  not  signed  by  the  Pope,  though 
his  holiness  was  aware  of  its  being  expedited  ;  nor  did  it  empower  the 
ex-Bishop  of  Autun  to  marry  ;  and  when  the  Pope,  at  a  later  period,  visited 
Paris,  he  particularly  stipulated  that  Madame  de  Talleyrand  should  not  ba 
presented  to  him. 


270  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    F.ITROPE.  [cHAP. 

goods  and  possessions  as  still  remained  unsold  was  restored 
to  ilicin. 

OiR-  of  the  first  objects  that  fixed  the  attention  uf  lla-  French 
government,  after  it  had  signed  the  definite  treaty  with  England, 
was  the  recovery  of  tlie  revolted  colony  of  ISt.  Doniingo.  As 
early  as  the  month  of  December,  1801,  a  largo  force  put  to 
sea  for  this  service.  The  French  troops  were  commanded 
by  Le  Clerc,  Latouche,  and  Kochambeau  ;  the  insurgenti",  by 
Toussaint,  Dcssalines,  and  Christophe.  After  many  rencoun- 
ters and  massacres,  marked,  on  tlie  part  of  the  French,  by  a 
degree  of  cruelty  which  reflects  disgrace  on  civilized  society, 
Christophe,  Dessalines,  and  'I'oussaint,  hopeless  of  gaining 
any  permanent  advantage  over  the  superior  Ibrccs  of  their  op- 
ponents, acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  France.  Toussaint 
retired,  with  the  permission  of  the  French  generals,  to  his 
estate  at  Gonaive,  where  he  purposed  to  spend  the  remainder 
nf  his  days,  anil  to  forget  the  horrors  of  warfare,  in  the  seclu- 
sion of  domestic  life.  But  this  happiness  was  denied  him  by 
his  conquerors.  Le  Olerc  surrounded  his  house  in  the  dead 
of  the  nigiit,  took  him  and  his  family  prisoners,  and  had  them 
conveyed  to  France.  There  Toussaint,  whose  character,  at 
once  Inimane  and  warlike,  had  won  the  admiration  even  of 
his  enemies,  was  immured  and  terminated  his  career  in  a  loath- 
some dungeon.  The  act  of  treachery  was,  in  itself,  a  sufficient 
Incentive  to  rouse  the  Haitians  to  a  renewal  of  war.  'I'hey 
were  farther  exasperated  by  a  tlccree  of  the  French  legislative 
body,  abrogatinir  an  enactment  of  the  national  assembly,  which 
had  declared  slavery  in  the  colonies  abolished.  Dessalines 
and  ('hristojihe  again  asseml)led  llie  insurgent  bands,  and  re- 
solved to  exterminate  their  oppressors  or  ilic  in  the  attempt. 
']'hc  French,  unawed  by  the  new  insurrection,  abated  none  of 
their  accustomed  cruelty.  But  Providence  visited  back  u|)on 
the  perpetrators  of  these  wanton  acts,  part  of  the  miseries  tliey 
created.  A  pestilential  disease,  caused  by  the  putrefaction  of 
their  victims,  raged  violenUy  in  the  French  camp  ;  Le  Clerc 
himself  fell  a  victim  to  it.  Before  his  death,  which  took  place 
in  October,  l'ort-au-l*aix,  Fort  Daui)hin,  anil  many  other 
places,  were  lost  to  the  French. 

Koi'hanibeau,  who  succeeded  liC  Clerc  in  the  chief  com- 
mand, imitated  him  in  cruelly,  and  inherited  his  ill-fortune. 
Iir  the  first  engagement  of  imporUxnce,  after  his  appointment, 
the  Frencli  were  defeated;  and  though  (ieneral  Clausel  par- 
tially retrieved  the  glory  of  the  French  arms,  yet  success  still 
preponderated  on  the  side  of  the  insurgents,  and  their  per- 


XLX.']  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  277 

severing  bravery  awakened  the  apprehensions  of  the  mother- 
country,  for  the  total  loss  of  her  colony. 

1802. — It  was  not  in  the  West  Indies  alone  that  the  horrors 
of  war  were  felt;  Switzerland  had  again  become  the  theatre 
of  contending  armies.  Its  inhabitants,  still  dissatisfied  with 
their  new  form  of  government,  took  up  arms  to  effect  a  counter- 
revolution, and  appointed  Aloys  Reding  their  chief.  The  con- 
test between  the  patriots,  or  friends  of  the  old  order  of  things, 
and  the  supporters  of  the  government,  was  maintained  for  some 
time  with  various  success.  Zurich  was  taken  by  Andermatt, 
the  French  general ;  Friburg,  Berne,  and  Soleure,  by  the  in- 
surgents. Both  parties,  with  equal  urgency,  solicited  the  inter- 
ference of  France  in  their  behalf.  The  capture  of  Berne  was 
followed  by  a  suspension  of  arras.  On  the  renewal  of  hos- 
tilities, success  still  attended  the  exertions  of  the  patriots. 
Their  main  attack  was  directed  against  Lausanne,  the  seat  of 
the  Helvetic  government.  Apprehending  the  reduction  of  the 
city,  the  government  was  preparing  to  remove  to  Geneva, 
when  their  fears  were  calmed  and  their  flight  prevented,  by 
the  opportune  arrival  of  citizen  Rapp,  with  an  offer,  in  form 
of  a  proclamation,  from  the  lirst  consul,  to  mediate  between 
the  contending  parties.  The  diet,  convinced  by  the  entry  of 
General  Ney  with  30,000  men  into  the  Swiss  territory  that 
esistance  to  the  will  of  Bonaparte  would  prove  unavailing, 
accepted  his  preferred  mediation,  and  dissolved  itself.  The 
Swiss  troops  were  disbanded,  and  die  subjection  of  Switzer- 
i:iiid  to  the  influence  of  France  completed,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  deputies  from  the  cantons  to  meet  at  Paris  and  arrange, 
by  negotiation,  the  diflferences  of  their  constituents.  When 
these  deputies  assembled,  a  letter  from  the  first  consul  told 
them,  that  to  tranquillize  Switzerland,  the  enforcement  of  three 
preliminary  points  was  necessary :  a  general  equality  of  rights 
among  all  her  cantons,  a  federative  organization  for  each,  and 
a  renunciation  of  all  aristocratic  privileges.  Thus  a  new  con- 
stitution was  given  to  Switzerland  ;  it  was  divided  into  eighteen 
cantons,  and  the  Helvetic  troops  passed  into  the  service  of 
France. 

The  daily  extension  of  Bonaparte's  power,  and  particular- 
ly his  having,  within  the  year,  added  Piedmont  and  Parma  to 
France,  caused  much  uneasiness  to  the  Emperor  Francis,  and 
rendered  him  unwilling  to  submit  to  the  German  indemnities, 
and  die  secularization  of  the  ecclesiastical  sovereignties,  gua- 
rantied by  the  treaty  of  Lunevfllc.  The  first  consul,  however, 
little  regarding  the  objections  urged  by  him,  opened  negotia 


?78  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAP 

tions  at  Paris,  for  the  arrangement  of  the  indemnities,  and, 
assistcii  by  tlie  Emperor  of  Russia,  drew  up  a  plan,  wiiicli,  not- 
wilhytant\injr  stron;;  renioiitilrancos  from  the  Hiii|)cr(ir  l''iaiicis, 
met  llie  approval  of  llie  Diet  of  Kalisbon.  To  llie  Elector  of 
Menlz  were  given  the  cities  of  Ratisbon  and  Wetzlar:  to  the 
King  of  (ireat  Britain,  the  bishopric  of  Osnaherg,  in  compen- 
sation for  Hildesheim,  Corvey,  and  lloextcr,  and  for  the  re- 
nunciation of  his  rights  over  Bremen  anil  llaml)urgh  :  to  tiie 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  bishoprics  of  Fulda  and  Corvey,  and 
the  city  of  Dortmunil,  for  his  siirrentier  of  the  stadtholderate, 
and  of  other  claims  in  Holland  and  Belgium.  Tiie  Princes 
of  Baden,  Wirtemburg,  and  Hesse  Cassel,  were  made  electors. 
The  Emperor  Francis,  finding  the  influence  of  France  to 
predominate  in  the  diet,  gave  a  reluctant  consent  to  these  ar- 
rangements. 

B.  Maria  Clotilda,  Queen  of  Sardinia,  died  at  Naples,  March 
7th,  1802.  Three  months  after  her  death,  Cliarles-Emmannel 
IV.  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Aosle,  who 
took  the  name  of  Victor  Emmanuel  V.  Benevento  and  Ponto 
Corvo  were,  the  same  year,  restored  to  the  Holy  Sec. 

In  England,  a  conspiracy,  having  for  its  ()i)jecl  the  assassi- 
nation of  the  king,  was  planned  by  a  ('olonel  Despard,  and 
twenty-nine  associates;  it  was  discovered,  and  the  author, 
with  six  of  his  accomplices,  expiated  his  guilt  on  the  scallold. 

'J'he  continuance  of  peace  was  as  short  as  its  efi'ect  had 
been  unsatisfactory.  Angry  discussions  had  arisen,  almost  as 
early  as  its  date,  between  the  contracting  parties;  and  now, 
assuming  a  more  serious  form,  threatened  to  involve  Europe 
again  in  war.  'J'he  protracted  stay  of  the  English  troops  in 
Malta  and  Alexandria ;  the  protection  given  in  I''nirland  to 
French  emigrants;  and  the  abuse  j)oured  upon  Bonaparte  by 
the  English  press,  formed  the  chief  grounds  of  complaint,  on 
the  part  of  France.  Great  Britain  insisted  on  the  necessity 
of  an  explanation  relative  to  a  report,  made  by  Colonel  Sebas- 
tiani  to  the  French  government,  in  which  much  aiiuse  was 
levelled  at  the  English  army  and  its  commander  while  in 
Ecfvpt;  on  the  temporarv  possession  of  Malta  by  English 
troops,  as  an  ef|nivalt'nt  Un  the  great  increasj;  of  territory 
sicquired  by  France,  suiiscquent  to  the  treaty  of  Amiens;  and 
on  the  evacuation  of  Holland  bv  the  French  troops.  After 
many  conferences  between  Colonel  Andreossy  on  the  part  of 
France,  and  Ii<trd  Hawkesbury  on  that  of  England;  and  be- 
tween Lord  Whitworth,  the  I'nglish  ambassador,  and  the 
French  consul,  in  which  each  parly  failed  to  satisfy  the  other 


XLVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  279 

the  King  of  England  formally  issued   a  declaration  of  war 
against  France. 

1803. — In  the  British  Parliament,  cimtradictory  opinions 
were  entertained  on  the  subject  of  the  intended  war.  Pitt  and 
nis  adherents  pronounced  it  necessary  :  Fox  thought  that  no 
sufficient  grounds  existed  for  involving  the  nation  in  the  dif- 
ficulties which  would  result  from  it.  The  address,  however, 
in  reply  to  the  king's  speech,  which  announced  the  failure  of 
this  negotiation,  and  the  purposed  renewal  of  hostilities,  was 
carried  in  both  Houses  by  a  large  majority. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

FROM  THE  RENEWAL  OF  HOSTILITIES  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND 
ENGLAND,  IN  1803,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  PRESBURG,  IN  1805. 

War  having  been  thus  resolved  upon,  the  attention  of  the 
English  government  was  given  to  the  devising  of  such  means 
as  seemed  necessary  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  a  French 
invasion  ;  and  to  the  equipment  of  such  armaments  as  would 
support  the  established  character  of  the  British  navy.  Bills 
to  increase  the  militia  and  render  it  efficient,  and  to  arm  and 
train  the  whole  effective  population  of  Great  Britain,  to  act  in 
defence  of  the  country  in  case  of  emergency,  passed  both 
Houses  with  unusual  rapidity,  and  received  the  royal  assent. 
Supplies,  to  the  amount  of  £41,000,000  sterling,  to  be  raised 
by  the  imposition  of  various  new  taxes,  and,  among  others,  by 
one  upon  property,  nearly  resembling  that  formerly  imposed 
upon  incomes,  were  voted  for  the  service  of  the  year.  Expe- 
ditions were  titted  out  against  Demerara  and  Essequibo,  St. 
Lucie,  Tobago,  and  St.  Domingo,  which  were  crowned  with 
success.  Holland  had  joined  France,  and  the  other  powers  of 
Europe  were,  for  the  present,  content  to  be  but  spectators  of 
this  new  struggle. 

News  of  the  renewal  of  war  between  France  and  Englanl 
reached  St.  Domingo,  at  a  time  when  the  French,  hemmed  in 
by  the  negro  army,  were  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  Cape  Francois,  where,  dispirited  by  sickness  and  want  of 
provisions,  they  conceived  their  case  nearly  desperate.  On 
the  arrival  of  the  English  naval  force,  the  French  general  con- 
cluded a  capitulation  with  its  commander.  It  was  agreed  that 
the  French  troops  should  be  sent  to  Jamaica,  as   prisoners  of 


280  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    KUROPE.  [cHAP. 

war,  and  tlirir  sick  to  Frnnre  ami  Amcrira,  The  independence 
of  the  I'Vciicli  part  of  thi-  island  was  proclaimed  hy  the  negroes, 
and  Dessalines  was  declared  its  chief. 

In  Uie  mean  time,  the  irovernment  of  France  was  not  slow, 
either  in  its  announcement  of  war  or  in  its  preparations  to 
carry  it  on  wi\h  visjour.  A  decree  was  soon  after  issued, 
»vhi(  h,  contrary  to  the  usa<ies  of  civilized  nations,  ordereil  the 
detention  of  all  Enj^lish  subjects  resident  in  France.  A  strong 
detachment  of  the  army  of  Italy  was  sent  ujxm  Tarenlum  and 
other  ports  in  the  Adriatic;  and  a  large  naval  force,  under  the 
command  of  Admiral  Linois,  was  despatched  to  the  East 
Indies,  to  secure  the  dominions  of  France  in  that  quarter. 
Scarcely  was  the  Kins  of  England's  declaration  of  war  pro- 
mulgated, when  the  electorate  of  Hanover  was  invaded  and 
summoned  to  surrender  to  the  French  government,  by  Gene- 
ral Mortier,  with  an  assurance  that  lionaparte  only  meant  to 
occupy  it  till  Malta  should  be  evacuated  by  England. 

In  June,  1803,  the  French  took  quiet  possession  of  the  city 
of  Hanover,  on  condition  that  the  Hanoverian  army  shoidd 
retire  behind  the  EU)e,  and  not  serve  against  France  or  her 
allies,  during  the  war  or  till  regularly  exchamied,  and  that  all 
the  electoral  fortresses,  arms,  ammunition,  and  artillery,  should 
be  surrendered  to  the  French,  The  spiritless  resistance  op- 
posed by  the  Hanoverians  to  their  invaders,  causetl  the  con- 
quest of  their  territory  to  reflect  but  little  additional  glory  upon 
the  arms  of  France;  Init  the  advaulaires  derived  from  it  by  the 
victors  were  not  inconsiderable.  France  was  now  enal)led  to 
injure  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  by  prohil)iting  British 
merchant-ships  from  jiavigating  tiie  Ell)e  and  the  Weser;  and 
Hii  order  to  this  effec't  was  issued  by  the  French  government, 
(ireal  Britain,  on  her  part,  took  measures  to  |)revcnt  the  navi- 
gation of  those  rivers,  while  her  vessels  should  be  excluded 
from  them.  These  elForls  of  the  contending  powers  at  mutual 
annoyance,  proved  a  hisavy  afflirtion  to  the  Haiise  towns;  for 
the  l)lockade  of  their  harbours  was  ruin  to  their  trade.  They 
invoked  the  interference  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  but  he  refused 
to  mediate  in  their  behalf. 

While  the  King  of  Great  Britain's  German  dominions  were 
thus  wrested  by  the  French,  the  existence  of  disaffection  among 
his  subjects  at  home  showed  itself  in  an  insurrection  of  the 
Irisli.  Rol)ert  Ivnmett,  a  man  of  talent  and  influence,  and 
brother  to  the  Irish  director  of  17!)H,  was  the  chief  promoter 
of  this  new  <Iisturl)ance.  Assisted  l)v  some  agents  of  inferior 
birth  and  ability,  he  plotted  the  cstabliahmcnt  of  a  republicau 


XLVI.^  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  281 

form  of  government  in  Ireland,  and  the  entire  separation  of 
that  country  from   the  sister  kiiio-dom.      His  plans  were,  ori- 
ginally, deeply  laid  ;   but  their  too  hasty  development,  caused 
by  a  fear  of  detection  on  the  part  of  the  conspirators,  occa- 
sioned their  total  failure.      On  the  night  of  the  23d  of  July, 
1803,  those  of  the  party  who  were  stationed  in  Dulilin  rose, 
with  the  intention  of  seizing  the  seat  and  ministers  of  the  Irish 
government.    A  want  of  arrangement,  the  consequence  of  too 
great  precipitation,  was  observable  in  all   their  movements. 
Emmett  sallied  forth,  brandishing   his  sword,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  undisciplined  mob.     The  great  object  failed, 
but  acts  of  violence  were  committed.     Among  the  victims 
to  the  fury   of  the  oppressed,   were   Lord  Chief  Justice  Kil- 
warne/i,  who,  since  the  rebellion  of  1798,  had  been  an  object 
of  popular  aversion,  and  his  nephew,  the  Rev.  Richard  Wolfe. 
The  insurgents  were,  however,  soon  dispersed,  and  tranquil- 
lity resiored  to  the  city,  by  the  exertions  of  the  government 
troops ;  and  the  rebellion  was  shortly  after  entirely  suppressed 
by  the  execution  of  its  promoters.     From  the  domestic  dis 
turbances  of  Great  Britain,  we  must  make  a  transition  to  her 
distant  foreign  possessions — her  settlements  in  the  East  Indies. 
There,  too,  attempts  to  subvert  her  dominion  were  made  and 
defeated,  and  the  ensuing  two  months  are  memorable  for  the 
splendid  triumphs  achieved  during  their  course,  by  the  British 
arms  in  the  Peninsula  of  Indostan.     This  war  the  English 
undertook  in  alliance  with  the  Peishwa,  or  Mahratta  sovereign 
of  Poonah,  against  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  Scindia,  Holkar,  and 
the  Rajah  of  Berar,  assisted  by  a  French  force  under  General 
Perron.    The  English  forces  destined  for  this  expedition  were 
estimated  at  55,000,  of  which  two  divisions  were  made  ;  one, 
under  General  Wellesley,  was  to  oppose  the  forces  of  Scindia 
and  the  Rajah  of  Berar;  the  other,  under  General  Lake,  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  English  army  in  India,  was  to  act  on 
the  frontier  of  Oude.      General  Wellesley,  after  taking  the 
fortress  of  Admenugger,  attacked  the  united  forces  of  the  con- 
federate chiefs  at  Assye,  where,  on  the  23d  of  September,  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  an  army  six  times  more  nume- 
rous than  his  own.     General  Lake  was  not  less  successful  on 
the  north-west  of  Oude,     He  took  the  fort  of  Allyg)uir,  the 
residence  of  M.  Perron,  and  the  grand  depot  of  all  his  military 
stores,  and  defeated,  near  Delhi,  the  army  of  Scindia,  com- 
manded by  a  French  officer  ;  in  consequence  of  which  victory, 
the  Mogul  Emperor,  Sha  AUum,  who  had  been  expelled  from 
his  dominions  by  Holkar,  and  detained  in   captivity  by  his 

26* 


282  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EITR(»PE.  TpHAP. 

enemies,  was  restored  to  the  throne,  and  placed  himself  under 
the  protection  of  tlic  I'lnsrlish.  Aura  surrendered  to  CJeneral 
Lake,  on  the  I'Jlli  of  October,  and  on  the  last  day  of  the  same 
month,  he  gained  a  furiously-contested  battle,  over  the  army 
of  Scindia,  at  the  village  of  Laswaree.  Tliese  victories  were 
followed  bv  a  peace,  which  expelled  the  French  from  the 
Deccan,  and  made  important  add.tions  to  ll;e  power  and  terri- 
torial possessions  of  the  East  Indii:  Company. 

Party  spirit  ran  high  in  die  Briusli  Parliament,  towards  the 
close  of  tliis  and  t!:8  coaimencement  of  the  following  year. 
The  ministry  formed  by  Mr.  Addington,  was  opposed  by  the 
adherents  of  Mr.  Pitt,  by  Lord  Grenville  in  the  Upper,  and 
Mr.  Windliam  in  the  Lower  House,  and  by  the  whig,  or  old 
opposition,  who  were  incensed  against  the  advisers  of  a  new 
war.  Mr.  Addington,  hopeless  of  successfully  contending 
against  an  opposition,  which  acquired,  from  day  to  day,  in- 
creased strength  and  consistency,  resigned  the  ollice  of  prime 
minister.  (1804.)  Mr.  Pitt  was  appointed  to  succeed  him; 
but  with  an  express  stipulation,  that  the  leader  of  the  old  op- 
position should  fdl  no  place  in  tlic  new  ministry,  and  that  the 
Catholic  question  should  not  be  revived. 

The  extensive  preparations  carried  on  in  the  ports  of  Calais 
and  IJoidoirne,  led  to  the  belief  that  the  invasion  of  England 
would  hv  attempted  by  Bonaparte,  and  all  necessary  measures 
of  precaution  were  adopted  in  consequence ;  one  of  which 
was  a  system  of  blockade,  confining  to  their  own  shores  the 
vessels  of  France.  liills  to  suspend  l\\c.  Ilalieas  Corpus 
Act,  and  re-enact  martial  law  in  Ireland ;  to  provide  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  volunteer  corps,  and  tlie  army  of  reserve; 
to  remove  the  depreciation  which  had  taken  place,  within  the 
year,  in  the  price  of  corn,  and  prevent  its  recurrence,  were 
discussed  with  much  animation,  and  took  the  form  of  law. 
Neither  did  the  English  Parliament  limit  its  views  to  the 
attainmenlof  internal  triiKiuillity;  an  efl'ort  to  abolish  the  slave- 
trade,  showed  this  assembly  anxious  to  promote  the  general 
well-beinij  of  mankind  ;  tlie  eflTort,  however,  proved  unsuc- 
cessful. 

Wliile  these  legislative  enactments  were  in  agitation  in 
Enghiud,  the  measures  pursued  by  the  French  govermuent  to 
insure  its  stability,  were  of  an  extraordinary  and  daring  nature. 
Early  in  February,  a  plot  against  the  government  was  disco- 
vered, and  announced  to  the  public,  through  the  medium  of 
B  report  from  the  minister  of  justice  to  the  first  consul.  The 
scheme  was  said  to  have  originated  with  Georges  Cadoudal, 


XIVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  283 

chief  of  the  Chouans  :  it  was  added  that  Moreau  and  Pichegru 
were  amona^  his  accomplices,  and  that  the  conspirators  had 
been  landed  on  the  French  coast,  by  Captain  Wright,  the  com- 
panion and  friend  of  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  The  intentions 
ascribed  to  the  conspirators  were,  the  assassination  of  the  first 
consul,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  This 
report  was  followed  by  the  arrest  of  the  suspected  associates ; 
but  an  act  of  undisguised  atrocity,  on  the  part  of  the  French 
government,  so  preoccupied  general  interest  at  this  time,  as  to 
render  the  fate  of  these  popu.ar  personages  a  matter  of  minor 
consideration.  A  report  having  reached  the  first  consul,  that 
the  Duke  d'Enghien,  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  rights  and 
titles  of  the  house  of  Conde,  him  taken  part  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Cadoudal,  orders  were  issued  for  his  arrest.  This  unfortu- 
nate prince  resided  in  the  neutral  territory  of  the  Elector  of 
Baden.  On  the  14th  of  March,  he  and  fourteen  others  at- 
tached to  his  person  were  seized  at  Effenheim,  and  conveyed 
to  Paris,  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers  under  the  command  of 
General  Caulaincourt.  From  Paris,  the  duke  was  hurried  to 
the  Casde  of  Vincennes,  where  he  arrived  at  five  in  the  after- 
noon. Being  oppressed  with  fatigue,  he  retired  to  rest,  and 
instantly  fell  into  a  profound  sleep.  He  was  suddenly 
awakened  about  eleven  o'clock,  and  led  into  an  adjoining 
apartment,  where  he  found  eight  officers,  who  had  formed 
themselves  into  a  military  committee,  of  which  Hulin  was 
president.  The  deportment  of  the  unfortunate  prince  during 
the  trial,  which  was  carried  on  with  the  greatest  precipitation, 
was  calm,  manly,  and  dignified.  Sentence  of  death  was  pro- 
nounced the  same  night,  and  immediately  executed,  by  torch- 
light, in  the  fosse  of  the  castle.  The  body  was  thrown  into 
a  trench  which  had  been  dug  for  the  purpose,  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  trial.  This  flagrant  violation  of  the  law  of 
nations  and  of  humanity  excited  the  general  indignation  of  the 
powers  of  Europe.  Spirited  remonstrances  from  Sweden, 
Russia,  and  Hanover,  on  the  violation  of  the  neutrality  of  the 
German  territory,  in  the  illegal  seizure  of  the  duke,  were  pre- 
sented to  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon,  and  addressed  to  the  French 
minister  for  foreign  affairs. 

Josephine  had,  in  vain,  exerted  all  her  influence  with  Bona- 
parte, to  induce  him  to  alter  his  design.  Throwing  herself  at 
his  feet,  she  entreated  and  conjured — he  flung  her  from  him, 
with  a  violence  bordering  on  frenzy.  His  council,  too,  had 
vigorously  opposed  the  intended  arrest;  and  the  unusual  silence 
that  prevailed  among  them,  during  three  days  subsequent  to 


284  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP 

the  fatal  deed,  must  liave  conveyed  to  Bonaparte  a  forriljlo 
impression  of  tlie  liorror  it  excited.  The  motives  which  in- 
lliicnced  liim  on  this  occasion  have  not  been  clearly  ascer- 
tained :  aiming  at  sovereign  power,  he  periiaps  ihonglit  to 
intimidate  the  royalists,  who  desired,  and  to  soothe  the  appre- 
hensions of  the  repul)licans,  wlio  feared  the  restoration  ol  the 
Bourbon  dynasty.  One  public  functionary  had,  alone,  the 
courage  to  express  his  just  indignation.  M.  de  Cliateaubri- 
and  liad  become  known  to  Bonaparte  by  his  literary  produc- 
tions, and  his  nan^e  had  been  in  consequence  erased  from  tlie 
list  of  emiijrants,  in  1800.  When  Cardinal  Fesch  succeeded 
M.  ('acault,  as  ambassador  at  Rome,  Chateaubriand  was  ap- 
pointed princii)al  secretary,  but  shortly  after  recalled  by  the 
first  consul,  wiio  named  him  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
Valais,  with  a  promise  of  the  next  vacant  embassy.*  Being 
on  the  point  of  departure  for  his  new  destination,  he  presented 
himself  in  the  first  consul's  cabinet,  to  take  leave ;  but  receiv- 
ing intelligence  of  the  seizure  and  death  of  the  Duke  d'Eng- 
hien,  he  sent  in  an  immediate  resignation  of  liis  office.  'J'hc 
sensation  produced  by  this  event  was  deep  and  universal ; 
Caulaincourt  fainted  at  its  announcement;  the  aide-de-camp 
wlio  had  aci'ompanied  the  duke  to  Ettenheim,  lost  his  reason; 
the  officer  who  gave  the  word  to  fire,  as  he  was  told,  on  a 
brigand  of  La  Vendee,  quitted  the  service  :  in  a  word,  by  this 
act,  Bonaparte  did  himself  more  injury  than  his  greatest  ene- 
mies could  ever  have  indicted. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  year,  (1804,)  Goree  and  Surinam 
were  Uiken  l)y  the  British,  and  an  action  between  Admiral 
liinois  and  ttie  English  I'^ast  India  fleet,  commanded  by  (Jap- 
tain  Dante,  reflected  much  additional  glory  on  the  naval  power 
<»f  (ireat  Britain.  The  French  hostile  flotilla,  stationed  at 
BouloL'iie,  wailed  an  opportunity  of  putting  to  sea,  which  the 
vigilance  lif  the  I'^nglisli  guard-sliijjs  never  affitrdcd  it. 

The  King  of  Spain,  on  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between 
Friiice  and  Enirlaiid,  had  declared  his  intention  to  preserve  a 
stri(a  neutrality.  Intimation,  however,  having  i)een  given  to 
the  English  government  that  ships  were  arming  in  the  S[mnish 
ports,  and  that  Spain  only  waited  the  arrival  of  four  frigates 
laden  with  sjx'cie  from  South  America,  to  co-operate  with 
France,  orders  were  given  to  Captain  Moore  to  intercept  and 
detain  these  vessels.  .Moore  came  up  with,  and  attacked 
them,  on  the  .5th  of  ()ctoI)er.      One  of  the   frigates   blew  up; 

*  fMiriiii^  tliJH  pcriix),  h^  dedicaU'iI  to  Uuriajiarte  the  tieconJ  edition  of  bii 
■CJeriic  du  t^lirwliani^mc." 


ItlVl  3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  285 

the  other  three  surrendered  and  were  brought  to  England.  A 
declaration  of  war  by  Spain  against  England,  was  the  imme- 
diate consequence  ot  this  engagement. 

The  tone  of  defiance  adopted  by  France,  her  refusal  to  re- 
spect the  neutrality  of  the  Germanic  body,  to  indemnify  the 
King  of  Sardinia  (as  was  stipulated  by  the  treaty  of  Lune- 
ville)  for  the  losses  he  had  sustained,  to  evacuate  Naples,  and 
to  adopt  some  measures  in  union  with  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, by  which  the  affairs  of  Italy  should  be  adjusted,  occa- 
sioned an  alliance  between  those  powers  and  England  ;  and 
active  negotiations,  which  terminated  in  a  league  against 
France,  were,  towards  the  close  of  this  year,  opened  between 
the  courts  of  St.  James  and  Petersburg. 

The  aspiring  views  of  the  first  consul  were  not  checked, 
nor  their  accomplishment  retarded,  either  by  the  conspiracies 
of  his  own  subjects,  or  by  the  threatened  hostile  alliances  of 
foreign  powers.  He  aimed  at  the  possession  of  undivided 
power,  and  the  senate  and  tribunals  acquiescing  in  his  wish, 
voted  him  the  title  of  emperor,  and  decreed  that  the  imperial 
dignity  should  be  hereditary  in  his  family.  These  measures 
were  carried  by  acclamation,  Oarnot  alone  dissenting ;  and  on 
the  18th  of  May,  a  deputation  from  the  senate,  with  Camba- 
ceres,  the  pi'esident,  at  its  head,  waited  upon  Bonaparte  to  beg 
his  acceptance  of  the  honours  voted  him.*  To  the  congratu- 
latory speech  of  the  president,  he  replied,  "Every  thing  that 
can  contribute  to  the  good  of  my  country  is  essentially  con- 
nected with  ray  happiness.  I  accept  the  title  which  you  think 
necessary  to  the  glory  of  the  nation.  I  submit  to  the  sanction 
of  the  people  the  law  of  hereditary  succession.  I  hope  France 
will  never  repent  having  surrounded  my  family  with  honours. 
At  all  events,  my  spirit  shall  cease  to  be  present  with  my  pos- 
terity, the  day  on  which  it  shall  cease  to  deserve  the  love  and 
confidence  of  the  French  nation." 

This  elevation  of  Bonaparte  was  accompanied  by  many 
alterations  in  the  existing  constitutional  code,  indirectly  tend- 
ing to  increase  his  power.  All  his  brothers  were  named 
princes.  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  created  grand  elector;  Lewis 
grand  constable;  Cambaceres,  arch-chancellor;  Lebrun, 
arch-treasurer  of  the  empire ;  and  General  Duroc,  governor 
of  the  imperial  palace.  Generals  Murat,  Jourdan,  Berthier, 
Moncey,  Bernadotte,  Augereau,  Soult,  Massena,  Brune,  Ney, 
Davoust,  Bessieres,  and  Mortier,  were  named  marshals  of  the 

*  He  assumed  the  imperial  dignity  under  the  title  of  Napoleoi  the  Great, 
as  the  proclamation  of  the  senate  styled  Hm. 


286  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

empire,  as  were  the  senators  Kt'lk'niiann,  Perigiion,  Lefevre, 
and  Sernirier.  A  few  days  after  this  event,  bcijan  tlie  triiil  of 
the  coiispiralons,  iinplicattnl  in  the  alleged  design  of  overlurn- 
ing  the  consular  government.  Those  who,  at  first,  had  found 
means  to  elude  pursuit,  were  taken  shortly  afier  the  execution 
of  the  Duke  d'Enghien,  and  there  were  now  more  than  one 
hundred  captives  in  the 'i'eniple,  where  all,  excepting  Moreau, 
were  treated  with  extreme  severity-  I'he  separate  interroga- 
tories that  had  taken  place  had  drawn  from  them  no  disclo- 
sures ;  Pichegru  had  undcrirone  ten,  hut  had  proH^ssed  his 
intention  of  speaking  openly,  if  hrouirhl  hcfore  a  legal  tribunal, 
when,  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  April,  he  was  found  dead 
in  the  cell  which  he  occupied  in  the  Temple.  The  government 
announced  that  he  died  by  his  own  hand,  but  it  is  generally 
believed  he  fell  a  victim  to  private  assassination.  The  death 
of  Captain  Wright,  who  ended  his  life  in  the  same  prison,  is 
involved  in  e([ual  uncertainty  and  suspicion.  Georges  Cadon- 
dal,  whose  conduct  was  marked  l)y  the  most  stoical  lirmness, 
might,  however,  have  saved  his  life.  OlTers  of  pardon  and  of 
employment  under  the  imperial  government  were  made  to 
him  in  prison,  which  lie  rejected,  saying,  "  My  companions 
followed  me  into  France;  I  \yill  follow  them  to  death."  The 
regicide,  ll(3mart,  was  named  president  of  the  special  tribund, 
before  wliich  the  trials  of  fortv-nine  prisoners  commenced,  on 
the  28th  of  May.  Uourrienne,  who  was  a  witness,  describr'S 
the  anxiety  which  prevailed,  and  especially  the  admiration 
with  which  the  victor  of  Ilohenlinden  was  regarded.  In  tlie 
midst  of  tlu!  proceedings,  (ieneral  Lecourbe  unexi)ectedly  en- 
tered the  court,  holding  an  infant  in  his  arms,  and  exclaimed 
in  a  strong  vi/ice,  which  yet  treud)led  with  emotion,  "Soldiers, 
behold  the  son  of  your  general."  All  the  military  in  the  im- 
mense hall,  as  if  by  a  spontaneous  sympathy,  presented  arms 
to  the  child  ;  Moreau  niinained  ajiparenUy  the  only  uncon- 
cerned spectator.  Nothing  in  the  evidence  proved  that  he 
was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy;  !»oth  his  principles  and 
position  rendered  it  moreover  inii)rol)able  he  coidd  have  been 
connected  with  the  partisans  of  tlie  iioiirbons.  Many  of  these 
excited  a  lively  interest,  p:irticularlv  the  two  princes,  Jules 
anil  Arnainl  <le  I'olitrnac,  who  e.ieh,  in  turn,  implored  the 
judges  to  let  th(!  vengeance  of  the  law  fill  upon  him,  but  to 
spare  his  brother.  Arnaud,  the  Mar>iuis  de  Kiviere,  Charles 
d'llozier,  Georges  and  .lean  C'ndondal,  with  sixteen  others, 
received  sentence  of  death  ;  Jules  d(!  Polignac,  Moreau,  and 
three   more,  were   condemned   to   two  years'  imprisonment. 


XLIV.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  287 

which,  in  the  case  of  the  general,  was  commuted  to  exile  ;  lie 
retired  to  America.  Napoleon  pardoned  Arnaiid  de  I^olignac 
at  tlie  mstance  of  his  lady,  who  was  introduced  to  the  empe- 
ror by  Josephine :  the  same  clemency  was  extended  to  De 
Riviere,  and  five  others  ;  the  rest  underwent  the  sentence  of 
the  law,  on  the  25th  of  June,  with  the  same  fortitude  and 
resignation  they  had  displayed  during  their  trial,  Fouche  had 
long  been  at  the  head  of  the  police,  when,  in  1802,  Bonaparte 
resolved  to  unite  his  department  with  that  of  public  justice, 
of  which  he  created  a  supreme  judge.  The  secret  agents  of 
Fouche  had  matured  the  conspiracy  we  have  related,  then  de- 
tected the  rebels  ;  and,  almost  immediately  after  their  execu- 
tion, the  minister  was  restored  to  his  former  functions.  A 
decree  issued  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  announced  that  the  cere- 
monies of  the  coronation  were  to  be  performed  on  the  9th  of 
October,  in  the  Champ  de  Mars.  The  event  was  notified  to 
the  bishops  of  France,  with  orders  that  the  Veni  Creator  and 
Te  Deum  should  be  sung  in  the  churches.  An  invitation  was 
despatched  to  the  Pope  to  officiate  at  the  ceremony  of  conse- 
cration, and  accepted  by  the  aged  ponlifli',  thougli  labouring 
under  the  united  pressure  of  years  and  infirmity.  He  thought 
that  gratitude  to  Napoleon  for  the  restoration  of  Catholicity  in 
France  required  this  concession,  and  hoped,  too,  that  an  inter- 
view between  him  and  that  sovereign  might  be  productive  of 
consequences  favourable  to  the  advancement  of  religion.  The 
coronation  was  therefore  deferred  till  his  arrival.  Pius  VII. 
reached  Fontainebleau  on  the  25th  of  November.  Napoleon 
received  him  with  respect,  and  three  days  later,  they  entered 
Paris  in  the  same  carriage.  Josephine  had  often  demanded 
that  her  union  with  the  emperor  might  be  sanctioned  by  the 
blessing  of  tlie  church.  Before  the  coronation  she  reiterated 
her  request  more  forcibly  ;  and  Napoleon,  dreading  the  effect 
of  her  absence  on  the  following  morning,  gave  his  consent 
that  the  ceremony  should  be  privately  performed.  Cardinal 
Feseh  obtained  a  verbal  dispensation  from  the  Pope,  in  virtue 
of  which  he  married  the  royal  pair,  without  witnesses,  on  the 
1st  of  December.  He  made  no  difficulty  the  next  day,  of 
delivering  to  Josephine,  at  her  request,  an  attestation  of  the 
deed,  at  which  Napoleon  expressed  much  displeasure,  saying 
to  the  cardinal,  "  Do  you  suppose,  if  I  had  really  meant  to  be 
married,  I  should  have  gone  that  way  to  work  ?  I  am  well 
aware  that  all  you  have  done  is  invalid."  Hence  the  marriage 
was  not  registered,  and  no  notice  of  it  appeared  in  the  Mont 
teur.     The  Pope  solemnized  the  ceremony  of  the  coronation 


288  GENEIIAL    HISTORY    OK    KIROPF-  [rJIAP. 

on  the  following  day,  at  the  churcli  of  Notre  Dame ;  he 
blessed  the  rrown,  l)ul  \a[)ole()n  himself  ph\c('d  it  on  his  own 
head,  and  then  crowned  his  empress,  wlio  remained  iineeling. 
The  constitutional  bishops  were  not  permitted  to  be  pR-sent. 
and,  in  this  respect,  Naj)uleon  was  coiKpiered  by  the  iinl)cnd- 
ing  firmness  of  the  Pope.  Pins  re-entered  his  capital  on  the 
18lh  of  May,  and  was  received  at  the  door  of  St.  Peter's,  by 
the  Cardinal  of  York,  dean  of  the  sacred  college.  This  esti- 
mable prelate  was  the  last  of  the  descendants  of  James  II., 
and  in  him  became  extinct  the  unfortunate  house  of  Stuart. 
'I'he  sums  of  money  exacted  by  Bonaparte  at  the  treaty  of 
Tolenlino  were  so  exorbitant,  that,  to  enable  the  Pope  to  pay 
them,  the  Cardinal  of  York  sold  the  valuable  jewels  he  had 
received  from  his  maternal  ancestors.  He  had  remained  in 
Paris  during  the  adventurous  career  of  his  l)rotlu'r  in  Scotland, 
but  immediately  after  its  termination  returned  to  Home. 
Charles  Edward  still  lingered  at  the  court  of  Versailles, 
caressed  and  flattered  for  a  time,  then  treated  with  neglect. 
On  his  refusal  to  quit  France,  after  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  he  was  seized,  ignominiously  pinioned,  and  conveyed 
to  the  frontier.  IJefore  he  returned  to  Home,  in  1750,  he 
paid  a  visit  to  London,  and  remained  there  a  fortnight  unmo- 
lested. On  the  death  of  liis  father,  in  176G,  he  assumed  tiie 
name  of  Count  Albany,  and  married,  in  1771,  the  youthful 
Princess  Stolberg.  This  union  was  i)y  no  means  happy,  they 
had  no  children,  and  were  often  separated.  In  1774,  they 
changed  their  residence  from  Home  to  Florcni-e,  wliere  the 
count  died  in  1788.  His  estates  in  Poland,  with  much  valu- 
able properly,  devolved  upon  his  brother,  the  cardinal,  who, 
notwithstanding,  at  the  ag(!  of  seventy-five,  was  reduced  to 
extreme  poverty,  by  the  revolutionary  wars  which  distracted 
Italy.  Tiiis  being  made  known  in  England,  ir'^vernment 
generously  settled  on  him  an  annual  pension  of  £1,0(10.  It 
does  not  appear  that  he  ever  took  the  title  of  king,  though  at 
his  brother's  death  a  medal  was  struck,  on  which  he  is  de- 
8cril)ed  as,  "  Uci\T]j  IX.,  Ay  t/ir  ccrare  of  (iod,  but  not  by  the 
uill  of  man.'' ^  He  returned  to  Rome  in  IHOl,  and  died,  uni- 
versally beloved  and  lamented,  in  July,  1807.  CardiniU 
York,  named,  by  will,  Monsignor  Cesarini,  as  his  testament- 
ary executor,  eommilting  to  him  the  care  of  several  trunks 
containing  valualjle  pa|)ers,  correspondence,  &c.  These,  at 
the  change  of  ciivernnient,  in  IHOO,  were  intrusted  to  a  do- 
mestic, who  concealed  them  carefully  and  died,  carrying  his 
•ecret  with  him  to  the  grave.    They  were  found,  howevci  »o 


XtVl.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  289 

181G,  and  purchased  by  an  Englishman  for  the  trifling  sum 
of  170  Roman  crowns.  The  circumstance  becoming  known, 
and  the  value  of  the  documents  ascertained,  the  pontifical  go- 
vernment caused  the  trunks  to  be  seized,  and  declared  the 
purchase  illegal,  the  vendor  having  no  right  to  sell.  Many 
curious  historical  records  were  thus  brought  to  light ;  and  a 
careful  examination  having  taken  place,  lest  any  should  be 
found  that  might  compromise  honourable  individuals,  the  col- 
lection was  given  up  to  the  English  government,  and  is  still 
preserved  under  the  name  of  the  Stuart  Papers. 

One  of  Napoleon's  first  imperial  measures  was  a  pacific 
one.  He  addressed  a  letter  to  the  King  of  England,  lamenting 
the  continuance,  and  proposing  the  cessation  of  hostilities. 
Lord  Mulgrave,  in  reply,  assured  the  French  government, 
that  the  King  of  England  much  wished  that  a  peace,  which 
should  provide  for  the  future  safety  and  tranquillity  of  Europe, 
could  be  effected ;  but  added  that,  as  his  Britannic  majesty 
had  entered  into  confidential  connexions  with  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  and  other  continental  powers,  he  could  not,  until  he 
should  have  ascertained  the  opinions  of  those  powers  on  the 
overture  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  accept  his  proposal. 
Some  changes  took  place  in  the  ministry  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1805,  Mr.  Addington  being  made  lord  president  of 
the  council,  in  the  room  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  after  having 
been  called  to  the  Upper  House,  by  the  title  of  Viscount 
Sidmouth.  In  April,  an  accusation  against  Lord  Melville, 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  respecting  the  disposal  of  the 
public  money,  arrested  the  public  attention.  An  inquiry 
into  abuses  in  the  naval  department  had  been  instituted  by  the 
Addington  ministry,  and  not  interrupted  by  their  resignation 
of  office.  Mr.  Pitt,  the  warm  advocate  of  the  accused,  taking 
a  different  view  of  the  subject.  Lord  Sidmouth  resigned.  On 
the  report  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  institute  an  in- 
quiry into  his  conduct,  Lord  Melville  gave  up  his  office,  and 
his  name  was  erased  from  the  list  of  privy-councillors.  A 
motion  for  his  lordship's  impeachment  was  proposed  by  Mr. 
Whitbread  and  carried  ;  the  trial  began  in  the  following  April, 
before  the  lords,  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
being  present  in  a  committee  of  the  whole  House;  the  result 
was  an  honourable  acquittal  of  the  accused. 

New  schemes  of  ambition,  successfully  pursued  by  the 
French  emperor,  irritated  the  allied  powers,  and  gave  strength 
and  energy  to  their  confederation.  Li  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  the  Italian  republic,  as  expressed  by  its  president* 

87 


290  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

Mclzi,  Napoleon  rcpairccl  to  IVIihin,  ami  was  there  crowned 
King  of  Italy,  by  tlie  Pope's  jej^atc,  willi  the  requisite 
solemnities.  Upon  this  occasion,  the  ir>)i  croicn  was  taken 
out  of  the  ease,  in  whicii  it  liad  reposed  for  ages;  Napoleon, 
receiving  it  from  the  hands  of  the  archbishop,  placed  it  on  his 
own  h(!ad,  exclaiming  aloud,  "  D'lo  mi  1  l\n  dato  ;  i^uu  a  chi 
la  toccar^  which  remarkable  expression  became  the  motto 
of  the  order  of  the  Iron  Crown,  founded  by  the  emperor  ia 
commemoration  of  this  event.  Eugene  IJeauharnais,  the 
son  of  Josephine,  was  now  adopted  l)y  Napoleon  anil  declared 
his  successor,  in  default  of  heirs  male,  on  the  throne  of  Italy, 
of  which  kingdom  he  was  appointed  viceroy,  A  request  from 
the  senate  of  Genoa  presented  to  Napoleon,  during  his  stay 
at  Milan,  that  liieir  territory  might  be  incorporated  with 
France,  was  quickly  granted:  and  the  annexation  of  Genoa 
to  France  was  the  immediate  result  of  this  compliance.  The 
Emperor  Alexander  had  deputed  Mr.  Novolodowitz  to  Paris, 
to  act  upon  the  overtures  made  by  Napoleon  to  the  court  of 
London.  Irritated  by  the  union  of  the  Ligurian  republic 
with  the  French  empire,  and  alarmed  by  the  daily-increasing 
power  of  NapoltMJU,  he  now  recalled  his  aml)assador  and 
signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  England.  Austria,  too, 
roused  by  the  same  reasons  from  her  temporizing  system  of 
policy,  made  common  cause  with  Russia  and  England,  and 
engaged  to  assist  in  effecting  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Italy,  Hanover,  and  the  north  of  Germany  ;  in  securing 
the  independ(Mic(!  of  Holland  and  Switzerland  ;  in  replacing 
the  King  of  Sardinia  in  Piedmont;  in  providing  for  the  future 
security  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples ;  and  in  establishing 
such  an  order  of  things  in  Europe,  as  would  effectually  insure 
the  safety  and  independence  of  its  several  states.  For  the  ac- 
complishment of  these  purposes,  the  confederate  powers  of 
the  eoMlincnt  were  to  furnish  .500,000  effective  troops,  and 
Great  Britain  was  to  allow  them  a  subsidv,  at  the  rate  of  12.v. 
67.  per  man.  Sweden  had,  on  the  3d  of  December,  180-1, 
entered  into  a  secret  convention  with  England,  l)y  which  she 
agreed  that  a  depot  of  Hanoverian  troops  should  be  stationed 
in  Swedish  I'omerania,  and  Eni:land  euijaged  to  advance 
£00,000,  to  be  employed  by  Sweden  in  the  defence  of  Stral- 
suml.  (ireat  ])rcparati<»us  were  now  made  by  France  on  the 
one  hand,  and  l)y  Hiissia,  Austria,  I'^iigland,  and  Sweden  on 
the  other,  for  the  approaching  contest.  'J'lie  flotilla  at  Hou- 
lo<,'ne  was  dismantled,  .and  the  army  so  Ioul''  intended  for  the 
invasion  of  England,  was  ordered  to  the   Rhine.      Marmont, 


XLVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  291 

with  the  troops  in  Holland,  and  Bernadotte,  with  those  in 
Hanover,  were  ordered  to  the  same  destination.  The  French 
forces  were  estiaialed  at  651,000,  of  wliom  500,000  were  to 
serve  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. 

Austria  sent  large  reinforcements  to  Italy,  and  ordered  that 
extensive  military  works  should  be  constructed  in  the  Vene- 
tian territory.  Her  force  was  estimated  at  250,000  men,  of 
whom  three  divisions  were  made — one  to  serve  under  the 
Archduke  Charles,  in  Italy  ;  one  under  General  Mack,  in 
Germany,  and  one  under  the  Archduke  John,  in  the  Tyrol. 

A  powerful  Russian  army  was  despatched  towards  the 
Danube,  to  join  the  Austrians  :  reinforcements  were  sent,  by 
way  of  Constantinople  and  the  Black  Sea,  to  act  jointly  with 
the  English  troops  in  the  Mediterranean  against  the  French 
in  Italy,  and  to  augment  the  Russian  force  in  the  Seven 
Islands  ;  and  a  peremptory  order,  from  Russia  to  Bavaria, 
commanded  that  the  troops  of  that  electorate  should  be  incor- 
porated with  those  of  Austria.  England  prepared  to  de- 
spatch a  formidable  force  to  co-operate  with  the  Swedish  and 
Russian  troops  sent  to  Pomerania,  in  the  recovery  of  Hano- 
ver, and  in  gaining  possession  of  Holland. 

The  Elector  of  Bavaria  had  hoped  to  preserve  a  neutrality, 
during  the  continuance  of  the  approaching  conflict.  He  did 
not  therefore  obey  the  Russian  mandate.  The  Austrians,  to 
extort  his  compUance,  crossed  the  Inn,  September  8th,  1805  ; 
the  Bavarian  troops,  flying  at  their  approach,  took  refuge  in 
Franconia  ;  and  the  elector  himself  retired  to  Wurtzburg. 

The  invasion  of  Bavaria  hastened  the  departure  of  Napo- 
leon from  Paris.  Having  issued  a  decree  for  raising  400,000 
conscripts,  and  for  embodying  the  national  guard  ;  and 
appointed  his  brother  Joseph  to  superintend  the  government 
of  the  French  empire,  he  set  out  for  the  frontiers  on  the  24th, 
and  on  the  26th  reached  Strasburg.  His  troops,  to  the  amount 
of  140,000,  passed  the  Rhine  in  six  grand  divisions. 

The  Austro-German  army  arrived  towards  the  end  ol 
September,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lech.  Bernadotte  was  de- 
spatched by  Napoleon  with  40,000  towards  the  Inn,  to  op- 
pose them,  while  he  proceeded  to  attack  General  Mack  in  his 
positions.  Some  battalions  of  the  Austro-Italian  army,  sent 
by  the  Archduke  Charles  to  reinforce  that  general,  were 
attacked,  and  most  of  them  made  prisoners  by  the  French. 
Memmingen,  with  its  large  garrison,  surrendered,  on  the  13th 
of  October,  to  Marshal  Soult.  The  Austrian  army  was  con- 
centrated in  the  vicinity  of  Ulm,  and  thither  the  French  has- 


292  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    ErROPE.  [cHAr 

tened,  they  obliged  the  Austrians  to  tnkc  refnjre  within  the 
walls  of  the  city,  and  then,  surroundiiisr  it,  sinninoncd 
General  Mack  to  capitidale.  The  Austrian  coniniandcr, 
reduced  to  the  alternative  of  boUlly  riiarcliinp  out,  and 
forcing  a  passaije  through  the  posts  of  the  enemy,  or  of 
surrendering  his  army,  which  was  30.000 '  stroiiij,  ehote 
the  lattt'r  alternative,  and  on  the  17lh  of  October  terms 
of  capitulation  were  selUed.  The  Austrian  ofheers  were 
permitted  to  return  home  on  their  parole,  but  the  soldiers 
were  sent  prisoners  to  France.  Napoleon  then  advanced 
to  meet  the  remaining  forces  of  the  confederates.  While 
he  marched  with  the  main  army  to  Vienna,  Mortier  was 
directed  to  proceed  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  and 
lo  secure  his  left;  and  Ney  and  Augereau  his  right.  On 
the  5th  of  November  the  French  entered  Lintz.  Their  rapid 
advance  excited  the  fears  of  the  Emperor  FnuK'is  for  the 
safety  of  his  capital,  and  he  despatched  Count  Giniay  to  Lintz, 
to  propose  an  armistice.  The  terms  on  which  it  was  conceded 
by  Napoleon,  were  rejected  by  Francis,  and  the  French  con- 
tinued their  march.  Davoust's  advanced  guard  defeated  the 
corps  of  Austrians  under  General  Meerfield.  'I'he  Russians, 
who  had  flfected  a  junction  with  a  part  of  the  Austrian  array, 
mw  passed  the  Danube  at  ('renis,  and  thus  abandoned  Vienna. 
Francis  had  left  that  city  for  Moravia,  on  the  7lh,  after  having 
implored  the  lenity  of  the  concjueror  for  its  inhabitants ;  and 
on  the  ICilh  Napoleon  entered  it.  His  troojjs,  arriving  in 
several  divisions,  passed  tiirough  the  city  in  pursuit  of  the 
retreating  army.  Aftei^  having  appointed  General  Clarke 
Governor-General  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  he  set  out 
from  Vienna  to  join  his  army  in  Moravia. 

'J'he  Kniperors  Francis  and  Alexander  had  now  united 
their  armies,  which,  both  together,  consisted  of  about  100,000. 
Their  head-quarters  were  at  Austcrlitz,  a  town  rendered  memo- 
rable by  the  murderous  rencounter  of  the  hostile  armies  on  the 
2d  of  December,  at  which  three  emperors  were  present.  For 
?even  hours  was  victory  contended  for,  with  obstinate  bravery, 
by  each  armv.  i'he  French  were  eventmdly  successful,  and 
the  confederates  driven  olf  the  field  with  incalculable  loss. 
On  the  4th  of  December  an  interview  took  place  at  the  French 
advanced  post-s,  between  the  Emperors  Francis  and  Napoleon; 
and  an  armistice,  as  a  prelude  to  a  general  j)eace,  was  agreed 
upon. 

The  Frcnc.h  were  equally  successful  in  the  Tyrol  and  in 
Italy,  as  in  Germany.     The  Austrian  cabinet  had  purposed  to 


XLVl.]  GENERAL    HlsTORY    OF    EUROPE.  293 

render  Italy  the  chief  theatre  of  war,  and  had  hoped  to  drive 
the  French  from  that  country,  and  restore  it  to  its  former  state. 
By  tlie  disaster  of  Mack's  army,  however,  that  of  Italy  lost 
its  chief  support,  and  was  obliged  to  limit  itself  to  defensive, 
in  place  of  otiensive  operations.  The  same  circumstance 
which  dispirited  the  Austrians,  emboldened  the  French  com- 
mander, and  he  prepared  to  expel  the  In\perialists  from  the 
Venetian  territory.  Marshal  Massena's  first  operation  was  to 
force  the  passage  of  the  Adige,  which  the  Austrians  vigorously 
but  ineffectually  disputed.  On  the  2 1st  of  October  he  defeated 
them  with  great  slaughter  at  Caldiero,  and  having  received  a 
large  reinforcement  from  Naples,  under  St.  Cyr,  compelled 
the  archduke  to  retreat  towards  Vienna.  The  combined 
French,  armies  marched  in  pursuit  of  the  retreating  Austri- 
ans ;  and  having  accomplished  their  object  in  driving  them 
out  of  the  Venetian  territory,  desisted  from  further  pursuit, 
and  determined  to  hold  their  position  in  Italy,  till  the  whole 
of  the  Tyrol  should  be  evacuated  by  the  Austrians.  The 
Archduke  John  had  bravely  maintained  himself  in  the  Tyrol, 
till  Marshal  Ney  having  entered  Inspruck,  he  retreated  towards 
Carniola,  to  form  a  junction  with  the  Archduke  Charles,  who 
was  at  the  same  moment  retreating  before  Massena.  The 
brothers  having  united  their  forces,  fell  back  into  Hungary. 
The  English  and  Russian  troops,  instead  of  arriving,  as  had 
been  projected,  early  in  the  campaign  in  the  Venetian  territory, 
were  debarked,  during  November,  in  the  neutral  territory  of 
Naples.  The  allies  suffered  a  disappointment,  in  addition  to 
the  general  failure  of  their  plans,  by  the  vacillating  politics 
of  the  King  of  Prussia.  That  monarch,  offended  by  the  pas- 
sage of  the  French  troops  though  the  territory  of  Anspach,  at 
the  onset  of  the  German  campaign,  prepared  to  resent  the 
insult  offered  him,  by  joining  the  coalition  against  France. 
But  the  defeat  of  Mack  and  the  general  success  of  the  French 
arms,  effected  a  quick  revolution  in  his  purpose,  and  he  sent 
Count  Haugwits  to  the  French  head-quarters  to  negotiate  with 
Napoleon. 

But,  great  as  were  the  achievements,  and  deep  as  were  the 
designs  of  France,  all  her  plans  were  not  attended  with  suc- 
cess. Bonaparte  had  taken  much  pains  during  the  preceding 
year  to  strengthen  his  maritime  forces.  His  exertions  had 
been  seconded  by  Spain  and  Holland,  and  the  linited  efforts 
of  these  powers  had  rendered  their  ships  sufficiendy  numerous 
to  dispute  wi'h  confidence  the  dominion  of  the  sea.    The  con- 

27* 


29  t  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    l.UROPE.  [|cilAP 

fedorate  (loci  was  stationed   in  several  divisions  round    the 
Frencli  and  Spanish  coast. 

Oil  the  M  ot"  .May,  1805,  the  Toidon  Hoot,  rnmniandcd  I)y 
Ailniiral  VilltMicuvc,  |nU  to  sea,  and  stcn-cil  for  ( "artlia^cnu, 
thence  for  C!adiz,  and  idtimately  for  the  West  Indies  ;  when 
leavintr  the  harlmur  of  ('adiz,  it  consisted  of  eiirjiteen  ships 
of  the  line,  carryini^^,  l)esides  their  full  eoinplenuMit  of  sailors, 
1(»,()()0  land-troops.  Nelson  left  the  Mediterranean  in  purs;;it 
of  tlie  hostile  licet,  with  ten  sail  of  the  line,  and  reacdied  liar- 
ba(lo<'s  on  the  4th  of  June.  'J'he  news  of  his  arrival,  thouj^h 
with  an  inferior  force,  alarmed  the  French  admiral,  and  he 
sailed  for  Europe,  without  having  made  any  conquest  but  that 
of  the  Diamond  RocU.  The  hostile  fleet  fell  in  with  Sir 
Robert  Calder's  squadron  six  leagues  west  of  Cape  Finisterre. 
Sir  Robert's  force  was  fifteen  sail  of  the  line,  two  frigates,  and 
a  cutter:  that  of  Villcneuvc,  which  had  been  augmented  in  its 
cruise  by  the  junction  of  some  vessels,  was  twenty  sail  of 
the  line,  fifty  gun-ships,  five  frigates,  and  two  brigs.  Sir 
Robert  attacked  the  enemy,  and  after  an  engagement  of  four 
hours,  took  two  ships  of  the  line.  Satisfied  with  his  capture, 
he  ordered  the  a(-tiou  to  cease,  and  sullered  the  reuiainiiig 
French  armament  to  make  the  ports  of  Vigo  ami  iM-rrol.  For 
not  having  made  irreater  exertions  to  aiuiihilate  the  enemy's 
force,  he  was  tried  and  reprimanded  by  an  English  court 
martial. 

Lord  Nelson,  on  his  arrival  in  Tyondon  after  his  fruitless 
pursuit  of  the  French  lle(;t,  was  ollcrcd,  and  accej)ted  the 
comman<l  of  an  aildilional  armament.  Fie  saih'd,  on  the  KiiJi 
of  Sei)tember,  for  Oadiz,  and  on  the  19th  reached  that  port. 
To  deceive  the  enemy  into  a  belief  that  his  force  was  suiall, 
and  to  entice  them  out  to  sea,  In;  stationed  but  a  few  ships 
before  Cadiz,  and  remained  himself  with  the  rest  of  his  forces 
off  ("ape  St.  Marv.  Findini^  this  stratagem  inefTectua!,  and 
knowing  that  a  slronij  reinforcement  had  sailed  from  Jwigland 
to  join  him,  he  openly  detached  fJeneral  Louis  for  stores  and 
ammunition  to  Tctuau.  Admiral  Villcneuvc,  supposing  the 
English  fiecjt  much  enfeebled  by  this  separation,  resolved  to 
j>ut  to  sea  during  the  absence  of  Louis,  and  accordinglv,  on 
the  I9th  of  October,  sailed  from  Cadiz.  On  the  21st,  at  day- 
break, the  fleets  came  within  siijlit  of  each  otlier  off  Cape 
Trafalgar.  Admiral  \  illcneuvc  formed  tlu;  ships  imder  his 
command  into  a  dose  line  of  battle.  The  eniimy's  fleet  con- 
sisted of  thirty-three  sail  of  the  line,  and  seven  frigates,  oume 


XLVI.]  GENERAL    HISrORY    OF    EUROPE.  295 

of  which  were  Spanish  vessels,  commanded  by  Admiral  Gra- 
vina.  Lord  Nelson's  force  was  twenty-seven  sail  of  the  line, 
and  forty-four  frigates.  Admiral  Collingwood  was  his  second 
in  command.  The  action  began  about  twelve,  and  was  main 
tained  till  four.  During  its  continuance  innumerable  feats  of 
gallantry  were  displayed,  and  great  losses  sustained  on  both 
sides.  The  capture  of  nineteen  sail  of  the  line  and  three 
frigates  by  the  British,  showed  them  victorious.  But  their 
loss  counterbalanced  their  victory,  and  the  result  of  the  action 
of  Trafalgar,  like  that  of  the  battles  of  Quebec  and  of  Aboukir, 
was  to  England  a  sorrowful  triumph.  Lord  Nelson  was  mor- 
tally wounded  in  the  heat  of  the  action,  and  expired  soon  after 
its  close.  The  ardour  of  his  patriotism  was  not  abated  by 
the  approach  of  death.  Though  his  wound  was  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  render  his  surviving  hours  intensely  agonizing, 
his  mind  still  dwelt  upon  the  event  of  the  battle,  and  he  made 
no  allusion  to  its  attending  catastrophe,  till  Captain  Hardy  had 
assured  him  that  all  the  English  ships  retained  their  colours. 
His  accustomed  self-indifference  and  care  of  his  soldiers  were, 
on  this  trying  occasion,  eminently  conspicuous ;  he  would  re- 
ceive no  medical  assistance,  till  it  had  been  administered  to 
such  of  them  as  were  wounded.  "  Go,"  said  he  to  the  sur- 
geon, who,  conceiving  him  the  first  object  of  solicitude,  hung 
over  him  with  officious  tenderness,  "  attend  to  those  to  whom 
you  may  be  useful ;  for  me  you  can  do  nothing."  When 
Captain  Hardy  apprized  him  that  fifteen  at  least  of  the  enemy's 
ships  were  captured,  he  replied,  "  That's  well,  but  I  bargained 
for  twenty."  He  repeatedly  added,  "  Thank  God,  I  have  done 
my  duty."  These  were  his  last  words.  He  survived  the 
enemy's  fatal  aim  three  hours  and  a  quarter.  Of  the  fourteen 
remaining  enemy's  ships,  ten  made  for  Cadiz  under  Admiral 
Gravina,  and  four  took  a  more  southerly  direction  under  Ad- 
miral Dumanoir.  The  latter  fell  in  with,  and  were  forced  to 
strike  to  Sir  Richard  Strachan,  oflf  Ferrol,  after  an  action  of 
four  hours'  continuance. 

Peace  between  France  and  Austria  was  ultimately  concluded 
on  the  25th  of  December,  at  Presburg.  Napoleon  was  ac- 
knowledged King  of  Italy,  to  which  Venice  was  united ;  his 
allies,  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  were  raised  to 
the  regal  dignity,  and  received  an  increase  of  territory  taken 
from  Austria;  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  were  added  to 
the  French  empire  ;  Lucca  and  the  principality  of  Piombina 
were  given  to  Elise  Bonaparte,  Napoleon's  sister.  Prussia 
was  included  in  this  treaty ;  besides  renouncing  to  her  rights 


296  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

in  favour  of  Bavaria,  over  llic  marnfravate  of  Anspach,  slie 
ceded  the  ^rand-duchy  of  Berg  to  the  French  emperor,  who 
presented  it  to  liia  brother-in-law,  Joachim  Miirat.  Bv  the 
treaty  of  Preshurj^,  it  was  estimat«'d  that  Austria  h»st  2,700,000 
subjects,  and  a  revenue  of  1  ((,000,000  of  llorins.  whiUi  the  ces- 
sion of  the  Tyrol  and  her  exclusion  from  Italy  greatly  dimi- 
nished her  political  consequence 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  PRESnURG,  IN  1805,  TO  THAT  OF  TILSIT, 

IN  1807. 

The  year  1806  opened  upon  England  with  melancholy 
prospects.  The  disasters  of  the  Austro-Kussian  campai«;n, 
and  the  dissolution  of  the  confederacy,  which  it  had  i)een  the 
masterpiece  of  Mr.  Pitt's  policy  to  effect,  were  trials  which 
the  enfeebled  frame  of  that  celebrated  statesman  was  ill  aliln 
to  support.  A  fever,  followed  by  a  general  deliility,  comjielled 
him,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1805,  to  wididraw  entirely  from 
pul)lic  affairs,  and  he  died  on  the  ensuing  2.3d  of  January, 
leaving  the  country  involved  in  difficulties  of  no  common 
magnitude.  Whatever  diversity  of  opinion  may  exist  as  to 
his  political  plans,  it  must  at  least  be  admitted,  that  his  bril- 
liant talents  were  exclusively  devoted  to  the  public  ffood ;  and 
if  the  means  he  made  choice  of  were  unsuccessful,  their  a(lo|)- 
lion  was  rather  an  error  than  a  crime.  Parliament  attested  its 
sense  of  his  services,  bv  the  erection  of  a  monument  to  liis 
memory  in  Westminster  Abbey ;  and  as  he  had  never  attended 
to  his  own  emolument,  a  sum  of  £40,000  was  unanimously 
voted  for  the  payment  of  bis  debts.  'I'he  death  of  Mr.  Pitt 
produced  an  almost  total  change  in  the  ministry:  the  talents 
of  all  the  various  parties  were  coml)ined,  and  the  leading  men 
of  each  selected,  to  form  the  new  cabinet,  of  which  Lord 
Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox  were  the  principal  members.  Public 
cimfidence  thus  birgan  to  revive,  anil  Parliament  n'siimed  its 
labours  with  increaseil  vigour.  The  al)olition  of  the  slave- 
trade,  which  had  l)een  lonir  desired  by  the  friends  of  luimanily 
in  tliis  country,  and  supported  by  llie  eloquence  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
whenever  it  was  broujjht  before  Parliament,  was  now  pursued 
with  so  much  ardour  and  sincerity,  as  to  give  security  for  the 
final   result.     Two  bills,  one  prohibiting  the  exportation  of 


SLVII  ]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  297 

elaves  from  the  colonies,  the  other  preventing  the  increase  of 
British  slave-trade  in  all  its  branches,  passed  both  Houses  and 
received  the  royal  assent.  An  address  was  moreover  present- 
ed by  Parliament  to  the  king,  praying  his  interference  with 
foreign  powers  for  the  total  abolition  of  that  inhuman  traffic. 
Another  important  measure,  introduced  by  the  new  ministry, 
limited  military  service  to  a  fixed  term  of  years ;  at  the  expi- 
ration of  which,  the  soldier  was  to  have  a  right  to  claim  his 
discharge.  But  no  part  of  our  domestic  policy  during  this 
year  excited  more  lively  interest,  than  an  inquiry  into  the 
conduct  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  royal  family.  Repre- 
sentations to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Princess  of  Wales  having 
been  made  to  the  prince,  her  husband,  and  communicated  by 
him  to  the  king,  Lords  Erskine,  Spencer,  Grenville,  and  El- 
lenborough  were  appointed  commissioners  for  the  purpose  of 
investigation:  their  labours  terminated  in  a  full  acquittal  of 
the  accused. 

A  plan  for  the  assassination  of  Bonaparte  was  about  this 
time  submitted  to  the  British  minister  by  a  foreigner,  who 
seemed  to  expect  his  concurrence  ;  but  Mr.  Fox,  with  his 
characteristic  generosity,  hesitated  not  to  send  an  immediate 
warning  to  Talleyrand,  indicating  the  assassin's  name  and  resi- 
dence. Several  communications  between  the  two  ministers 
were  the  result  of  this  proceeding  ;  and  negotiations  for  peace 
were  entered  into  and  carried  on  during  the  whole  year,  but 
led,  in  the  end,  to  no  satisfactory  result.  An  attempt  at  paci- 
fication between  France  and  Russia  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
While  such  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  England,  new  plans  of 
conquest  and  dominion  were  framed,  and  partly  executed  by 
the  French  emperor.  The  tacit  permission  given  by  the  King 
of  Naples  to  the  debarkation  of  the  English  and  Russian  troops 
upon  his  territory  during  the  preceding  year,  was  a  violation 
of  a  treaty  between  him  and  Napoleon,  which  stipulated  that 
Naples  should  remain  neutral  during  the  contest  between  the 
French  emperor  and  the  confederates. 

Scarcely  was  the  treaty  of  Presburg  signed,  when  Napoleon 
vowed  vengeance  against  what  he  termed  "  the  perfidy  of  the 
King  of  Naples,"  announcing  by  proclamation  that  the  Nea- 
politan dynasty  had  ceased  to  reign,  and,  shortly  after,  that 
Joseph  Bonaparte  should  fill  the  throne  thus  vacated,  under 
whose  command  a  French  army  was  quickly  despatched  to 
effect  this  purpose.  On  the  12th  of  February,  Capua  was 
invested  by  the  French  troops.  Next  day  a  deputation  from 
the  city  waited   upon  Joseph,  and  signed  a  capitulation,  by 


298  GENERAL    HISTOHY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

which  Pciscliicri,  Gaieta,  Naples,  and  other  fortresses  were 
surrendoreil.  Hut  tlie  Prince  of  Hesse  I'hilippstal,  commander 
of  the  trarrison  of  (iaicta,  r('fiise<l  to  accojle  to  ihe  capitidaiion, 
and  announced  his  intention  of  def('ndin<>[  tlie  fortress  to  tlie 
hist  extremity.  Joseph  llonaparte  made  liis  entry  into  Naples 
on  the  15lh,  the  royal  fiinilv  havinir  previously  departed  for 
Palermo.  The  MuLdish  and  Kussian  troops,  whose  hmding 
upon  the  Neapolitan  shore  had  caused  the  rupture  I)(;tween 
Napoleon  and  Ferdinand,  retreated  upon  the  first  demonstra- 
tion of  Bonaparte's  anger;  the  Uussinns  to  tlieir  own  country, 
the  Enulish  to  Sicily.  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  who  had  taken  the 
command  of  the  fleet  destined  for  the  defence  of  that  island, 
early  in  April,  and  had  introduced  into  Gaieta  stores  and  \)vo- 
visions,  tried  incllectually  to  rouse  the  C'alalirians  ai^ainst  tlie 
French.  At  length,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  court  of 
Palermo,  Sir  John  Stuart,  who  commanded  a  hodyof  British 
troops  in  Sicily,  embarked  4H00  men,  and  on  the  1st  of  July 
elfected  a  landing  in  the  hay  of  Eui)hcmia,  and  invited  tlu;  in- 
hahiumts  to  join  his  standard.  Reignier,  the  French  general, 
advanced  from  R'^triiio  to  meet  the  Ensflish  armv,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  3d  reached  the  plains  of  .Maida.  After  a  battle 
of  some  hours'  continuance  in  this  place,  Reignier's  troops, 
consisting  of  7(100  men,  were  completely  routed  :  4000  men 
fell  on  their  side  ;  282  on  that  of  the  conquerors.  But  this 
success  of  the  Kuiilish  served  no  object.  It  did  not  prevent, 
it  hardly  even  retarded,  the  subjugation  of  the  Neapolitan 
territory.  The  Calabrians  were  indeed  roused  by  it  to  a 
temporary  insurrection  ;  l)ut  Sir  J.  Stuart,  dis«rusted  with  the 
barbarous  system  of  warfare  pursued  by  those  insurgents,  and 
conseious  that  the  force  under  him  was  insufficient  to  eir^ct 
tfie  lil)cration  of  Naples,  relumed  to  Messina.  The  garrison 
of  Gaieta,  after  a  resistance  that  fixed  the  admiration  of  I''urope 
upon  its  commander,  was  forced  to  capitulate.  'I'he  C'ala- 
brians,  despairing  of  success  when  deserted  by  the  English, 
followed  the  general  examjile,  and  bowed  to  the  yoke  of  the 
foreigner. 

It  was  not  alone  in  Naples  that  the  French  emperor's  thirst 
for  glory,  and  for  the  aggrandi/ement  of  his  family,  showed 
itself.  On  the  31  si  of  March,  various  decrees  were  presented 
for  acceptance  to  the  senate.  Bv  these,  Joseph  Boniparle 
was  declared  King  of  Naples;  ,\Iurat,  (irand  Duke  of  Berg 
and  Cleves,  and  the  Princess  Pauline,  Princess  of  (JuasUilla: 
the  princi|)ality  of  Neufchatel  was  given  to  Berliner;  and 
I  any  other  states  in  Italy  were  created  duchies  and  bestowed 


XLVII,]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  299 

upon  the  emperor's  favourites.*  On  the  5th  of  June,  Lewis 
Bonaparte  was  created  King  of  Holland,  with  a  stipulation, 
however,  that  tliat  kingdom  should  be  still  considered  part  of 
France,  and  subject  to  the  control  of  the  French  emperor 

Anxious  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  all  his  subjects.  Napo- 
leon convoked  the  Jews  from  all  the  cities  of  the  empire,  to 
meet  at  Paris  on  the  26th  of  July;  agreed  to  bestow  stipends 
on  their  priests,  and  gave  such  a  form  to  their  church  esta- 
blishment, as  placed  the  Jewish  rabbi  under  the  influence  and 
control  of  government.  These  arrangements  made.  Napo- 
leon resolved  to  create  an  association  in  Germany,  over  which 
he  should  preside.  The  princes  destined  to  compose  the 
new  confederacy,  were  the  Emperor  of  France,  the  Kings  of 
Bavaria  and  Wirtemburg,  the  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon,  the 
Elector  of  Baden,  the  Duke  of  Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  and  several  of  the  minor  German  princes.  The 
ostensible  object  of  the  confederates,  as  stated  in  their  deed 
of  union,  signed  at  Paris  on  the  12th  of  July,  was,  to  secure 
the  peace  of  Southern  Germany.  They  agreed  to  separate 
from  the  Germanic  body,  to  remain  permanently  united  undei 
the  designation  of  the  "Confederation  of  the  Rhine,"  and  to 
submit  their  public  concerns  to  a  congress,  which  should  si 


•  List  of  the  principal  titles  conferred  at  different  times  by  Bonaparte. 

Prince  of  Essling Marshal  Massena. 

Prince  of  Benevento Talleyrand. 

Prince  of  Echmiihl Marshal  Davoust. 

Duke  of  Abrantes Marshal  Junot. 

Duke  of  Albufera Count  Suchet, 

Duke  of  Bassano Maret,  Secretary  of  State. 

Duke  of  Belluno Marshal  Victor. 

Duke  of  Uadore Champagny,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affaim 

Duke  of  Castiglione Marshal  Augereau. 

Duke  of  Dalmatia Marshal  Soult. 

Duke  of  Danlzic Marshal  Lefebre, 

Duke  of  Elchingcn Marshal  Ney. 

Grand  Duke  of  Florence. . .  .General  Bacchioche. 

Duke  of  Montebello Marshal  Lasnes. 

Duke  of  Feltre General  Clarke. 

Duke  of  Gaeta General  Gaudin. 

Duke  of  Otranto General  Fouche. 

Duke  of  Parma General  Cambaceres. 

Duke  of  Placenza Marshal  Le  Brun. 

Duke  of  Ragusa Marshal  Marmont. 

Duke  of  Reggio Marshal  Oudinot. 

Duke  of  Rovigo General  Savary. 

Duke  of  Tarento Marshal  Macdonald. 

Duke  ol  Treviso Marshal  Mortier. 


300  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAP. 

at  Frankfort.  They  mutually  promised  In  enter  into  no  ser- 
vice but  that  of  the  ronfederalion  ;  and  that  if  one  member  of 
their  union  should  be  involved  in  war,  all  the  others  sliould 
arm  in  his  derencc.  Bonaparte  was  nanuil  liead  of  llie  con- 
federation, and  his  command  was  to  be  the  signal  for  taking 
the  field. 

The  formation  of  this  confcnleracy  was  followed  by  a  requi- 
sition from  Napoleon  to  Francis  II.  to  renounce  the  tide  of 
Emperor  of  Germanv,  with  which  humiliating  mandate  the 
Austrian  monarch  unhesitatingly  complied.  To  induce  the 
King  of  Prussia  to  acijuiesce  in  the  new  arrangements,  he  was 
led  to  believe  that  a  similar  union,  under  his  own  auspices, 
might  be  formed  in  die  north  of  Germany.  IJut  the  hopes  of 
the  Prussian  monarch  were  soon  proved  delusive,  by  a  decla- 
ration of  Napoleon  that  he  meant  to  take  the  Hanse  towns 
under  his  own  protection.  Nor  was  this  the  only  instance  in 
w  liich  the  political  plans  of  Prussia  brought  disappointment 
to  their  contriver.  'Phe  subserviency  of  Frederic  William  to 
Bonaparte  served  but  to  alienate  from  his  cause  the  powers  of 
Europe  in  general,  and  England  and  Sweden  in  particular. 
He  had  negotiated  with  France  after  the  violation  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Anspach ;  he  had  attacked  the  troops  of  the  King 
of  Sweden  in  taking  possession  of  Hanover,  which  he  had 
accepted  in  contempt  of  the  rights  of  England,  and  had  ag- 
gravated his  ofTence  by  prohibiting  the  navignlion  of  the  Elbe, 
Weser,  and  Ems  to  British  trading  or  merchant-vessels.  Re- 
taliatory measures  had  been  taken  by  lOiigland  anrl  Sweden. 
By  l\\v.  latter,  an  embargo  was  laiil  on  all  I'nissian  vessels  in 
the  Baltic ;  by  the  former,  on  all  such  vessels  in  the  ports  of 
tlie  United  Kiiicrdom,  and  the  ICnglish  mission  had  be(Mi  re- 
called from  Berlin.  The  Prussian  monarch  was  ill  repaid  for 
the  forfeited  goodwill  of  England  and  Sweden,  by  him  in 
ronijiliance  with  whose  wishes  he  had  act('d.  In  the  partition 
of  territories  among  Bonaparte's  dependants,  the  duchy  of 
Berg  and  Cleves  was  given  to  Murat.  'i'he  deceit  practised 
by  Napoleon  to  effect  the  Rlienish  confederation,  roused  the 
long  dormant  spirit  of  Frederic  Willirun,  and  he  announced 
liis  intention  to  revenge  the  insults  oU'ered  him  by  an  appeal 
to  the  sword. 

While  the  hostile  armies  prepared  to  take  the  field,  Eng- 
land sufiered  a  severe  allliction,  in  the  death  of  oik;  of  her 
most  enlightened  statesmen.  Mr.  Fox,  whose  health  had 
been  declining  for  some  years  j)revious  to  his  accession  to 
the  ministry,  suidi   under  tin*  fatigues  of  oflice,   and  on  the 


XLVII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  301 

13th  of  September  closed  his  mortal  career.  His  system  of 
policy,  like  that  of  Mr.  Pitt,  is  variously  commented  upon, 
and  alternately  censured  and  approved.  The  pacific  politics 
of  Mr.  Fox  indicated  at  least  a  humane  mind  ;  and  the  period 
of  his  ministry,  however  short,  will  be  ever  conspicuous  ia 
the  annals  of  his  country,  as  having  contributed  to  the  gene- 
ral civilization  of  Europe  by  the  abolition  of  the  African  slave- 
trade. 

Bonaparte  was  not  slow  in  accepting  the  challenge  of  the 
Prussian  monarch.  He  left  Paris  on  the  24th  of  September 
to  join  his  armies,  which  had  already  assembled  in  Franconia, 
and  now  marched  in  three  divisions  for  Saxony.  The  Prus- 
sian army  was  stationed  north  of  Frankfort  on  the  Maine ;  its 
right  wing  was  commanded  by  Blucher,  its  centre  by  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick,  and  its  left  by  Prince  Hohenlohe. 

The  hostile  armies,  each  consisting  of  about  150,000  men, 
met  on  the  24th  of  October,  between  Jena,  Weimar,  and  Au- 
erstadt.  An  obstinate  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Prussians 
were  completely  defeated  :  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  their  ge- 
neral, received  a  mortal  wound  during  the  action ;  and  upwards 
of  20,000  men  were  left  dead  or  wounded  upon  the  field. 
From  20  to  30,000  prisoners,  with  300  pieces  of  artillery,  fell 
also  into  the  hands  of  the  French.*     Prince  Hohenlohe,  with 

*  Napokon  entered  Weimar  the  same  day,  exceedingly  irritated  against 
the  duke,  who  commanded  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Prussian  army. 
Apartments  had  been  prepared  at  the  palace  for  his  reception,  and  the 
duchess  stood  at  the  top  of  the  staircase  when  he  entered.  Napoleon 
started  when  he  beheld  her.  "  Who  are  you  1"  said  he,  with  his  charac- 
teristic abruptness.  "  I  am  the  Duchess  of  Weimar."  "  I  pity  you,"  he 
replied  harshly,  "  I  shall  crush  your  husband :  let  me  have  dinner  at  my 
own  apartment."  The  following  morning,  however,  he  seemed  desirous 
to  atone  for  the  violence  of  the  eve,  and  when  the  duchess  sent  to  solicit 
an  audience,  he  proposed  to  breakfast  in  her  company.  During  the  repast, 
Napoleon  said,  "  How  could  your  husband,  madam,  be  so  foolish  as  to 
make  war  against  me  ]"  "  Your  majesty,"  replied  the  duchess,  "  would 
have  despised  him  had  he  not  done  so.  He  has  been  upwards  of  thirty 
years  in  the  service  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  it  was  not  when  that  nio- 
rjirch  had  so  powerful  an  enemy  to  contend  with,  that  the  duke  could 
abandon  him."  This  prudent  and  complimentary  reply  was  irresistible : 
Bonaparte  was  at  once  soothed  and  flattered,  and  continued  his  interroga- 
tories. "  How  came  the  duke  to  attach  himself  to  the  King  of  Prussia  V 
"Your  majesty  will  on  inquiry  find  that  the  Dukes  of  Saxony,  as  younger 
branches  of  the  family,  have  always  followed  the  example  of  the  electoral 
house;  and  your  majesty  knows  what  motives  of  prudence  and  policy  have 
led  the  court  of  Dresden  to  attach  itself  to  Prussia  rather  than  Austria." 
This  was  followed  by  further  inquiries,  and  answers  so  impressive,  that 
Napoleon  exclaimed  with  warmth,  "  Madam,  you  are  the  most  estimable 

28 


303  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAH 

tlie  wreck  of  the  Prussian  arniy»  retreated  towards  Stettin,  bul 
was  overtaken  at  Prcntzlow  by  Miirat;  and  foreseeing  that  a 
renewal  of  cU^feat  would  be  the  result  of  battle,  he  surrendered 
lus  forces,  anioiiuting  to  17,(>0()  men.  15,000  I'mssians, 
under  the  command  of  Blucher,  with  the  corps  of  the  Duke 
of  Weimar,  ert'ected  a  retreat  tlirnuirli  Lulieck  towards  Danish 
Ilolstein.  At  JSavorten,  finding  the  enemy  at  hand,  and  know- 
ing his  forces  to  be  unequal  to  a  contest,  Blucher  also  was 
compelled  to  surrender. 

The  other  divisions  of  the  Prussian  retreating  army  were 
severally  defeated.  All  the  principal  Prussian  fortresses  opened 
their  gates  to  the  French ;  and  Napoleon,  after  having  passed 
through  Potsdam,  where  he  visited  the  tonil),  and  seized  the 
sword,  scarf,  and  riband  of  the  great  Frederic,  entered  Berlin 
on  the  27th.  There  he  was  waited  on  by  deputations  from 
the  Lutheran  and  Keformed  cluirches,  and  by  amijassadors 
from  the  powers  with  whom  he  was  at  peace;  and  from 
thence  he  issued  a  decree  declaring  the  British  Islands  in  a 
state  of  blockade,  prohibiting  all  commerce  with  England, 
and  the  entry  of  all  ships  into  Britisti  ports,  under  penally  of 
exclusion  from  the  harbours  under  the  control  of  France ;  and 
ordering  the  stoppage  of  all  letters  addressed  to  Englishmen 
or  written  in  England.  The  decree  stated  that  these  regula- 
tions were  but  retaliatory  upon  England,  for  her  having  vio- 
lated the  law  of  nations,  in  considering  every  individual  be- 
longing to  a  hostile  state  as  an  enemy,  and  in  having  extended 
lur  right  of  blockade  "  beyond  all  reasonable  limits,  to  places 
before  which  she  had  no  ship  of  war,  and  even  to  whole  coasts 
and  kingdoms."  Nearly  contemporary  with  this  decree,  was 
an  imperial  act,  which  conferred  upon  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
the  title  of  King,  as  a  recompense  for  his  having  been  reluc- 
tant to  join  Prussia  against  France.  For  contrary  conduct, 
th(!  fClector  of  Hesse  and  the  Duke  of  Br\inswick  were  de- 
prived of  their  respective  territories.  Detaclunents  of  Fr(Mich 
troops  were  sent  to  take  possession  of  Hanover,  Mecklenburg, 
Fulda,  Cassel,  and  Hamlmrg.  At  the  latter  city  all  British 
property  was  |)ut  under  sequestration.  Napoleon  intrusted 
the  government  of  Berlin  to  the  Prince  of  Hatzfeld,  who, 
thinking  no  doul)t  that  the  riffht  of  coiuinest  did  not  disengage 
him  from  the  lidelity  he  owed  to  his  former  master  and  sove- 

wnrnnti  I  cvor  kixnv  :   you  liavp  unvcd  y'lur  hnslmnd."    AflJr  the  rmpiTor'* 
Jr|iarliirc  from  \V'ciiii;ir  for  Hrrlin,  he  ol'irn   ro(ii'alP(l  tliiii  euloi;iuin.     The 
errilory  of  Weimar  was  nttrrwanlH  doclareil   to  form  pari  of  the  Rhenish 
onfederation,  and  itti  inde|>cnJcnce  ihuH  nominally  secured. 


XLVII.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  308 

reign,  profited  of  the  facilities  his  position  afibrded  him  of 
conveying  intelligence  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  His  despatches 
were  opened  at  the  frontier  post  and  sent  to  Napoleon,  I)y 
whose  orders  the  prince  was  on  the  point  of  being  given  over 
to  a  military  commission  to  be  judged  as  a  traitor,  when  his 
wife  came  to  throw  herself  at  the  feet  of  the  emperor,  conjur- 
ing him  not  to  believe  what  she  felt  assured  must  be  a  false 
imputation.  Napoleon,  putting  the  letter  into  her  hands, 
mildly  replied,  "  You  must  know  your  own  husband's  writing, 
aiadam,  be  you  his  judge."  While  the  princess,  pale  and 
trembling,  perused  the  fatal  document,  the  emperor  appeared 
touched  with  compassion.  "Well,  madam,"  he  said,  "you 
have  the  letter  in  your  hand,  and  there  is  a  fire  in  the  apart- 
ment ;  if  that  single  piece  were  annihilated,  I  should  have  no 
other  proof  against  your  husband."  It  may  easily  be  imagined 
with  what  joy  and  promptitude  the  princess  availed  herself 
of  the  significant  hint. 

The  King  of  Prussia  tried,  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  to 
negotiate  with  his  conqueror:  but  the  terms  laid  down  by 
Napoleon  as  an  unalterable  basis  were  so  extravagant,  that 
Frederic  determined  to  continue  the  war,  whatever  might  be 
its  result,  and  he  waited  at  Kiinigsberg,  after  the  failure  of  his 
negotiation,  for  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  and  of  the  Russian 
auxiliaries  he  had  been  led  to  expect.  The  war,  which  partly 
withdrew  the  attention  of  Russia  from  the  general  theatre  of 
action,  was  undertaken  against  Turkey.  Alexander,  offended 
by  a  treaty  which  engaged  the  exclusion  of  Russian  ships  from 
the  Dardanelles,  ordered  General  Micholson  to  invade  Walla- 
chia.  The  Turks,  in  retaliation,  declared  war  in  form  against 
Russia.  An  English  frigate,  under  Sir  John  Duckworth, 
advancing  to  mediate  between  the  two  powers,  served  but  to 
heighten  the  indignation  of  the  Porte.  All  British  property 
at  Smyrna  and  Salonica  was  put  under  sequestration.  This 
war  was,  however,  on  the  whole,  unfavourable  to  Ti  rkey  ; 
her  fleet,  in  an  action  which  took  place  between  it  and  that  of 
Russia,  was  almost  annihilated. 

The  French  now  crossed  the  Oder  in  two  divisions  ;  one 
of  which,  commanded  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  reduced  Silesia  ; 
the  other,  under  Marshal  Davoust,  advanced  to  the  Vistula, 
and  in  November  entered  Warsaw,  which  the  Russians  had 
abandoned.  An  important  action  was  fought  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Pultush  on  the  26th  of  December.  In  this  engagement 
the  loss  was  great  on  both  sides,  but  the  French  were  victo- 
rious.    The  Russians  now  retreated  towards  Ostrolenka,  and 


304  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAF. 

the  Frencli  iikkIc  dispositions  for  winter-quarters.  In  the 
mean  time  the  t'ortresses  of  Dantzic,  Colhurfr,  and  Stralsinid 
were  eloselv  liesieijed  l)y  the  French,  who  under  .leronie  de- 
feated the  Sih'sian  troops,  and  reduced  tiie  lortrcsses  of  IJres- 
lau,  Brieff,  and  Seliweidnitz. 

The  superiority  of  the  Hrilisli  navy  was  maintained  this 
year,  l)y  the  (dose  hlockade  of  the  enemy's  ports,  and  the  de- 
feat of  such  ships  as  yenlured  out  to  sea.  A  squadron  under 
Aihniral  Vilhmaux,  escaping  from  IJrest,  made  for  the  AVest 
Indies  in  two  divisions,  one  of  whicli  was  shattered  hy  a  storm, 
and  the  other  attacked  and  defeated  l)y  Sir  Jotm  Duckworth. 
An  expedition  which  had  sailed  from  England  in  the  August 
of  180.5,  for  tin;  coiKpiest  of  tlie  Cape  of  (Jood  Hope,  ('(pially 
attained  its  oljject.  Sir  Home  Popham  and  Sir  David  liaird 
commanded  the  forces  sent  upon  this  service.  The  English 
troops  elVected  a  landing  at  Saldanha  Bay,  early  in  .January, 
and  defeated  the  troops  of  GencralJansens,  who  had  assemi)led 
to  oppose  their  progress.  The  surrender  of  Cape  Town  wag 
the  immediate  result  of  this  victory;  and  General  Jansens, 
who  had  retired  to  Hottentot  Hollands  Kloof,  was  prevailed 
upon  to  surrender,  on  condition  that  he  anil  his  troops  should 
be  sent  to  Holland,  and  not  consiilered  prisoners  of  war.  'J'he 
Enirlish  government  had  heen  chiefly  insti<rated  to  tliis  expedi- 
tion, hy  the  representations  of  Sir  Home  I'ophain.  His  advice 
)iad  heen  also  asked,  upon  llic  policy  of  making  an  attack  upon 
Biieuos  Ayres;  init  l)efore  his  departure  for  the  Cape,  the  in- 
tention of  gaining  a  position  for  the  British  troops  in  South 
Ameri("a  had  been  relinquished.  No  sooner,  however,  was 
the  conquest  of  the  ( 'ape  cirected,  than  the  English  commander, 
elated  hy  success,  determined  to  employ  the  fleet,  wliich  had 
sailed  widi  him  for  this  service,  in  an  attack  upon  Buenos  Ayres. 
Having  persuaded  Sir  David  Baird  into  an  approval  of  his  plan, 
and  ol)taiued  from  him  a  small  hody  of  land-forces,  he  made 
for  Kio  IMata,  ahout  the  miildle  of  April,  and  reached  that  des- 
tination early  in  June.  'I"he  arrival  of  the  English  was  unex- 
pected, and  their  landing  therefore  unopposed  hy  the  Spaniards, 
who  lied  at  their  approach.  Buenos  Ayres  was  taken  without 
resistance,  i)ut  the  British  forces,  I(),()tlO  men,  were  insullicient 
to  retain  the  conquest.  'I'he  Spaidards,  soon  recovering  from 
the  panic  into  which  they  had  heen  thrown,  surrounded  the 
city,  attacked  its  invaders,  and,  after  a  desperate  conllici, 
obliged  them  to  surrender.  During  the  recapture  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  Sir  Houu-  l'o|tham  was  riding  in  safety  olT  the  coast 
In  October,  he   made   dispositions   for  the  comiuest  of  iMont* 


X1VII.3  OKNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  305 

Video.  Satisfied,  however,  with  having  effected  the  debarka- 
tion of  a  body  of  troops  upon  the  coast,  and  gained  a  safe 
anchorage  for  liis  ships,  he  remained  inactive  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  His  having  undertaken  the  South 
American  expedition  without  authority,  was  pronounced  rash 
and  censurable,  by  a  court  martial. 

Differences  between  the  United  States  of  America  and  Eng- 
land had  long  existed,  and  assumed,  this  year,  such  a  character 
as  rendered  negotiation  necessary  to  avert  serious  conse- 
quences. The  United  States  complained  of  the  impressment 
by  the  British  navy  of  persons  forced  fi  oni  on  board  Ameri- 
can vessels  on  the  high  seas  ;  of  the  violation  of  their  rights, 
as  neutrals,  by  the  seizure  of  their  merchantmen,  though  en 
gaged  in  what  they  conceived  lawful  commerce ;  and  of  an 
infringement  of  their  maritime  jurisdiction  on  their  own  coasts. 
Conferences  were  appointed  to  be  held  in  London  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  these  differences,  'i'hey  terminated  in  a  treaty,  from 
which  the  American  President  withheld  his  ratification. 

During  this  year,  the  Haitians  rose  again;  not,  as  formerly, 
to  emancipate  themselves  from  the  yoke  of  the  foreigner,  but 
to  depose  their  chosen  chief,  Dessalines,  who  had  assumed  the 
title  of  emperor,  and  was  become  an  object  of  popular  odium. 
He  was  assassinated,  and  Christophe  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  The  new  chief,  whose  election  was  unsuccessfully 
opposed  by  the  mulattoes,  with  Petion  at  their  head,  exercised 
the  authority  conferred  upon  him,  in  promoting  objects  of 
national  utility.  He  opened  to  neutral  nations  the  commerce 
of  his  dominions,  on  liberal  terms. 

The  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  having  been  dissolved  after 
the  completion  of  the  ministerial  arrangements,  which  were 
the  result  of  Mr.  Fox's  demise,  met  again  on  the  16th  of  De- 
cember. A  new  system  of  finance,  suggested  by  Lord  Henry 
Petty,  was  favourably  received  by  the  nation ;  and,  in  pursu- 
ance of  the  two  resolutions  adopted  by  the  preceding  Parlia- 
ment, relative  to  the  slave-trade,  a  law  was  now  enacted  to 
effect  its  entire  abolition.  (1807.)  A  bill  brought  in  by  Lord 
Howick  for  the  relief  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Dissenters, 
caused  the  dissolution  of  the  existing  ministry.  The  measure 
was  conceived  in  a  wise  and  enlightened  spirit  of  legislation ; 
it  proposed  the  attainment  of  national  unanimity,  at  a  period 
when  the  daily-increasing  power  of  England's  inveterate 
enemy  lequired  all  her  united  energies  for  its  suppression. 
Such,  however,  was  not  the  view  in  which  it  was  contemplated 
from  a  quarter  whence  rejection  would  be  annihilation  to  the 

28* 


306  CJENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

I)ill.  The  kiniT  conceived  that  acquiescence  on  his  part  in  the 
proposed  eiiactiiieiil,  would  be  a  viohition  of  his  rnroniiiion 
oatli.  Ministers,  thcrclore,  withdrew  their  measure;  l)iit, 
rather  than  pledire  thcuibelves,  as  was  his  majesty's  wish, 
never  ajrain  to  propose  the  emancipation  of  their  Catholic 
fcliow-siibjects,  thev  resirrnod  their  appointments.  A  new 
ministry  was  (luicklv  fdrnuid,  in  which  the  Duke  of  Portland 
was  first  lord  of  the  treasury;  Ijord  Eldon,  chancellor;  Mr. 
Percival,  ehancellor  of  the  excheipier ;  Lord  ( 'astlereaoh, 
secretary  for  the;  war  department;  Lord  Liverpool,  for  the 
home  department;  Mr.  Canning,  for  foreign  affairs,  and  Lord 
Mulijrave,  lirst  lord  of  the  adiniraltv. 

From  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Pultnsli,  till  the  end  of  Janu- 
ary, no  action  of  importance  took  place  between  the  armies 
of  France  and  Russia.  Napoleon  left  Warsaw  towards  the 
close  of  the  month.  On  the  7lh  of  February,  the  hostile 
armies,  endeavonrinir  to  gain  an  eminence  behind  Fylau,  which 
comruands  the  entrance  into  the  town,  came  to  a  general  en- 
gaoenient.  The  Russians,  after  contending  for  victory  with 
a  firmness  and  perseverance  which  reiulered  the  issue  of  the 
battle  long  doubtfid,  were  obliged  to  quit  the  field.  After  this 
battle,  the  French  returned  to  winter-quart(!rs,an(l  the  Russians, 
retired  lo  KoniL''sberg.  lionaparte  covered  the  line  of  the 
Vistida,  and  concentrated  his  army  in  cantonments  t(t  the 
westward  of  that  river.  Great  exertions,  in  the  mean  tinu! 
were  made  by  the  French  for  the  reduction  t)f  (Jraudcniz, 
Colberg,  and  Dantzic  ;  and  by  both  the  grand  armies  lor  the 
recruiting  of  their  shatt(!red  forces.  Reinforcements  were 
daily  arriving  at  the  Russian  head-quarters.  Bonaparte  called 
out  the  cnn-;cripls  for  IHOH,  ordered  a  new  levy  of  troops  to 
be  made  in  Switzerland,  and  those  under  Mortier,  in  the  north 
of  Germany  and  in  various  other  stations,  to  join  his  standard 
on  the  Vistula.  The  Russians,  resolving  to  allow  tin;  I'-reiicli 
no  respite,  often  attacked  tlx'ni  in  their  cantonments,  and  the 
«kirmishes  which  ensued  were  attended  with  serious  loss  to 
both  parties. 

On  the  17th  of  April,  the  Hmperor  of  Russia  aiul  the  King 
of  Prussia  arrived  at  Harlenstein,  and  proceeded  to  Ileilsburg, 
tin;  head- quarters  of  the  allied  army.  Dantzic  was  still  besieged, 
and  still  d'-frnded  with  uiKliminished  obstinacy.  At  len;,''!!), 
however,  all  hope  of  relief  fuliuLr,  the  governor  proposed  a 
conditional  surrender.  His  pni|)os!d  was  accepted,  and  the 
garrison  marehed  out  with  the  horioiirs  of  war. 

The  partial  acli(ms  which  took  place  between  the  5th  and 


XLVII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  307 

12th  of  June,  terminated  in  favour  of  the  French,  notwithstand- 
ing the  numerous  instances  of  valour  on  the  part  of  the  Rus- 
sians. On  the  14th  was  fought  one  of  the  most  memorable 
bailies  that  even  this  age  of  almost  ceaseless  warfare  has  be- 
queathed to  the  record  of  tlie  historian.  The  field  of  action 
lay  to  the  south  of  Friedland.  The  contest  was  maintained 
from  a  little  after  five  in  the  morning  till  seven  in  the  evening, 
with  doubtful  success  ;  but  terminated  in  the  total  defeat  of  the 
allied  forces.  They  retreated  after  the  battle  through  Tilsit  to 
the  Niemen,  with  Murat  in  pursuit.  An  armistice  was  now 
proposed  by  General  Beningsen,  which  was  accepted  by  the 
conquerors  and  concluded  at  Tilsit.  It  was  agreed  that  one 
of  a  similar  nature  should  be  concluded  with  Prussia,  within 
the  course  of  five  days,  and  that  plenipotentiaries  should  be 
appointed  by  the  three  powers  to  adjust  terms  of  peace. 

On  the  25th,  the  two  emperors,  so  lately  in  arms  against 
each  other,  had  an  interview  on  the  banks  of  the  Niemen,  and 
embraced  with  all  the  apparent  cordiality  of  long-established 
friendship.  Napoleon  began  the  conference  by  some  polite 
phrases  with  regard  to  the  mutability  of  warlike  success.  At 
this  moment  the  King  of  Prussia  was  announced.  His  emo- 
tion, which  was  perfectly  visible,  may  be  easily  conceived; 
his  dominions  were  overrun,  and  he  had  no  hope  but  in  the 
moderation  of  the  victor.  The  French  emperor  seemed 
touched  with  compassion,  and  invited  him  and  his  queen  to 
dinner.  While  they  were  seating  themselves  at  table,  Napo- 
leon seized  the  opportunity  of  telling  his  fair  guest  that  he 
restored  to  her  Silesia,  a  province  which  she  was  very  desir- 
ous should  be  allotted  to  Prussia  in  the  now-pending  negotia- 
tions. The  emperors  fixed  upon  Tilsit  as  their  place  of 
residence,  during  the  arrangement  of  preliminaries.  Each 
occupied  his  quarter,  separated  by  the  Niemen,  while  the 
King  and  Queen  of  Prussia  had  for  a  time  no  other  habitation 
than  a  windmill  beyond  the  city. 

While  Russia  and  Prussia  were  engaged  in  the  contest 
which  ended  in  their  desertion  of  England,  the  latter  abated 
none  of  her  accustomed  efforts  to  promote  the  object  for 
which  she  allied  with  the  continental  monarchs.  But  victory 
was  not  always  faithful  to  her  standard.  The  fleet  sent 
to  the  Dardanelles,  under  Sir  J.  Duckworth,  forced  the  pas- 
sage of  these  straits,  (Feb.  19,  1807,)  in  compliance  with 
instructions  from  the  English  government,  which  likewise  or- 
dered that  the  British  admiral  should  demand  the  surrender 
of  all  the  Turkisli  ships  and  vessels  of  war,  and  that  the  re- 


308  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

fiisal  of  the  Porte  should  be  followrd  I)y  tlio  inimrdiate  bom- 
bardment of  Constantinople,     'J'he  Mnijlish  Heel,  in  its  passajre 
between  Sestos  and  Abydos,  sustained  a  heavy  fire   from   the 
castles.     Overeoming  this  dilheully,  it  reached   the  island  of 
Princes,    within    eifriit  miles  of  ('onstantiii()i)le,  and    thence 
despatched  a  Ihiff  of  truce  to  the  Seraglio,  witii  assurances  of 
friendship,  should  the  Porte  accept  the  proposals  of  the  Hri- 
tish  government,  and  of  determined  hostility  should  she  reject 
them.      Pacific   overtures,   and  a   consequent  suspension  of 
hostilities,  continued   till   the  27th.     This   interval  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Turks  in  strengthening  their  fintifications  ;  so 
tliat  when  a  decided  negative  was  given  to  the  jiroposed  sur- 
render,  the  whole   Turkish   coast   was   lined   with    batteries. 
Sir  J.  Duckworth,  conceiving  his  situation  perilous,  hastened 
to   repass    the   Dardanelles  ;  not,  however,  without   receiving 
much  damage  by  the  firing  from  the  castles.      This  enterprise 
was  followed  by  an  expedition  to  Egypt,  which  also  proved 
unsuccessful.     Alexandria  surrendered  without  resistance  to 
5,000  men  under  General  Fraser ;   i)ut  an  attemj)t  upon   Ro- 
se tta  was  repulsed  with  loss  to  the  English,  and  the  assailants 
hearing  that  the  iidiabilants  of  Cairo  were  preparing  to  expel 
them  from  the  captured  city,  proposed  to  evacuate  Egypt,  if 
the  Turks  would  consent  to  restore  the  prisoners  taken   by 
them  at  Rosetta,     'I'hese  conditions  being  accepted,  they  re- 
emliarked  on  the  22d  of  SeptemlxT. 

'J'liough  the  unauthorized  attack  of  Sir  II.  Popham  ujton 
tlie  Spanish  possessions  in  South  America  was  censured  by 
a  court  martial,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  follow  up  his  suc- 
cesses. On  the  .5th  of  January,  the  English  troops  arrived 
at  Maldonado.  'i'hey  moved  (.Ian.  lU,  1807)  upon  Monte 
Video,  with  the  intention  of  taking  that  town,  and  attained 
their  object,  though  the  Sj)aniards,  to  the  amount  of  (5,000 
men,  advanced  to  oppose  their  progress,  and  jxiurcd  an  inces- 
sant fire  upon  them.  In  llie  month  of  June,  a  British  force 
under  General  Crawford,  consisting  of  .''),000  men,  arrived  at 
Uie  river  IMata,  and  was  joined  I)y  all  the  Entrlish  troops  in 
that  part  of  South  America.  The  command  of  this  force  (June 
29)  was  given  to  General  Wliitelock.  IJeintr  an  ived  before  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  he  divided  his  army  into  several  brigades,  each  pro- 
vided with  cannon  and  uidoaded  nniskctry.  Tiie  columns  were 
directed  to  march  thus,  without  firing,  till  they  t<houId  reach 
the  last  s(|uare  of  the  town,  where  they  were  to  form  and 
wait  for  further  orders,  A  heavy  fire  of  musketry,  stones, 
and   missile   weapons,  from   the   tops  of  the   houses,  which 


XLVIII.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  309 

were  covered  by  the  inhabitants,  dealt  destruction  to  the  Eng- 
lish troops  as  tliey  marched  througli  the  town.  They,  how- 
ever, took  the  Residentia,  and  the  Plaza-des-Toios.  This 
advantage  gained,  General  Whitelock  consented  to  relinquish 
all  further  attack  upon  the  town,  and  to  evacuate  Monte  Video, 
on  condition  that  General  Liniers  should  liberate  all  the  Eng- 
lish, who  had  been  captured  since  the  arrival  of  Sir  Home 
Popham.  For  subscribing  to  these  conditions,  and  for  gene- 
ral misconduct  in  the  plan  of  attack  upon  Buenos  Ayres, 
General  VVliitelock  was  tried  and  cashiered  by  a  court  mar- 
tial, and  pronounced  unfit  to  serve  his  majesty  in  any  military 
capacity. 

The  terms  of  peace  were  not  definitively  arranged  by  the 
Tilsit  negotiations,  till  the  9th  of  July.  The  treaty  between 
France  and  Russia  contained  litde  more  than  a  mutual  guarantee 
of  possessions,  and  an  acknowledgment  of  the  new  kingdoms 
created  by  Bonaparte.  That  between  France  and  Prussia 
was  of  a  different  nature :  it  considerably  lessened  the  pos- 
sessions of  his  Prussian  majesty.  The  provinces  on  the  left 
of  the  Elbe  were  entitled  "  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia," 
and  given  to  Jerome  Bonaparte.  The  Polish  provinces,  ex- 
cept that  part  of  them  situated  north  of  the  Bog,  which  was 
to  be  incorporated  with  Russia,  were  given  to  the  King  of 
Saxony,  with  the  additional  title  of  Duke  of  Warsaw,  and 
free  access  through  Prussia  to  his  new  dominions.  The  titles 
of  the  Kings  of  Holland,  Naples,  and  Westphalia,  and  of  all 
the  members  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  were  acknow- 
ledged by  Prussia,  and  she  consented  to  close  her  ports  against 
England,  till  a  definitive  treaty  should  be  signed  between  that 
power  and  France.  Alexander  accepted  the  mediation  of 
France,  for  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  between  him  and  the  Porte. 
By  a  secret  treaty  with  France  he  became  a  party  to  the  mari- 
time war  against  England,  and  ceded  Corfu  and  the  Seven 
Islands  to  France. 


CHAPTER  XLVHI. 

FROM    THE    PEACE    OF    TILSIT,  IN    1807,    TO    THE    PEACE    OF 
VIENNA,    IN    1809. 

1807. — Sweden  was  the  only  ally  of  Great  Britain  that 
was  not  estranged  from  her  cause  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit: 
Gustavus  IV".  refused  his  assent  to  its  stipulations.     The  de- 


810  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  [cHAf 

fertion  of  his  confederates,  however,  ohliired  him  to  relinquish 
the  defence  of  J'onierania,  upon  wliieli  lie  had  defcrniined ; 
and  he  wididrcw  llie  troops,  stationed  tliere,  to  JSweden.  I'^nj^- 
laiid,  thus  unassisU'd  and  friunilless,  had  recourse  to  a  stranj^e 
expedient,  and  oiu',  for  the  adoption  of  which,  even  the  exi- 
gencv  (»f  licr  situation  seems  not  a  suflicient  excuse. 

Denmark  had,  in  the  late  wars,  ol)scrved  a  strict  neutrality. 
The  daily  fall  of  nations,  however,  rendering  tlie  crown-prince 
appreliensive  that  his  country  also  miirlit  swell  the  number  of 
the  French  emperor's  conquests,  he  resolved  to  be  prejiared 
against  contingencies,  and  stand  ready  for  defensive  measures. 
For  this  end,  he  assembled  an  army  and  took  much  pains  to 
augment  the  Danish  navy.  These  precautions  were  viewed 
l)y  the  English  ministry  with  a  jealous  eye,  because  they  had 
been  assured  that  Denmark  was  a  party  to  the  secret  treaty 
of  Tilsit,  and  that  the  Danish  fleet  would  be  at  the  dispcisal 
of  the  French  emperor.  'J'hey  tliereforc  reiiuesled,  on  ami- 
cable terms,  the  temporary  deposit  of  the  Danish  ships  of 
war  in  some  of  the  Hritish  ports,  under  a  solen)n  promise  of 
restitution  on  the  conclusion  of  peace.  In  order  to  give  weight 
to  the  negotiation,  an  armament  of  twenty-seven  sail  of  the  line, 
under  Admiral  Gambier,  with  a  large  body  of  land-forces  under 
Lord  (]athcart,  was  sent  to  the  lialtic,  to  protect  Denmark 
against  France,  in  case  of  an  amical)le  result,  or  to  enforce 
compliance,  should  she  reject  the  proposal.  Mr.  Jackson, 
who  accompanied  the  expedition  in  the  capacity  of  negotia- 
tor, failed,  as  miirht  be  expecteil,  to  accomplish  tlie  ol)ject  of 
his  mission.  On  the  17th  of  August,  Copenhagen  was  in- 
vested, and  on  the  3d  of  September,  set  fire  to,  in  several 
places.  'I'he  destruction  m(  the  city  seemed  at  hand,  when 
a  flag  of  truce,  demanding  an  armistice,  was  despatched  to 
the  English  admiral.  'I'he  basis  of  the  capitulation  was  the 
surrt'iider  of  the  Danish  fleet,  which  accompanied  Admiral 
Gambier  to  lOugland. 

This  expedition  excited  tlie  animosity  not  only  of  Denmark, 
hut  of  Russia;  and  was  severely  commented  upon  as  uncalled 
for  and  dishonoural)lc,  by  iMiropc  in  general,  and  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  English  nation.  A  declaration  of  war  by 
Russia,  against  Entjland,  was  issued  on  the  31st  of  October, 
wliich  stated  as  its  causes,  the  insult  ofl'ered  to  Denmark,  and 
the  refusal  of  I'ngland  to  accejjt  the  mediation  of  Russia,  f  >r 
etfecling  a  general  peace,  after  that  n|"  Tilsit. 

In  the  mean  lime,  the  svstiiii  of  commercial  annovancp 
adopU'd    by  France   against  England,  caused  ;j>   much  injury 


XLVni.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  811 

to  nedtral  nations,  as  to  the  country  against  which  it  was 
meant  t^;  operate,  Tlie  retaliatory  orders,  now  issued  by 
Great  Britain,  proved  still  more  injurious.  America  had  been 
hitherto  permitted  to  be  the  medium  of  commerce  between 
France  and  her  colonies.  The  English  government,  on  the 
7th  of  January,  issued  an  order  in  council,  prohibiting  neu- 
tral nations  from  trading  with  any  port  in  the  possession  of, 
or  under  the  control  of  France;  and  on  the  11th  of  Novem- 
ber, an  additional  order  declared  every  port,  in  every  country, 
from  which  Great  Britain  was  excluded,  in  a  state  of  block- 
ade. America,  in  the  exigency  formed  by  this  novel  system 
of  warfare,  adopted  the  expedient  of  laying  an  embargo  upon 
all  her  own  vessels,  and  commanded  all  foreign  ships  to  quit 
the  American  harbours.  Her  complaints  were  chiefly  levelled 
against  England ;  perhaps  because  other  causes  of  animosity 
towards  that  country  pre-existed  in  the  United  States.  The 
practice  of  impressing  American  seamen  on  board  English 
vessels  was  still  exercised  by  England,  and  still  loudly  and 
indignantly  complained  of. 

Neither  the  13ritish  orders  in  council,  nor  the  American 
embargo,  induced  Napoleon  to  revoke  his  commercial  restric- 
tions. On  the  23d  of  November  he  issued  a  decree,  dated 
Milan,  ordering  that  any  vessel  entering  a  French  port,  after 
having  touched  at  an  English  harbour,  should  be  seized  and 
confiscated.  In  the  following  month  he  further  decreed,  that 
every  neutral  ship  that  should  submit  to  be  searched  by  an 
English  ship,  or  pay  duty  to  the  English  government,  should 
be  considered  as  denationalized,  and  be  seized  by  French 
ships  of  war.  Not  satisfied  with  this,  he  extended  his  pro- 
hibitory mandate  to  Portugal,  and  required  that  no  hostile 
vessel  should  be  admitted  into  a  Portuguese  harbour,  and  that 
all  English  subjects,  residing  in  Portugal,  should  be  detained, 
and  their  property  confiscated.  The  prince-regent,  willing  to 
avert  the  threatened  storm,  closed  his  ports  against  England. 
He,  however,  refused  compliance  with  the  other  terms  of 
imperial  requisition,  and  advised  the  English  residents  to  sell 
their  property  and  leave  his  dominions.  These  half-mea- 
sures failed  to  satisfy  the  French  emperor;  he  insisted  on  the 
imprisonment  of  Englishmen,  and  the  confiscation  of  their 
property.  The  Portuguese  regent  prepared  therefore  to  leave 
a  country,  where,  should  such  restrictions  be  enforced  in  op- 
position to  his  will,  he  could  no  longer  act  as  a  sovereign, 
and  to  retire  to  his  transadantic  dominions.  Hoping,  how- 
ever, to  render  this  expatriation  unnecessary,  by  conciliating 


312  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Nnpoloon,  he  at  length  onlereil  tlie  seizure  of  Brilisli  properly, 
bclieviiiir,  wlieii  he  did  so,  thai  il  had  all  been  previously  re- 
moved. Hut  this  concession,  while  it  irritated  l^uglaiid,  and 
led  her  to  form  the  blockade  of  the  Tai^us,  came  too  late. 
The  French  ollicial  journals  had  already  j)rorlaimed,  that  the 
house  of  Brairanza  had  ceased  to  rei<rn,  anil  a  French  army 
was  now  marcliiuir  to  Lisbon  to  verify  this  denunciation. 
The  court  of  fiislion  renewed  its  preparations  for  llii^ht,  which 
the  English  blockading  squadron  engaged  to  protect.  A  re- 
gency, consisting  of  seven  nobles,  was  appointed  to  adminis- 
ter the  government  during  the  absence  of  the  prince-regent; 
and  on  the  2yth  of  November  the  Portuguese  tleet,  with  the 
royal  family,  sailed  for  lirazil.  Before  it  cleared  the  Tagus, 
it  recognised  the  French  troops  under  Junot,  with  their  Spa- 
nish auxiliaries,  on  the  heights  of  Lisi)on.  Next  day,  the 
latter  entered  that  city  without  opposition. 

Spain  too  was  on  the  eve  of  being  numbered  among  con- 
quered nations.  An  alliance  between  her  and  France  had 
long  subsisted,  and  had  been  lately,  in  appearance,  more 
strongly  cemented  by  a  treaty,  concluded  between  the  two 
powers  at  Fontainebleau,  which  provided,  that  the  ni)rth  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  should  i)e  given  to  the  King  of 
Etruria,  in  exchange  for  ihe  cession  of  his  Italian  posses- 
sions to  France;  the  province  of  Alcntcjo  and  liie  Algarves  to 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  with  the  tide  of  Prince  of  the  Algarves  ; 
the  remaining  provinces  were  to  be  held  in  sequestration  till 
the  conclusion  of  a  general  peace.  The  treaty  farther  pro- 
vided, that  a  stipulated  number  of  French  troops  should  march 
through  Spain  to  elTect  this  partition  of  Portugal;  that  they 
should  be  joined  in  their  march  by  a  certain  number  of  Spa- 
nianls ;  that  10,0!)0  French  troops  shoidd  be  asseml)led  at 
Bayonnc  by  the  2()th  of  Nov.  to  be  ready  to  march  for  Por- 
tugal, should  England  attempt  to  invade  that  country;  and  that 
the  fortresses  of  Pampeluna,  St.  Sebastian,  Figueras,  and 
Barcelona,  should  be  allowed,  as  places  of  security,  to  the 
army  of  Napoleon.  It  was  in  conformity  with  tlu^  stijiulalions 
of  tills  treaty,  that  Junot  and  the  Spanish  auxiliary  force  en- 
tered Portugal. 

While  the  negotiations  for  the  partition  of  Pornigal  were 
pending,  occurrences  of  a  singular  nature  were  taking  place 
at  Madrid.  Emamiel  (iodoy,  whose  inthuuice  with  the  king 
and  queen  was  unljoiindiul,  had  rendered  himself  exceediiiirly 
odious  to  the  Spanish  nation  at  large.  The  Prince  of  Aslurias 
sharing  the  general  sentiment,  declared  himself  openly  the 


XLVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  313 

enemy  of  Godoy,  and  a  plan  was  devised  to  get  rid  of  the 
obnoxious  minister.  But  such  was  the  infatuation  of  ttie 
kino-,  that  he  considered  as  levelled  against  himself  every 
attack  upon  the  favourite.  Finding  that  his  son  had  written 
to  solicit  the  hand  of  a  French  princess,  and  taken  other  mea- 
sures to  strengthen  the  anti-ministerial  party,  he  published  in 
November  a  manifesto,  accusing  Ferdinand  of  conspiring 
to  dethrone  him.  This  the  prince  denied,  but  signed,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Godoy,  a  paper  expressing  contrition  in 
general  terms,  and  a  reconciliation  took  place  between  him 
and  his  royal  parents.  These  events  were  but  a  prelude  to 
the  misfortunes  which  befell,  during  the  ensuing  year,  the 
Bourbon  dynasty  in  Spain. 

The  close  of  the  year  1807  is  memorable  for  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  Dutch  power  in  the  East  Indies  by  Sir  E. 
Pellew.  After  having  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Madeira, 
he  obliged  the  batteries  of  Sambalargan  to  be  dismantled. 

The  English  Parliament  opened  in  1808  under  gloomy  aus- 
pices. Austria  had  tried  to  mediate  between  France  and 
England,  but  her  proposals  not  being  deemed  satisfactory  to 
the  interests  of  the  allies  of  Great  Britain,  had  been  rejected  ; 
and  a  declaration  of  war  from  the  Emperor  Francis  was 
hourly  expected  by  the  British  ministry.  That  of  Russia 
had  already  been  received,  and  all  Europe,  Sweden  excepted, 
seemed  in  alliance  against  England.  The  internal  state  of 
the  country  was  not  more  cheering.  Considerable  distress, 
caused  by  the  exclusion  of  British  goods  from  the  ports  of 
Europe,  existed  in  the  manufacturing  districts;  and  peace, 
the  only  remedy,  as  the  people  conceived,  for  their  sufferings, 
was  loudly  called  for,  at  a  period  when  the  attainment  of  it 
seemed  impracticable. 

The  expected  declaration  of  war  by  Austria  was  issued  on 
the  8th  of  February.  The  King  of  England,  on  his  side,  re- 
solving efficiently  to  assist  his  only  ally,  engaged,  by  conven- 
tion, to  pay  to  Sweden  £1,200,000  in  twelve  monthly  pay- 
ments, to  enable  that  power  to  support  a  respectable  naval 
and  military  establishment.  He  also  engaged  to  send  auxi- 
liary forces  to  the  Baltic,  whenever  war  might  take  place  be- 
tween Sweden  and  any  of  the  northern  powers.  The  invasion 
of  Finland  by  40,000  Russian  troops,  under  Buxhovden, 
quickly  followed  the  signing  of  the  convention  between  Swe- 
den and  England.  Denmark,  too,  declared  war,  stating  as 
her  reason  for  hostility,  the  silence  obseived  by  Gustavus  on 
the  capture  of  the  Danish  fleet,  and  his  close  alliance  with 

29 


814  OENEIIAL    HISTORY    OF    KirROPK.  [cHAP. 

Rnirland.  Gustaviis  sent  Count  Kliuiispor  to  oppose  the 
Kussiaus  in  Finland,  and  liamii  Ainirtldl  to  eflVct  the  con- 
quest of  iNorway.  'I'lii'  tornicr  tiiidinjr  liis  troops  not  suin- 
cienlly  nuniurous  to  arrest  the  march  of  Bnxhovden,  avoided 
a  fjeneral  cniraircment,  and,  retrealinjj  towards  Kast  Hoihnia, 
formed  a  junction  with  ('ount  Cronstadl.  The  Kussians, 
after  havini^  iiicHt'ctually  endeavoured  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of 
Klinffspor,  retired  towards  the  south  of  Finlaiul.  In  tlie 
mean  time  Al)o  and  liiornoburo-,  and  shortly  after  lJleal)urg, 
surrendered  to  the  Hussians.  Ijuxhovden,  after  the  capture  of 
the  latter  city,  returned  to  the  north  of  Fiidand.  Tlie  Swe- 
dish commander,  conscious  that  an  enirafrement  with  the  Kus- 
sians,  who,  during  tlieir  stay  in  the  south,  had  received  con- 
siderable reinforcements,  would  bring;  destruction  to  his  army, 
concluded  an  armistice  with  them,  (Nov.  20th,)  and  enga<red 
to  evacuate  Finland  and  retire  beyond  the  river  Reims.  The 
attempt  upon  Norway  was  productive  of  equal  disappoint- 
ment to  Gustavus.  'I'he  Norwegian  peasantry,  uniting  with 
the  regidar  troops,  expelled  tlie  Swedish  force,  and,  seizing 
the  j)asses  of  liie  mountains,  secured  liiein  against  future  in- 
cursions. Neidier  did  the  troops  which  the  English  govern- 
ment sent  to  the  Baltic,  in  conformity  with  the  convention 
between  England  and  Sweden,  attain  their  object,  though 
amounting  to  10,000  men,  and  commanded  by  an  able  and 
experienced  general.  They  were  rendered  inoperative  by 
the  imprudence  of  the  Swedish  monarch  himself.  Wlicn 
they  reached  Ootlenl)urg,  (May  18th,)  Gustavus  proposed  to 
their  commander.  Sir  John  Moore,  that  they  should  remain 
on  ship-board  til!  some  Swedish  reiriments  could  l)e  emi)arked 
witli  them,  aiul  that,  when  thus  reinforced,  they  should  land 
upon  and  endeavour  to  conquer  Zealand.  A  force  far  supe- 
rior in  number  to  that  under  Sir  .Tolin  Moore,  or  to  any  tliat 
Gustavus  coidd  assemble,  preoccupied  Zealand,  and  the  fort- 
resses in  the  ishmd  were  strongly  garrisoned.  Sir  John, 
therefore,  dc(dined  making  an  attempt,  which  he  saw  would 
be  attended  with  defeat  and  dishonour  to  himself  and  his 
army.  (Justavus  then  proposed  that  iIk;  English  should  make 
a  descent  upon  Russian  Fin'ind.  As  the  chief  Russian  force 
was  concentrated  in  I'iuland.  a  descent  there  coidd  serve  no 
propose  but  that  of  insuring  a  triumph  to  the  enemy.  Sir 
John  as  firmly  declined  compliance  with  this,  as  with  the 
former  pruposal  of  the  Swedish  infuiarch  :  upon  which  Gus- 
tavus put  him  under  arrest,  and  thus  lost  the  support  of  tho 


XLVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  31S 

British  army ;  for  its  commander,  having  with  some  difficulty 
effected  his  escape,  returned  with  it  to  England. 

The  Kini^  of  Denmark,  who  had  long  laboured  under  a 
mental  malady,  died  this  year,  and  liis  title  devolved  upon  his 
son,  the  crown-prince,  whom  we  must  henceforth  designate 
Frederick  VI. 

A  more  important  change,  and  one  which  excited  a  greater 
sensation  in  Europe,  took  place  in  Italy.  In  order  to  under- 
stand the  subject  of  dispute  between  Bonaparte  and  the 
Pope,  we  must  retrace  in  a  few  words  the  altercations  which 
had  previously  occurred  since  the  autumn  of  1805.  In  the 
month  of  September  of  that  year,  the  Neapolitan  minister  at 
Paris  had  concluded  a  treaty,  by  which  France  agreed  to 
withdraw  the  forces  she  had  maintained  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  since  the  year  1801.  These  troops,  on  their  return 
through  the  ecclesiastical  state,  established  themselves  at 
Ancona,  where  they  amassed  provisions,  increased  the  forti' 
fications,  and  made  such  arrangements  as  indicated  their  in- 
tention of  retaining  their  situation.  The  court  of  Rome 
complained  of  so  unexpected  an  invasion,  and  addressed 
itself  on  the  occasion  to  Cardinal  Fesch,  who  declared  himself 
unable  to  give  any  information  on  the  subject.  The  Pope 
then  addressed  a  brief  to  Bonaparte  himself,  in  which  he 
complained,  with  moderation  but  with  firmness,  of  an  invasion 
so  contrary  to  the  neutrality  he  professed.  Napoleon  was 
then  in  Germany,  and  did  not  answer  the  Pope's  letter  till 
after  the  peace  of  Presburg.  In  his  reply  of  the  6th  of  January, 
1806,  he  accused  the  Pope  of  listening  to  bad  counsellors,  and 
after  complaining  that  his  Holiness  refused  all  his  demands, 
even  those  "  the  most  interesting  to  religion,*  as  the  depression 
of  the  Protestants  in  France,"  he  informed  him  that  it  was  to 
protect  the  church  that  he  had  occupied  Ancona. t  At  the 
same  time  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Fesch,  in  which  he 
openly  avowed  his  pretensions,  and  declared  that,  unless 
Rome  submitted  to  his  will,  he  would  send  a  governor  thither 
and  deprive  the  Pope  of  all  but  his  spiritual  authority.  This 
intention  was  communicated  to  his  Holiness,  who  again  (Jan. 

*  Napoleon  had  written  to  the  Pope  in  1805,  begging  him  to  declare  the 
marriage  which  his  brother  Jerome  had  contracted  with  Miss  Patterson, 
in  America,  null,  on  the  plea  that  the  prince  was  a  minor  and  the  lady  a 
Protestant.  The  Pope,  after  mature  examination,  wrote  him  a  long  letter, 
in  which  he  proves  the  impossibility  of  acceding  to  his  demand. 

■j-  Precis  des  contestations  entre  le  saint  Siege  et  Buonaparte. — Par  M. 
Bchoell. 


816  GENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    F.ITROPE.  IcHAP. 

29th)  addressed  the  French  emperor;  and,  after  representing 
to  him  the  littU?  foiiiulation  of  his  prettnch'd  {rrievances,  recom- 
mended to  liim  tlie  interests  of  ruliijion  in  that  part  of  (he 
Venetian  states,  wliich  liad  recently  l)t'en  iniitcd  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  and  entreated  him  not  to  introduce  any  innova- 
tions in  the  elcrjfy.  In  reply  Hoiiaparle  said,  that  he  was 
Emperor  of  liome,  and  that  CJod  had  appointed  him  to  wati'ii 
over  the  maintenance  of  relijrion,  (fee.  To  join  eflects  to 
words,  lie  ordered  his  amhassador  to  demand  that  all  natives 
of  nations  at  war  widi  him  should  be  sent  from  Rome,  and 
their  vessels  refused  entrance  into  the  ports  of  the  papal  iro- 
vernment.  During  tliis  correspondence,  the  French  troops 
entered  on  all  sides,  and  occupied,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  Pesaro, 
Sinigairlia,  Fano,  and  other  places. 

The  answer  of  the  cardinal  legate  to  the  demands  of  Bo- 
naparte, developed  the  o<inscienti()US  motives  which  prevented 
the  Pope  from  engaging  in  hostility  with  other  states,  and 
contained  a  strong  remonstrance  upon  the  difl'erent  laws  and 
ordinances  which,  to  the  prejudice  of  religion  and  of  its  mi- 
nisters, had  been  promulgated  in  the  French  empire,  and  in 
the  other  states  depending  upon  his  majesty.  "  'i'lie  his  or- 
fran'upies  pul)lished  (without  the  knowledge  of  the  Pope) 
with  the  concordat,  deprived  religion,  in  great  measure,  of 
the  fruits  which  were  expected,  in  France,  from  the  finest 
monument  of  his  majesty's  love  for  the  Catholic  religion. 
After  them  came  the  uiultiplied  onlers  given  by  the  ininislre 
(III  cul/r,  and  the  publication  of  the  civil  cotjc,  which  were 
all  so  many  blows,  levelled  in  France  against  the  doctrine 
and  "general  practice  of  the  church."  These  remonstrances 
effected  no  alteration  in  the  purpose  of  the  emperor.  He  had 
already  incorporated  Urbino,  Ancona,  Macerata,  and  ('ame- 
rino,  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  and  his  Ullimalum,  which 
was  proposed  on  the  9th  of  January,  IHOH,  informed  the 
legate  that  if,  within  five  days,  the  j'ope  did  not  declare  to 
the  French  ambassador  an  entire  adherence  to  his  demands,* 

•The  (Ipmamls  made  by  Napoleon  in  1807,  an  J  refused  hy  the  Pope, 
were  the  following  : 

Ist.  He  reijiiired  that  the  Pope  ulioiild  acknowledge  a  Patriarch  in 
France,  whom  he,  >i'a|)ole<)n.  hml  niitncd. 

VJd.  'I'hat  the  Napoleon  code  should  he  enforced  throughout  the  eccie- 
BiaHtiral  Hlate. 

3d.  That  all  relii^ionfl  ohould  be  publicly  exercised. 

4lh.  He  diinanded  n  reform  in  the  hii)hoj)ric«,  and  that  the  bishopc 
should  be  indejH^ndcDt  of  the  Huly  ^:>eB. 


XLVIII.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  317 

the  papal  government  should  definitively  lose,  not  only  An- 
eona,  but  also  Perugiano,  to  be  incorporated  with  Tuscany; 
half  of  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  to  be  united  to  tlie  kingdom  of 
Naples;  and  that  he  would  take  possession  of  the  rest  of  the 
ecclesiastical  state,  and  place  a  garrison  in  Rome.  The  Pope, 
in  his  declaration  of  January  28th,  promised  his  adherence 
to  such  articles  of  the  Ultimatum  as  were  not  inconsistent 
with  his  conscientious  obligations,  and  the  rights  of  his  see; 
and  protested  against  the  occupation  of  his  dominions  by  the 
French  ;  but  his  answer  was  not  judged  satisfactory,  and  their 
troops  entered  Rome  on  the  2d  of  February,  took  possession 
of  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  garrisoned  the  posts,  and  sur- 
rounded the  entrance  of  the  Quirinal  Palace,  the  residence  of 
a  pacific  sovereign,  who  was  at  peace  with  all  the  world. 

But  the  spoliation  of  the  papal  territory,  and  the  northern 
war,  were  but  secondary  objects  with  Napoleon.  The  treaty 
of  Fontainebleau  was  a  remote  preparation  for  an  attack  upon 
the  Spanish  monarchy ;  and  no  less  a  visitation  than  the  loss 
of  his  crown  and  kingdom,  was  the  consequence  of  the  trea- 
cherous imbecility,  with  which  Charles  consented  to  tlie  pas- 
sage of  French  troops  through  his  territory,  for  the  partition 
of  Portugal.  No  sooner  were  the  chief  fortresses  in  the 
hands  of  the  French  troops,  than  an  angry  letter  from  Napo- 
leon complained  of  seeming  unwillingness  of  Charles  to  con- 
clude a  marriage,  which  had  been  for  some  time  in  agitation, 
between  a  Princess  of  France  and  the  Prince  of  Asturias.  The 
Spanish  monarch,  arguing  from  this  letter  tliat  his  throne  was 
insecure,  proposed  to  emigrate.  A  violent  ferment  in  the  capi- 
tal and  at  Aranjuez  was  the  result  of  this  meditated  removal. 
The  house  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  who,  it  was  supposed,  had 
advised  the  obnoxious  measure,  was  forced,  and  that  minister 
seized  and  imprisoned.  The  king,  finding  that  the  popular 
fury  would  not  be  quieted,  and  rendered  unequal  by  the  pres- 
sure of  infirmity  to  sustain  the  weight  of  government  in  so 
trying  an  emergency,  resigned  the  cares  of  royalty  to  his  son, 
Ferdinand. 

Ferdinand  reappointed  his  father's  secretary,  Cevallos,  to 

5th.  The  abolition  of  the  pontifical  bulls,  which  regard  the  collation  of 
bishoprics  and  parishes. 

6th.  The  abolition  of  religious  orders  of  both  sexes. 

7th.  Permission  for  priests  to  marry  in  future. 

8th.  He  demanded  lastly  that  the  Pope  should  crown  Joseph  Bon» 
parte  as  King  of  Naples. 

See  the  Tableau  Synoptique  de  I'Hist.  de  France,  vol.  ii.,  p.  241. 

29* 


818  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    Et'ROPE.  [cil  VP. 

office,  confiscated  (ho  property  of  Ciodoy,  nominated  the 
Duke  del  Inninlado,  a  popidar  nol)lenian,  coniinander  of  the 
JSpaniali  jfuards,  and  succeuded  by  concdialory  measures  in 
gaining  the  conliilence  of  his  peopU\  He  notilied  to  llin 
French  emperor  Ids  accession  to  the  Spanish  throne,  and 
accdmpanied  his  messaije  with  assurances  of  his  wish,  that 
the  recent  changes  in  tSpain  miirht  cause  no  interruption  to 
the  confidential  aUiance  which  had  so  long  subsisted  between 
that  countrv  anil  I'Vance.  Charles,  wiio,  in  the  interim,  had 
been  leil  to  rejjret  the  title  he  had  resiirned,  wrote  on  the  other 
hand  to  Napoleon,  that  the  alnlication  of  the  Spanish  crown  was 
an  involuntary  act,  which  circumstances  had  rendered  neces- 
sary, to  save  both  his  own  life  and  that  of  the  queen,  from 
the  threatened  violence  of  Ferdinand's  partisans.  'I'he  French 
troops  were,  in  the  mean  time,  concentratins'-  in  the  heart  of 
Spain  ;  and  their  emperor,  whom  Murat  pul)licly  aflirmed 
to  l)e  marcliiufr  for  tiie  S])anish  frontier,  declined  makinji^  any 
reply  to  repealed  kind  messages  delivered  to  him  on  the  part  of 
Ferdinand."  It  was,  however,  intimated  to  the  latter,  that 
his  advancing  towards  the  frontier  tc)  meet  his  guest,  would 
be  a  sure  means  of  winning  his  friendship.  Cevallos  stronirlv 
advised  his  royal  master  against  making  this  journey,  till  l5o- 
naparte  should  have  at  least  passed  the  Pvrenees.  But  the 
faiihful  miidster's  remonstrances  were  overruled  by  the  i)er- 
suasions  of  Murat  and  Savary  ;  and  Ferdinand,  expecting  at 
the  end  of  earh  day's  journey  to  meet  Najioleon.  was  ali\n"0(l 
from  Madrid  to  Burgos,  tlieiice  to  V'iltoria,  and  lastly  to  Uay- 
onne.  There  the  royal  interview  took  place,  and  under  such 
an  exterior  of  friendship,  as  seemed  to  promise  l-'crdinand  the 
immediate  recognition  of  his  title.  Savary,  however,  was 
soon  deputed  to  say  that  Napoleon  rcqinred  him  to  resign  in 
his  own  name,  and  in  that  of  his  family,  the  crown  of  Spain 
and  of  the  Indies.     'I'iie  Spanish  monarch  expostulated  against 

•  Niipoleon,  as  it  is  snid,  Hnue)>t  Hi  first  to  efTrcl  tlir  sutijnciition  of  Spain, 
by  the  marri;ii;('  of  his  nicrc,  Chiirloltc,  ilic  duui^lilcr  of  Ijucifn,  willi  the 
hrir  to  th:it  monarrhy.  Had  he  sucrcedct]  in  this  di'sign,  F'crdinatxl  vvoulil 
prohahly  havp  retainrd  his  rrown,  for  which  the  rmperor  had  sonin  dilTi- 
culty  in  finding  ii  cnndidule.  Hut  tlic  yoiiiiK  lady  resolutely  dcrhnnd  thn 
projpcird  iir:ion.  "  ( "i-st  im  nitjind,"  snid  sho,  "jc  n'rn  vpux  pas."  Both 
Loui^  and  Lucicn  had  ri-fiiscd  ihi-  Spmiish  scf'[)lrc  licforc  it  was  ofForcd  to 
Josrph,to  whom  tho  transition  could  srarroly  have  lioen  uprccahlc,  from  a 
thmiic.  of  wliich  \w  was  in  ()Pa<'oali|i'  [lossrssion,  to  one  which  he  would 
havp  to  win  Uy  force  of  nnuH.  Il  has  heen  a<iiiorted  that  hn  came  to  Hay 
oiirip  to  decline  with  pro|  er  courti'sv  the  [)ro(iosed  tiansfer ;  hut  thin  Na- 
p<j|eon  prevented  liy  itaiuLng  him  as  King  of  8pain. 


XLVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  319 

the  treachery,  and  refused  compliance  with  the  requisition  ol 
his  ally.  But  neither  his  representations,  nor  those  of  Ce 
vallos,  could  shake  the  purpose  of  Napoleon.  The  abdicated 
monarch,  with  his  queen  and  the  Infantos  Don  Carlos  and 
Don  Antonio,  who  had  been  by  similar  means  decoyed  to 
seek  an  interview  with  the  French  emperor,  now  arrived  at 
Bayonne.  The  two  kings  being  thus  in  his  power,  Napoleon 
easily  won  over  Charles  to  make  a  formal  resignation  of  his 
crown  ;  while  Ferdinand,  who  was  kept  in  ignorance  of  this 
previous  arrangement,  was  induced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of 
his  father.  By  a  second  declaration,  in  which  the  young 
king  and  his  brothers  adhered  to  the  cession  made  by  Charles 
of  the  monarchy  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  the  object  of  the 
French  emperor  in  this  unprincipled  transaction  was  fully 
accomplished. 

Charles,  to  reconcile  the  Spaniards  to  this  transfer,  issued 
a  proclamation  to  the  supreme  council  of  Castile,  to  the  in- 
quisition, and  to  the  junta  of  government,  informing  them  that 
he  had  abdicated  in  favour  of  "  his  friend,''''  the  Emperor  Na- 
poleon ;  appointing  Murat  lieutenant-governor  of  the  kingdom, 
and  advising  his  subjects  calmly  to  acquiesce  in  the  new  ar- 
rangements. Ferdinand,  and  the  Infmtos  Don  Carlos  and 
Don  Antonio,  addressed  proclamations  of  a  similar  nature  to 
the  Spanish  nation.  As  a  reward  for  the  compliance  of 
Charles  and  Ferdinand,  to  the  former  was  given  the  palace  of 
Compiegne  and  a  civil  list  of  800,000  livres  ;  to  the  latter,  the 
demesne  of  Navarre,  with  a  yearly  grant  of  400,000  livres 
of  appanage-rent,  to  descend  to  his  heirs,  and  a  grant  of 
60,000  livres  for  life.  Ferdinand's  uncle  and  brothers  were 
also  allowed  a  yearly  revenue.  When  these  terms  were 
finally  adjusted,  the  royal  family  of  Spain  were  sent  into  the 
interior  of  France. 

While  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  in  agita- 
tion at  Bayonne,  popular  commotions,  caused  by  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  Spaniards  at  the  violence  offered  to  their  rulers, 
prevailed  in  Madrid.  On  the  2d  of  May,  the  Queen  of 
Etruria  and  the  Infanto  Don  Francisco  de  Paula,  who  had 
not  accompanied  Charles  or  Ferdinand  to  the  frontiers,  pre- 
pared to  join  their  royal  relatives  at  Bayonne.  A  report  hav- 
ing gained  circulation  that  Antonio,  president  of  the  provi- 
sional government,  was,  by  Murat's  order,  likewise  to  leave  the 
capital,  the  citizens,  assembling  tumultuously  in  the  principal 
streets,  resolved  to  prevent  his  departure.  The  Spanish 
troof  s,  confined  by  order  of  Murat  in  their  barracks,  could 


320  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [[cHAP 

give  no  support  to  the  populace,  who,  notwiilistanding,  boldly 
attaokod  the  IVrnch  soldiery.  The  result  inavhe  easily  con- 
jecliired.  Six  lliousaiid  arincd  and  skilful  troops  triumphed 
over  the  exertions  of  an  undisciplined  ra!)hlc.  Nunil)crs  were 
massacred,  and  those  who  had  been  so  fortunate  as  to  escape 
the  carnaiTc  in  the  streets,  were  pursued  intd  their  houses,  and 
shot  or  put  to  the  sword.  On  tlie  follo\viu<r  day  the  surviv- 
in<^  insurj^ents  were  arraigned  before  a  tribunal,  of  which 
Grouchy  was  president,  and  sentenced  to  execution.  The 
council  of  Madrid,  anxious  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  similar 
liorrors,  appointed  Murat  their  president.  Petitions,  in  the 
name  of  the  Spanish  grandees,  dictated,  as  it  is  said,  by  him, 
and  praying  the  elevation  of  Josepli  Bonaparte  to  the  throne 
of  Spain,  were  presented  to  Napoleon;  and  the  emperor's 
brother  was  in  consequence  declared  successor  of  Ferdinand. 
But  neither  the  addresses  of  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  nor  t!io 
advice  of  the  council  of  the  inquisition,  nor  yet  a  conciHatory 
proclamation  from  Napoleon  himself,  could  reconcile  the 
Spaniards  to  the  recent  events.  Tlie  Governor-general  of  An- 
dalusia, suspected  of  attacliment  to  the  French  cause,  was 
put  to  death,  and  Don  Morla,  a  staunch  patriot,  a[)pointed 
to  fill  his  place.  The  Governor-general  of  Arragon  was,  for  a 
similar  reason,  supplanted  by  General  Palafox.  The  juntas 
assembled  ;  the  assistance  of  England  to  expel  the  French 
from  Spain  was  applied  for,  and  a  general  insurrection  in  all 
the  provinces  not  occupied  by  French  troops,  (juicklv  took 
place.  As  Madrid  was  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  the  chief 
direction  of  the  resources  of  Spain  devolved  tipon  the  junta 
of  Seville.  A  declaration  of  war  against  France  and  of  peace 
with  England,  as  also  directions  relative  to  the  system  of  war- 
fare to  be  observed  in  the  approaching  contest,  were  issued  ; 
all  persons  from  the  age  of  sixteen  to  forty-five,  who  had  no 
chihiren,  were  firdered  to  enrol  themselves  under  the  banners 
of  Ferdinand,  and  the  patriots  were  advised  rather  to  harass 
the  French,  than  to  engage  them  in  general  actions.  ICarly 
successes  aniinateil  iIk;  Spaniards  to  vigorous  and  perseverino' 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  inde|)endt,'nce.  A  French  squadron 
of  five  ships  of  the  line  and  two  frigates,  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Rossilly,  in  the  harl)()iir  of  Cadiz,  was  oliliged, 
(June  1  till,)  after  having  sustained  a  heavy  cannonade  for 
three  days,  to  surrender  to  General  Morla.  To  prevent 
the  rapture  of  this  squadron,  and  to  reduce  the  cities 
of  Seville  and  ('adiz,  fJeneral  Dupont  had  l)een  (les|)atclied 
by  Murat,  with  a  considerable  force,  to   Andalusia.      Duponl 


KLVIII.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  321 

passed  the  Sierra  Morena  without  opposition,  and  entered 
Cordova,  where  he  was  but  feebly  nisisted.  When  apprized, 
however,  ol'  tlie  surrender  of  the  Heet,  and  tliat  the  Spanisi) 
general,  Castunos,  with  the  forces  of  Andalusia  and  a  body  ot 
troops  from  Ceuta,  was  advancing  to  oppose  hiin,  he  retreated 
upon  Andujar.  In  an  endeavour  to  surprise  one  of  the  divi- 
sions of  Caslanos'  army,  he  was  defeated  and  compelled  to 
surrender.  By  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  it  was  agreed, 
that  the  French  should  be  embarked  at  Cadiz,  and  sent  to 
Ro-ihefort.  With  this  condition,  however,  the  junta  of  Seville 
relused  to  comply,  alleging  that  Castanos  had  exceeded  his 
powers  in  treating  with  the  enemy. 

While  the  French  were  thus  unsuccessful  in  the  south  of 
Spain,  the  emperor  remained  at  Bayonne,  where  he  had  called 
an  assembly  of  Spanish  notables,  to  deliberate  on  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  constitutional  code.  Joseph  Bonaparte  arrived 
in  thatcity  on  the  6th  of  June,  and  was  waited  upon  by  depu- 
tations from  the  council  of  Castile,  and  from  the  grandees  of 
Spain.  When  the  constitution  had  received  the  approbation 
of  the  notables,  Joseph  set  out  for  Madrid,  after  having  abdi- 
cated the  crown  of  Naples  in  ftivour  of  Murat,  and  chosen 
ministers  to  assist  him  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  his 
new  sovereignty.  He  made  his  triumphant  entry  on  the  10th 
of  July,  and  was  crowned,  amidst  the  plaudits  of  the  grandees 
and  the  undisguised  murmurs  of  the  populace,  on  the  19th, 
which  was  the  very  day  of  Dupont's  surrender.  The  news 
of  this  disaster  induced  him  to  retreat  to  Burgos ;  not,  how- 
ever, till  he  had  secured  the  plate  and  regalia  belonging  to  the 
Spanish  crown. 

Palafox  was  as  successful  against  the  enemy  in  Arragon, 
as  Castanos  in  Andalusia.  General  Le  Febre  invaded  that 
province  early  in  June,  and,  repelling  the  opposition  of  the 
Spanish  peasantry,  pushed  on  to  Saragossa,  and,  on  the 
14th,  stationed  a  detachment  of  his  troops  under  its  walls. 
These  were  repulsed  with  loss,  and  General  Palafox  prepared 
the  city  to  sustain  a  siege.  On  the  27th,  the  French  advanced 
to  attack  it,  but  their  battering  engines  were  defied  by  the 
Arragonese,  who,  during  a  siege  of  six  weeks'  continuance, 
displayed  such  unexampled  bravery  as  ultimately  to  dis- 
courage the  assailants,  and  compel  them  to  withdraw  their 
troops.  In  Valencia,  too,  victory  declared  itself  for  the 
patriot  standard.  General  Moncey,  sent  by  Bonaparte  into 
that  province,  succeeded  in  forcing  his  way  to  the  capital, 
which  he  prepared  to  attack.     For  seven  hours  the  French 


322  OENRTIAL    HISTORY    OK    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

cannonade  was  cliret-ted  apainst  it ;  Imt  the  hesiogers,  being 
rrpulscd  in  two  utti'rnpts  upon  tlio  ^atts,  rcliniiuiislird  their 
purpose,  and  retreated  out  ol  llie  province. 

Great  iniportanee  was  allached,  both  liy  the  I'rriich  and 
Spanish  coniniaiulers,  to  the  possession  of  tlie  roail  lietween 
Uayonne  and  Madrid.  Cuesta  was  llie  Spanish,  Lassolles 
the  French  general,  deputed  to  secure  this  conmumication. 
On  the  14ih  of  July  these  commanders  met  and  foujrht,  at 
Uio  Seco.  The  patriots  were,  at  the  first  onset,  victorious; 
but  were  eventually  forced  to  retreat  to  Henavento.  'i'hc  loss 
sustained  by  the  French,  however,  in  this  action,  was  so 
great,  ;is  to  render  their  victory  but  a  trilling  advaiitai.'c. 

Upon  the  departure  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  from  Madrid,  the 
council  of  Castile  resumed  the  administration  of  government, 
and  professed  attachment  to  the  cause  of  Ferdinand;  but  the 
junta  of  Seville  conliinu-d  to  direct  the  movements  and  to 
possess  tlie  confidence  of  the  patriots.  By  its  order,  a  su- 
preme government,  composed  of  members  selected  from  all 
the  juntas  of  the  kingdom,  was  formed  ami  installed  (vScpiem- 
ber  24lh)  at  Aranjues;  and  a  military  junta,  consisting  of  five 
generals,  among  whom  were  Castanos  and  Morla,  was  formed 
at  Madrid.  The  defeat  sustained  by  the  French  on  all  sides, 
ol)ligcd  them  to  retreat  northward.  'I'hev  repassed  the  Ebro, 
concentrated  their  forces  in  Navarre  and  Biscay,  and  awaited 
the  arrival  of  reinforcements.  The  chief  command  of  the 
French  troops  was  vested  in  Marshal  lUssieres.  'J'he  S|)a- 
nisli  forces  under  Castanos,  Blake,  and  I'alal'ox  approached 
the  same  direction,  with  the  intention  of  occupying  the  line  of 
the  Fbro. 

'J'he  application  of  the  Sj)anish  patriots  to  l^iiirland  was 
not  fruitless.  Large  supplies  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  eloth- 
intr  were  sent  to  the  juntas  of  (Jalicia  and  Asturias,  and 
9,000  men,  commanded  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  sailed  from 
Cork  on  the  I '2th  of  July  for  the  Spanish  coast.  They  ar- 
rived atCorimna  on  the  20th.  Sir  Artlmr  proposed  that  they 
ghould  be  employed  airaiiist  the  IVench  in  Spain  ;  but  the 
junta  of  (Jalicia  dccliiud  the  oiler,  and  re()uesied  Sir  Arthur 
to  employ  his  fon-e  in  exi)ellint:  the  I'Vench  from  liisbon. 
lie  llu  refore  left  Calicia  for  Oporto.  The  resistance  made 
by  the  Spaniards  to  the  yoke  of  France,  roused  a  correspond- 
ing spirit  throughout  the  whole  north  of  Portugal.  IVovin- 
cial  juntas  were  asseml)le(l  as  in  Sp:iin.  That  of  Oporto  was 
the  most  efTicient:  by  its  orders  the  resources  of  the  kintrdorti 
were  directed.     'I'he  I'oringuese  governor  of  that  city  »how- 


JCLTIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    Of    EUROPE.  323 

ing  clisafTection  to  the  patriot  cause,  was  superseded  by  the 
bishop  ;  and  20,000  men  were  sent  to  oppose  a  body  of  French 
troops,  wliich  had  advanced  under  General  Loison  to  Ania- 
rante.  A  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  with  Spain,  was 
signed  on  the  14th  of  July,  at  Oporto,  in  the  names  of  the 
prince-regent  and  King  Ferdinand.  The  spirit  of  patriotism 
in  the  south  of  Portugal  was  checked  by  Junot,  who  defeated 
its  rising  efforts  at  Villa  Vicosa,  Beja,  and  Evora. 

The  junta  of  Portugal  having  also  applied  to  England  for 
support,  the  army  of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  ultimately  disem- 
barked in  Mondego  Bay.  It  was  to  be  reinforced  by  troops 
from  the  south  of  Spain  under  General  Spencer,  by  5,000 
men  from  England  under  Generals  Auckland  and  Anstruther, 
and  by  10,000  men  from  the  Baltic  under  Sir  John  Moore.  The 
command  of  this  united  force  was  vested  in  Sir  Hew  Dal- 
rymple.  The  patriots  were  further  encouraged  by  the  pre- 
sence of  an  English  fleet,  under  Sir  Charles  Cotton,  upon 
their  coast. 

Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  being  apprized  that  Junot  had  de- 
tached Loison  with  6,000  men  to  quell  an  insurrection  in 
Alentejo,  disembarked  his  troops  without  waiting  the  arrival 
of  the  expected  reinforcements.  He  was  joined  by  General 
Spencer  on  the  9th  of  August,  and  marched  from  Mondego 
towards  Lisbon.  As  Marshal  Bessieres  was  advancing  to 
support  Junot,  Sir  Arthur  determined  to  attack  the  latter 
before  the  projected  junction  could  be  accomplished.  But 
this  plan  of  operations  was  disconcerted  by  a  coolness,  which 
arose  between  the  English  and  Portuguese  commanders  ;  the 
latter  demanding  supplies  from  the  English  stores,  and  the 
former  refusing  to  grant  them,  on  the  plea  that  their  being 
shared  in  the  way  proposed,  would  render  the  support  of  the 
British  troop >  scanty  and  precarious.  On  the  15th  the  ad- 
vanced guard  of  the  British  army  came  up  with  and  defeated 
a  party  of  French  troops  at  Oviedo,  and,  two  days  later.  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  gained  a  signal  victory  over  General  La- 
borde,  at  Roleia.  The  victorious  army  then  moved  to  Lou- 
rinha,  to  cover  the  debarkations  of  Generals  Anstruther  and 
Auckland  ;  and  on  the  21st  resumed  their  march  towards  Lis- 
bon. Junot,  resolving  to  attack  the  English  army,  before  it 
could  be  reinforced  by  Sir  John  Moore,  advanced  to  meet  it, 
and  came  up  with  Sir  Arthur  in  the  vicinity  of  Vimeira.  The 
contest  that  ensued  was  protracted  and  desperate,  and  its 
result  a  decisive  defeat  to  the  French,  with  comparatively 
alight  loss  to  their  opponents.     Sir  H.  Burrard,  superior  in 


324  GENERAL    MISTOUY    OF    EUROPE.  fcllAP. 

roinmand  to  Sir  A.  WcUeslcy,  had  arrived  after  llie  disposi* 
tioiis  fur  liattlc  had  l)prn  niadr.  rorcsrointr  that  thry  were 
such  as  would  insure  victory  to  the  ]']iiirlisli,  lie  declined  tak- 
ing the  command,  till  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  should  have  pained 
all  the  advantages  wliich  seemed  to  await  his  rnaslerly  arranire- 
iiients.  'I'he  English  army  removed  to  ('intra  after  the  battle 
of  Vimeira,  and,  on  the  following  day,  Sir  Hew  Dalryinple, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  united  divisions,  arrived  at  the 
liiitish  camp.  A  flanr  of  truce  was  despatched  by  Junot,  with 
a  proposal  fo-r  an  armistice,  preparatory  to  the  arrangement  of 
a  convention,  by  which  the  French  wouhl  engage  to  evacuate 
Portusral.  The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  a  convention 
.signed  ;  the  chief  articles  stipulated  were,  that  all  such  ports 
in  Portujral  as  were  then  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  should 
be  surrendered  to  the  English  army ;  that  Junot's  troops 
should  be  conveyed  to  France,  at  the  expense  of  the  Hritislj 
government,  and  that  no  native  of  Portugal  should  be  account- 
able for  his  political  conduct,  during  the  time  that  the  French  had 
occupied  that  country.  By  a  separate  convention,  the  Russian 
ships  in  the  Tagus  were  to  be  sent  to  Enjrland,  under  Sir  C. 
Cotton,  and  there  detained,  till  peace  should  be  concluded  be- 
tween llie  two  nations.  The  terms  of  the  convention  excited 
loud  murmurs  of  disapproliation.  Cieneral  Frcire,  the  Portu- 
guese commander,  reprobated  its  stipulations  :  and  in  Eng- 
land the  call  for  inipiiry  into  the  motives  which  had  inlluenced 
its  framers,  was  so  general,  as  to  induce  the  government  to 
institute  a  hoard  for  that  purpose.  Sir  II.  Dalrymple,  Sir  H. 
Hurrard,  and  Sir  A.  Wellesley  were  summoned  to  attend  the 
investigation.  The  board  of  inquiry  partly  approved,  and 
partly  condemned  the  terms  of  the  convention,  so  that  no 
further  procecMlings  were  instituted  against  the  generals. 

The  command  of  the  British  troops  in  I^ortugal  was  now 
given  to  Sir  John  .M(jure,  who  had  arrived  at  his  destination, 
while  the  negotiations  for  the  convention  of  Cintra  were  pend- 
ing. His  orders  were  to  advance  into  Leon  and  Galicia, 
where  12,0(10  men,  who  had  emi)arked  under  Sir  David  Baird 
at  Plymouth,  for  the  Spanish  service,  were  to  join  him  ;  and 
it  was  proposed  that  these  united  armies  should  co-operate 
with  tlie  patriots,  in  expelling  the  French  from  Spain.  A 
cf)rps  of  10,000  Spanish  veterans,  under  the  command  of  the 
Maniuis  de  Homana,  landed  in  the  north  of  Spain  about  this 
time,  and  proved  a  valuable  accniisition  to  the  paliiot  cause. 
They  had  been  drawn  out  of  the  country  as  auxiliaries,  early 
ui  the  year,  by  Bonaparte,  and  were  stationed  in  Denmark  at 


XLVIH.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  325 

the  epoch  of  the  French  invasion.  By  the  assistance  of  the 
Enghsh  Admiral  Keats,  their  gallant  commander  was  enabled 
to  liberate  his  corps,  which  was  conveyed  by  a  British  squad- 
ron to  the  coast  of  Spain.  Napoleon  left  Bayonne  in  Sep- 
tember for  Paris ;  and  thence,  after  having  called  out  an 
additional  force  to  act  in  Spain,  proceeded  to  Erfurth,  to  meet 
the  confederate  German  princes  and  the  Emperor  Alexander. 
Overtures  of  a  conciliatory  nature  from  France  and  Russia 
to  England,  were  the  immediate  result  of  this  conference  ;  but 
as  the  King  of  England  would  enter  into  no  specific  discus- 
sion, in  which  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  Spanish  patriots 
were  not  allowed  to  participate,  the  prosecution  of  war  was 
determined  upon  by  all  parties.  Bonaparte,  therefore,  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  NovemlDcr  with  a  reinforcement  of  12,000 
men,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Vittoria.  The  whole 
French  force  in  Spain  now  amounted  to  200,000  men.  The 
left  wing,  commanded  by  Moncey,  was  posted  along  the  rivers 
Ebro  and  Arragon ;  the  division  of  Ney  was  at  Guardia  ; 
Bessieres  was  at  Miranda ;  and  Merlin  on  the  heights  of  Du- 
rango. 

The  united  force  of  Castanos  and  Palafox,  which  formed 
the  left  wing  of  the  Spanish  army,  was  20,000  men ;  it  was 
posted  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arragon.  The  army  of  Estra- 
madura  and  Murcia,  under  General  Cuesta,  formed  the  centre 
and  opposed  the  French  on  the  Ebro  ;  its  amount  was  30,000. 
Blake's  force,  25,000  strong,  was  stationed  on  the  right  of 
the  French  army.  But  the  real  strength  of  the  patriots  lay 
in  the  armed  population,  continually  carrying  on  an  irregular, 
but  extremely  harassing  warfare  against  the  invaders.  The 
trained  forces  of  Spain  were  wholly  unable  to  contend  in  the 
field  with  disciplined  troops,  commanded  by  the  ablest  gene- 
rals of  the  age,  and  fighting  under  the  eye  of  the  emperor. 
Hence  the  campaign  which  followed  Napoleon's  arrival,  was 
marked  by  a  series  of  victories  on  the  part  of  the  French  ;  and 
the  Spanish  forces  were  rendered  ineffective,  before  the  Eng- 
lish could  arrive  to  afford  them  succour.  Sir  J.  Moore  had, 
in  effect,  marched  from  Lisbon  in  October  to  push  into  Leon, 
as  he  had  been  ordered,  intending  to  unite  his  array  with  that 
of  Sir  D.  Baird,  either  at  Valladolid  or  at  Salamanca.  The 
latter,  however,  upon  his  arrival  at  Corunna,  was  refused  per- 
mission to  disembark  by  the  junta  of  Galicia  ;  and  when,  after 
much  expostulation,  the  permission  was  granted,  he  could 
hardly  procure  necessaries  for  the  march  or  sustenance  of  his 
troops.     The  Spanish  armies,  which  for  the  most  part  pre* 

30 


820  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAF. 

eented  a  niass  of  wretched,  undisripliried  peasantry,  instead 
of  trying  lo  form  a  junction  willi  the  liritish  auxiliaries, 
uiarclicd  frcuii  them,  excej)!  12,000  men  of  llie  army  of  li^slra- 
niailura,  who  were  l)Ul  newly  levied,  and  cominaniltHl  by 
Count  Belvidcre,  a  young,  inexperienced  officer.  Tiiese 
advanced  upon  Sir  .1.  Moore's  line  of  march  as  far  as  llurgos. 

The  French  were  not  slow  in  taking  advantage  of  these 
errors.  They  resolved  to  defeat  the  Spaniards,  before  the 
English  co\dd  arrive  to  reinforce  them,  ami  began  by  attack- 
ing, on  the  31st  of  October,  the  ilivision  commanded  i)y  Hlake. 
After  skilfully  contending,  during  eight  hours,  with  his  assail- 
ants, that  general  was  forced  to  retreat  upon  Valmaseda. 
Thither  he  was  pursued  by  Le  Febre,  and,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days,  sustained  such  heavy  losses,  as  compelled  him  to 
withdraw  into  Asturias,  and  rendered  him  unable  to  take  any 
efficient  part  in  the  sul)se(iuent  operations  of  the  campaign. 
Against  IJelvidere  and  Castanos  the  French  were  equally  suc- 
cessful. The  city  of  Saragossa,  into  which  the  heroic  Falafox 
had  retired,  sustained  a  second  sien-e,  as  memorable  as  that  al- 
ready mentioned  ;  and  it  was  not  till  30,000  citizens  had  fallen  in 
its  defence,  nor  till  the  mortality  caused  by  pestilence  amounted 
daily  to  400  persons,  that  the  inhal)itants  consented  to  surren- 
der. While  Sir  .Tolm  Aloore  awaited  at  Salamanca  the  ex- 
pected arrival  of  Sir  1).  liaird  and  General  Hope;,  he  received 
intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armies.  His  first 
impulse  was  to  retreat  upon  Porlu<:al  ;  but  this  resolution  was 
counteracted  l)y  letters  from  Mr.  Frere,  the  British  ambassa- 
dor at  Madrid,  and  from  Castel  Franca  and  General  Morla,* 
all  of  whom  advised  his  advance  upon  that  city,  and  assured 
him  of  the  co-operation  of  the  Sjianiards  in  and  about  the 
eai)ital.  Similar  representations  from  Morla,  induced  ('asla- 
nos  to  march  from  ('alalaya  upon  Madrid,  over  roads  almost 
impassal)le.  His  troops  had  to  contend,  (hirini:  their  jiroirress, 
with  cold,  hunger,  and  nakedness,  ami,  being  pursued  by 
Bessif.res  and  Victor,  were  overtaken  by  them  at  Tudela  and 
entirely  defeated.  Castanos  was  shortly  after  recalled  bj  the 
pupreme  junta  and  superseded  by  Lapena. 

On  the  2d  of  Deceuiber,  llonaparte  arrived  before  Madrid. 
The  citizens  resolved  upon  making  a  desperate  defence,  and 
Fiibmiiting  to  every  privation  rather  than  caj)itulatc.  The 
enemy's  cannon,  which  for  two  days  played  ujx)!!,  and  threat- 
ened destruction  to  their  city,  elfected  no  alteration   in   their 

•  Castel  Franca  and  .Morla  were  the  Governors  of  Madrid,  and  traitort 
to  the  patriot  cauue. 


XlVin.]  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  327 

purpose ;  but  the  governors  consented  to  a  surrender,  and  on 
the  Sth  the  French  took  possession  of  Madrid. 

Sir  John  Moore,  yielding  to  the  wislies  of  the  city  authori- 
ties, had  advanced,  after  having  been  joined  by  General  Hope, 
towards  Valladolid.  AVhile  on  his  march,  he  learned  that 
Soult  was  at  Saldanha,  Junot  at  Burgos,  and  Bessieres  pursu- 
ing the  retreating  army  of  Castanos  to  Valen^a.  Fearing 
that  the  near  approach  of  the  French  might  prevent  his  junc- 
tion with  Sir  David  Baird,  he  made  for  Majorga,  where  this 
long-projected  union  was  at  length  accomplished.  The  Bri- 
tish army,  now  consisting  of  25,000  men,  advanced  with  the 
intention  of  giving  batde  to  Marshal  Soult,  when  Sir  John 
received  intelligence  that  Napoleon  had  issued  orders  to  his 
generals,  enjoining  them  to  advance  from  their  respective  po- 
sitions, so  as  to  enclose  the  British  army,  and  that  Soult  had 
received  considerable  reinforcements. 

Upon  the  receipt  of  this  information,  he  conceived  retreat 
indispensable,  and  fell  back  upon  Galicia.  On  the  26th,  Na- 
poleon's cavalry,  and  part  of  his  artillery,  came  up  with  the 
rear  of  the  British  army,  commanded  by  Lord  Paget,  and 
two  skirmishes  ensued,  in  which  the  English  were  victorious. 
When  Napoleon  reached  A-Storga,  news  that  Austria  proposed 
to  take  advantage  of  his  absence,  to  recover  the  territories  of 
which  she  had  been  deprived  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  re- 
called him  to  Paris,  and  obliged  him  to  leave  the  pursuit  of 
the  English  armies  to  his  generals. 

Sir  J.  Moore,  though  rapidly  retreating,  purposed,  if  pos- 
sible, not  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  the  Spanish  territory. 
He  hoped  to  maintain  himself  in  the  mountains  of  Galicia, 
and,  by  avoiding  a  general  engagement,  to  gain  time ;  during 
which,  reinforcements  might  arrive  from  England,  the  Spanish 
armies  in  the  south  be  assembled,  and  the  troops  under  Ro- 
mana,  who,  upon  Blake's  defeat,  had  been  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief, be  equipped  aiid  reinforced.  But  accumulated 
and  unexpected  difficulties  frustrated  the  hopes,  and  marred 
the  projects  of  the  British  general  in  every  stage  of  the  cam- 
paign. He  had  expected  much  assistance  from  the  Spanish 
peasantry,  whose  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  independence 
had  become  proverbial;  he  found  such  mismanagement  in  the 
Spanish  councils  as  to  render  it  unavailing :  he  had  hoped  for 
the  co-operation  of  the  Spanish  armies;  not  one  of  them 
formed  a  junction  with  him:  the  central  junta  had  misled  and 
deceived  him;  the  provisions  of  tlie  English  army  were 
scanty ;  relief  of  any  kind  was  reluctantly  yielded,   and  in 


328  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [cHAP. 

most  instances  carried  o(T  hy  the  peasantry  ;  the  severity  of 
the  season  so  increased  these  difficulties,  as  to  make  thenn 
dniost  iiisurni()UiUal)le;  the  tmops,  rendered  desjierate  l)v  want 
ot  necessaries,  were  ihsorilerlv  antl  nnniaiiafreal)le ;  and,  in 
fine,  the  French  armVt  far  superior  to  his  in  number,  was  in 
close  pursuit.  At  Luiro,  however,  where  Sir  John  arrived  on 
the  9ih  of  January,  1801),  he  determined  to  (»iler  battle,  and 
chose  a  judicious  position  for  that  purjHise,  Hut  as  S:iult 
declined  the  combat,  he  resumed  his  march  for  the  coast, 
where  he  had  ordered  transports  to  lie  in  readiness  to  receive 
his  troops.  He  reached  Corunna  on  the  1 1th  :  the  transports, 
detained  by  contrary  winds,  had  not  yet  arrived,  and,  on  th€ 
morniiii:  of  the  12th,  the  French  were  seen  approachinsT  the 
city  ;  upon  which  !Sir  John  took  possession  of  a  ridjre  of 
heijrhts,  which  seemed  the  most  favourable  situation  for  con- 
tendinir  with  the  enemy.  Next  day,  the  transports  became 
discernible  from  the  shore,  the  French  advanced  opposite  to 
the  British  position,  and  on  the  followinfj  morninir  beirim  the 
attack.  Almost  at  the  onset.  Sir  I).  Haird's  arm  was  shat- 
tered, and  he  was  oblitred  to  leave  the  field.  Not  lon<r  after, 
a  cannon-ball  from  the  enemy's  batteries  carried  off  the  left 
shoulder  and  part  of  the  collar-bone  of  Sir  John  Moore,  but 
caused  no  alteration  in  his  countenance  or  manner.  His  offi- 
cers, deceived  by  his  heroic  endurance  of  sulferinir.  supposed 
him  for  some  time  merely  stumuMl  by  the  shot.  When  the 
severity  of  his  wound  became  apparent,  they  removed  him 
from  the  field,  and  the  command  of  the  armv  devolved  upon 
Colonel  Hope.  Tiic  troops,  who,  iVom  the  commencement 
of  the  action,  had  fouirht  wiUi  determined  bravery,  were  not 
dismayed  l)y  the  absence  of  their  irenerals,  and  maintained 
the  contest  wiih  undiminished  ardour.  The  total  ilefeat  of 
the  enemy  was  the  reward  of  their  exertions.  On  the  nig^ht 
of  the  Kith,  they  marched  into  ("orunna,  and  the  next  day 
embarked  for  Fnijland.  In  die  mean  time,  the  jjeneral,  to 
whom  they  were  indebted  for  having  made  as  memorable  a 
retreat  as  any  on  historic  record,  was  numbered  amonjr  the 
dead.  His  officers,  recollectin<r,  after  his  decease,  that  he  had 
not  only  desired  to  dii-  in  batlle,  l)ut  that  the  s|)ot  marked  l)y 
liis  fall  should  be  that  of  his  interment,  wrapped  him,  for 
want  of  a  cuirin,  in  a  military  coal  and  blankets,  and  buried 
him  by  ni^hl  on  the  ramparts  of  the  citadel  of  Corunna. 

While  the  contest  for  the  possession  of  Spain  and  Forttiijal 
was  so  vigorously  maintained  in  the  Peninsula,  the  foreign 
territories  of  tiie  aggrieved  powers  made  common  cause  with 


XLVIII.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  329 

their  parent  states.  The  Spanish  West  India  islands  and 
many  ports  of  the  Spanish  main,  proclaimed  war  against  the 
Frencli  emperor.  At  Buenos  Ayres,  too,  the  spirit  of  patriot- 
ism showed  itself,  and  the  ports  of  the  Brazilian  coast  were 
opened  to  English  and  Portuguese  ships. 

A  sanguinary  revolution  took  place  this  year  in  Turkey. 
Stlim  III.  had  been  dethroned  and  imprisoned  in  1807,  by 
the  .lanizaries,  who  raised  his  nephew,  Mustapha,  to  the  throne. 
The  new  sultan  was  deposed,  through  the  agency  of  Musta- 
pha Bairacter,  who  caused  Selim  to  be  again  proclaimed  empe- 
ror. Mustapha  prevented  his  uncle's  restoration,  by  ordering 
him  to  be  strangled  ;  he  could  not,  however,  hinder  his  own 
deposition,  and  the  elevation  of  his  younger  brother,  Mahmoud, 
to  the  throne.  This  prince  made  Bairacter  grand  vizier ;  he 
distinguished  the  short  period  of  his  ministry  by  new-model- 
ling the  army  and  navy,  and  introducing  various  improve- 
ments. But,  like  the  late  Sultan  Selim,  who  had  first 
attempted  these  useful  changes,  he  too  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the 
fury  of  the  Janizaries.  On  the  15th  of  November,  1809,  an 
insurrection  broke  out  among  these  turbulent  troops,  who 
scaled  the  walls  of  the  seraglio  ;  when  Bairacter,  having  first 
strangled  Mustapha,  blew  himself  up  in  his  own  palace,  with 
gunpowder  which  he  had  previously  provided  for  such  an 
occurrence.     Mahmoud  continued  to  occupy  the  throne. 

1809. — The  British  Parliament  assembled  on  the  19th  of 
January,  and  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  officers  and  sol- 
diers, who  had  served  in  the  Peninsula  under  Generals  Sir  J. 
Moore,  Sir  A.  Wellesley,  and  Sir  D.  Baird.  At  an  early  pe- 
riod of  the  session,  an  inquiry  was  instituted  which  excited 
considerable  interest.  Mr.  Wardle,  a  colonel  of  militia, 
charged  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  the  Duke  of 
York,  with  having  permitted  a  lady  named  Clarke  to  sell 
commissions  at  reduced  prices,  and  to  appropriate  the  money 
thus  raised  to  the  maintenance  of  the  duke's  establishment. 
During  the  proceedings  on  the  case,  it  appeared  that  the  traffic 
had  indeed  been  carried  on,  but  unknown  to  his  royal  high- 
ness ;  and  the  House  came  to  the  decision  that  the  charges  of 
"  personal  corruption  and  connivance  at  corruption,"  were 
wholly  unfounded.  The  duke,  however,  thought  fit  to  re- 
sign his  office,  which  Sir  David  Dundas  was  appointed  to  fill. 

England  had  lo  lament,  in  the  early  part  of  this  year,  the 
deposition  of  Gustavus  IV.  of  Sweden,  her  old  and  faithful 
ally.  Secret  discontent  had  long  existed  among  the  subjects 
of  that  monarch,  and  it  began  to  manifest  itself  openly,  when 

30^ 


880  GF.NF.RAL    IIISTORV    OF    El'ROPE.  [cHAF. 

the  proposals  of  peace,  made  hy  France,  were  rejected  by  the 
kinij.  The  public  dissatisfaction  was  aiignu'iUed  l)y  the  hiss 
of  I'omeraiiia  and  I-'inland,  and  by  several  iinpopidar  mea- 
sures. Civil  war  was  on  the  point  of  breakinfr  out  :  tiic  king 
had  fixed  the  lOlh  of  March  for  the  day  of  his  departure  to 
oppose  the  rebels;  his  soldiers  had  set  out,  and  the  ollicers 
had  received  orders  to  join  them  immediately.  In  tiiat  crisis, 
after  all  the  council  had  in  vain  entreated  the  kino  to  conclude 
a  peace,  the  Field-marshal  Klinsport  and  General  Adler- 
creutz  waited  on  his  majesty  and  told  iiiin,  "  that  an  end  must 
be  put  to  all  the  liorrors  lie  had  commanded  ;  that  their  duty 
as  Swedes  was  to  save  their  country,  which  was  dearer  to 
them  than  any  other  object,  and  that  he  must  either  cci\c  to 
their  entreaties  or  cease  to  reign."  The  king  answered  that 
lie  would  never  yield,  anil  drew  his  sword  to  ])i('rce  (General 
Adlercreutz;  but  at  the  same  instant  eight  or  ten  other  persons 
entered,  having  at  their  head  tlic  marshal  of  the  court,  SifT- 
versparre,  who  said,  "  Sire,  your  sword  was  given  you  to 
draw  against  the  enemies  of  the  nation,  not  against  loyal 
Swedes,  who  only  seek  their  country's  haj)piness  and  yours," 
and  at  the  same  time  he  seized  the  sword.  The  king  attempted 
to  escape  by  flight,  but  was  overtaken  and  conducted  the  same 
evening  to  the  caslle  of  Droltningholm,  where  he  was^dosely 
guarded.  On  the  29th  of  March,  he  signed  an  act  of  abdi- 
cation, addressed  to  the  senate.  His  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Su- 
dermania,  was  j)roclaimcd  regent,  and  shortly  after  sovereign 
of  Sweden,  by  the  name  of  Charles  XIII.  The  Prince  of 
Augustenburg  was  elected  crown-prince,  and  a  new  constitu- 
tion was  formed  for  the  Swedish,  monarchy.  By  a  decree  of 
the  diet  of  Sweden  in  the  following  year,  the  ex-King  Gusta- 
vus  and  his  posterity  were  forever  banished  the  Swedish  terri- 
tory, and  forbidden  to  re-enter  it  under  i)ain  of  death.  Gustavus 
afterwards  came  into  Engluiul,  where  he  travelled  under  the 
title  of  Count  Gottorp. 

Shortly  after  the  accession  of  Charles  XIII.,  a  treaty  was 
coniliiiled  between  him  and  the  Fni|)eror  Alexander,  by 
which  Finland  was  ceded  to  the  latter.  Peace  was  also 
proclaimed  between  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  between 
France  and  Sweden.  IJy  the  treatv  with  France,  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  the  priiicij)ality  of  Kugen  were  restored  to 
Sweden,  and  Charles  agreeil  to  dose  hi.H  ports  against  Hritish 
commerce.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance,  l)etween  the  King 
ol'  lOiigland  and  the  Spanish  authorities  actinjr  in  the  name 
of  Ferdinand,  was  concluded  in  February,  his  British  majesty 


XLVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  331 

engaging  to  assist  in  expelling  the  French  from  Spain ;  and 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  was  despatched  to  take  the  command 
of  the  British  army  in  the  Peninsula,  which  by  reinforce- 
ments had  been  increased  to  34,000  men. 

The  French,  meanwhile,  had  not  been  inactive:  Corunna, 
Bilboa,  and  all  the  most  important  places  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Spain  had  fallen  into  their  hands.  Saragossa  had 
been  subdued,  (Feb.  21,)  and,  after  a  defence  unparalleled  in 
modern  history,  compelled  to  surrender  at  discretion.  Mar- 
shal Soult  had  left  Galicia,  and  having  entered  Portugal,  had 
made  himself  master  of  Oporto.  To  dislodge  him  from  that 
city  was  Sir  Arthur's  first  object  on  reaching  Lisbon;  where- 
fore, having  stationed  a  sufficient  force  in  the  neighbourhood 
to  guard  against  any  attack,  he  marched  in  April  for  Oporto, 
drove  the  enemy  thence,  and  then  returned  to  join  Cuesta 
and  advance  with  him  against  Victor,  While  Sir  Arthur  was 
engaged  in  the  north,  that  general  had  taken  Alcantara, 
whence  he  drove  600  of  Sir  Robert  Wilson's  legion  and  a 
troop  of  Portuguese  infantry.  Upon  the  approach  of  Sir 
Arthur,  the  French  general,  who,  in  taking  Alcantara,  had 
only  proposed  to  make  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Soult,  aban- 
doned bis  conquest,  and  stationed  his  army  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Car.ares.  The  patriot  armies  were  at  the  same  time 
equally  successful  against  the  French  commanders  in  the 
north.  After  his  return  from  Oporto,  Sir  A.  Wellesley 
remained  for  some  weeks  at  Lisbon,  trying  to  strike  out  a 
plan  of  co-operation  with  the  Spanish  generals.  During  this 
period,  Victor's  army  was  joined  by  that  of  Sebastiana,  and 
Ijy  45,000  men,  under  Joseph  Bonaparte;  thus  reinforced, 
they  took  post  on  the  banks  of  the  Aberche,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Talavera  de  la  Reyna. 

The  result  of  the  conferences  at  Lisbon  was,  that  the 
united  forces  of  Sir  Arthur  and  Cuesta  should  march  to 
attack  the  central  French  forces,  and  to  take  possession  of 
Madrid.  On  Saturday,  the  22d  of  July,  the  armies  of  Victor 
and  of  the  confederates  were  within  sight  of  each  other. 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  made  dispositions  to  give  battle  on  the 
following  day  ;  but  Cuesta  protesting  against  this  intended 
violation  of  the  day  of  rest,  the  English  commander  deferred 
the  execution  of  his  purpose  ;  and  Victor  retreated  on  the 
evening  of  the  23d,  to  form  a  closer  junction  with  the  other 
divisions  of  the  French  central  army.  Cuesta  pursued  him, 
but  the  British  troops,  wanting  means  of  transport,  were 
obliged  to  remain  stationary.     The  advanced  guard  of  Cuesta 


832  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

was  attacked  on  tlio25th  at  Torrijas,  ami  the  Spanish  pcncral, 
findiiiff  his  force  much  inferior  to  tliat  of  the  eiu'inv,  fell  hack 
on  the  Abcrehe.  Several  partial  enffairenients,  fouirht  during 
the  course  of  that  day  and  ni«jht,  terminated  in  favour  of  the 
IJritisli  troop*;.  At  three  o'clock  next  mornini:,  July  2Glh, 
an  eminence  held  hy  General  Hill  was  ineircctually  attacked 
by  the  enemy.  About  noon,  the  action  became  general,  and 
before  the  close  of  day,  the  French  were  repulsed,  with  the 
loss  of  10,000  men.  They  retreated  across  the  Al)erclie, 
leaving  twenty  pieces  of  cannon  in  the  hands  of  the  com- 
bined army. 

The  news  of  this  victory  excited  great  joy  in  England  : 
its  acliiever  was  raised  to  the  peeratre,  and  entitled  Haron 
Douro  of  Wellesley,  and  Viscount  Wellington  of  Talavera, 
and  of  Wellington,  in  the  county  of  Somerset.  But  the 
Spanish  central  junta,  still  careless  and  iuii)rovi(ient,  neglected 
to  supply  his  army  with  necessaries  ;  and  the  brave  soldiers 
who  had  conquered  at  Talavera,  suirered  such  extreme 
want,  as  led  to  sickness  and  consequent  dejection.  While 
in  this  state  of  languid  helplessness,  they  were  apprized 
that  Soult,  Ney,  and  Mortier,  with  an  army  of  30,000, 
were  advancing  through  Estramadura,  with  the  int(>nlion 
of  falling  on  tlie  rear  of  the  Ikilish  army;  it  was  therefore 
deemed  necessary  to  commence  a  retreat.  Cnesta  was  left 
at  Talavera  with  the  sick  and  wounded,  to  the  numlx-r  of 
15,000;  the  greater  part  of  whom,  on  being  driven  from 
that  position,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  in  the  hands  of  the 
French.  His  own  ill  health  and  infirmities  alfording  a 
plea  for  retirement,  he  resigned,  and  was  replaced  by  (Jeneral 
Eguia.  Lord  W»?llington  continued  his  retrograde  movement 
till  he  reached  Badajoz.  The  remainder  of  the  campaign 
was  most  disastrous  to  the  patriots  ;  their  armies  were  de- 
feated in  every  direction.  The  increasing  success  of  the 
French  awakening  the  fears  of  the  junta,  they  issued  a 
proclamation  for  assembling  the  National  Cortes  on  the  1st 
of  January,  1810. 

The  alienation  which  had  for  some  time  existed  between 
Enirland  and  America,  was  increased  by  a  mis-statement  of 
Mr.  Erskine,  the  Euirlish  am!)assador  to  the  United  States. 
He  assured  the  American  trovj-rnment,  that  if  it  issued  a 
proclamation  for  the  renewal  of  intercourse  with  I'^ngland, 
the  onlers  in  council  would  be  repealed.  Mr.  Madison,  who 
had  succeeded  Mr.  JellVrson  in  the  ofTice  of  prrsid-nt,  con- 
sented to  the  proposed  measure  ;  but  the  English  ministry 


XLVni.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  333 

refused  to  repeal  the  orders,  asserting-  tliat  they  had,  indeed, 
permitted  Mr.  Erskine  to  treat  vvitii  the  American  govern- 
ment, but  on  a  basis  dillerent  from  that  which  he  had  laid 
down.  The  American  government,  in  turn,  renewed  the 
non-importation  act,*  and  much  mutual  recrimination  en- 
sued. 

Bonaparte,  in  the  mean  while,  had  reached  Paris,  and  found 
the  intelligence,  which  had  been  conveyed  to  him  in  Spain,  as 
to  the  hostile  preparations  of  Austria,  to  be  correct.  Her  land- 
wehr,  or  militia,  had  been  called  out  for  the  first  time ;  inde- 
pendently of  which,  the  regular  troops  of  the  empire,  divided 
into  nine  corps,  consisted  of  at  least  200,000  men,  commanded 
by  the  Archduke  Charles  in  person.  Bonaparte,  on  his  side, 
assembled  troops  to  an  immense  amount,  by  new  levies  from 
the  interior  of  France,  and  by  ordering  his  generals  to  advance, 
at  the  head  of  their  respective  divisions,  towards  the  Danube. 
The  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  the  Princes  of  the 
Rhenish  confederation  were  called  upon  for  their  contingents, 
and  even  the  Emperor  of  Russia  was  induced  to  assume  a  hos- 
tile attitude  towards  his  late  ally.  The  expected  declaration 
of  war  was  issued  by  Austria  on  the  8th  of  April,  and  on  the 
following  day  the  Archduke  Charles  crossed  the  Inn  and  en- 
tered Bavaria.  The  French  emperor  left  Paris  to  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  grand  army  on  the  12th  of  April,  and,  with  his 
usual  rapidity  of  movements,  arrived  on  the  17th  at  Donau- 
werth.  On  the  20th,  he  routed  a  division  of  60,000  men,  com- 
manded by  the  Archduke  Lewis,  and  General  Hiller,  at  Abens- 
burg ;  and  the  next  day  gained  a  more  important  victory  at 
Eckmiihl  over  four  corps,  under  the  orders  of  the  Archduke 
Charles,  who,  himself,  narrowly  escaped  capture.  Resolving 
to  follow  up  these  early  successes.  Napoleon  advanced  with 
such  extreme  rapidity  upon  Vienna  as  to  defy  the  archduke's 
efforts  to  outmarch  him  :  the  Austrians,  therefore,  limited  their 
hopes  to  gaining  the  bridges  across  the  Danube,  and  defend- 
ing the  city  by  a  battle  under  its  walls.  On  the  10th  of  May, 
Bonaparte  appeared  before  Vienna.  The  citizens,  stimulated 
to  resistance  by  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  sustained  a  bom- 
bardment for  twenty-four  hours  ;  but  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time  surrendered.  The  Emperor  Francis  had  previously  fled 
to    Znaym.     News  of  the  surrender  cf  Vienna  obliged  the 

*  Previous  to  the  negotiation  with  Mr.  Erskine,  the  American  govern" 
ment  had  adopted  a  system  of  non-intercourse  and  non-importation  towards 
France  and  England,  and  removed  the  embargo,  with  respect  to  all  othei 
nations. 


334  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAF. 

Arduhikp  riiarirs  to  alter  ]\h  plans  :  lie,  therefore,  moved 
with  a  lorce  of  75,U0U  men  aloiiff  llu-  iiorlli  side  ol'lliu  Uaiiiibe, 
«o  prevent  the  French  from  crossing  the  river.  Napoleon,  at 
the  same  time,  marehed  on  the  south  bank  to  a  ph.ce  six  miles 
below  the  city,  where  the  stream  is  broken  by  two  islands, 
resolving  to  cross  the  river  at  that  point.  lie  passed  by  means 
of  pontoons  from  island  to  island,  almost  without  interruption, 
and  secured  a  position  on  the;  north  side  ;  posting  his  riirht 
winjj  at  the  villaire  of  Essling,  and  his  left  at  lliat  of  Aspern. 
The  Archduke  Charles  now  resolved  to  make  a  general  attack, 
and  ordered  his  troops  to  dislodge  the  French  from  the  two 
vilhiges.  After  a  most  sanguinary  conllict,  the  Austrians  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  Aspern ;  they  also  defeated  the  main  body 
of  the  Frencti  army  ;  but  their  cfTorts  against  Essling  were  in- 
efl'ectual,  and  the  day  closed  without  their  having  gained  that 
village.  During  the  engagement,  the  bridges  which  the 
French  had  constructed  across  the  Danube  were  destroyed,  as 
tlie  Austrians  sav,  by  fire-ships  sent  down  the  river  by  the 
archduke  for  thai  purpose  ;  or,  as  the  French  assert,  by  tim- 
ber which  floated  down  from  Vienna.  In  the  morning,  the 
battle  was  renewed;  it  continued,  with  various  sui-ccss,  during 
the  day  ;  but  at  night  the  French  retreated  to  the  isle  of  Lobau, 
abandoning  all  their  positions  on  the  norlli  bank  of  the  Danube 
and  leaving  30,000  men  dead  on  the  field  of  batde.  This  was 
the  severest  check  Napoleon  had  hitherto  met  with,  in  his  vic- 
torious career;  he  had  been  exposed  several  times  to  the 
greatest  personal  danger.  The  risk  was  once  so  imminent, 
from  the  heavy  discharge  of  artilhsry  around  him,  that  (Jeneral 
AV alter  was  compelled  to  exclaim,  *'  Sire,  withdraw,  or  I  will 
have  you  carried  hence  by  my  grenadiers."  The  emperor 
was  much  afTected  on  hearing  of  the  fate  of  Marshal  Lannes, 
who  had  received  a  mortal  wound  ;  and  during  the  fortnight 
that  general  survived,  was  constant  in  paying  him  a  daily  visit. 
While  these  events  were  passing  on  the  Danube,  and  Dresden 
and  Ijciz  wen;  taken  l)y  tlie  Archduke  Ferdinand,  I'adua  and 
Vicenza  sul)milte(l  to  tlie  Archduk.^  Jolin,  who  commanded  in 
Italy.  'I'he  last  named  cities,  however,  were  soon  retaken  by 
the  viceroy,  Kugenc  Heauharnais,  wlio  forced  the  Austrians 
to  rccross  the  Adige :  the  archduke  retreated  into  Hungary, 
and  the  viceroy  hastened  to  reinforce  the  army  of  Napoleon, 
which  was  considerably  weakened  by  his  late  defeat.  Several 
wcr-ks  were  spent  in  preparing,  on  l)oth  sides,  to  renew  the 
conllict.  'I'lie  Isle  of  Lobau  was  strongly  fortified  i)y  the 
French  ;  and  bridges,  one  of  which  was  of  sixty  arches,  were 


XI.VIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  335 

constructed  to  connect  it  with  the  northern  bank  of  the  Da- 
nube, where  the  archduke  was  raising  works  to  prevent  the 
tjneuiy  from  passing  the  river.  Napoleon,  to  deceive  the 
archduke,  made  his  chief  preparations  to  effect  a  passage  op- 
posite the  Austrian  redoubts  ;  but  on  the  night  of  the  4th  of 
July,  he  crossed  the  Danube  in  another  direction,  and  ranged 
his  array  next  morning  in  order  of  battle,  at  the  extremity  of 
the  archduke's  left,  thus  rendering  the  Austrian  redoubts  use- 
less. On  the  6th  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Wagram, 
the  success  of  which  was  principally  owing  to  the  skill  of  Na- 
poleon, who,  by  directing  his  chief  force  against  the  arch- 
duke's centre,  drove  back  that  part,  and  separated  it  from  the 
riglit  wing,  which,  being  thus  isolated,  was  forced  to  surren- 
der. The  Archduke  John  came  up  at  the  close  of  the  action, 
but  too  late  to  turn  the  scale  of  victory,  which  evidently  leaned 
to  the  standard  of  Napoleon;  he  therefore  retreated,  without 
having  taken  any  part  in  the  contest,  towards  Presburg.  The 
field  was  covered  with  innumerable  dead,  and  the  French  took 
20,000  prisoners.  The  Archduke  Charles,  in  retreating  to- 
wards Boliemia,  was  pursued  by  them,  and  again  defeated  at 
Znaym.  These  multiplied  reverses  induced  the  Emperor 
Francis  to  sue  for  peace  ;  an  armistice  was  signed  on  the  12th 
of  July,  Vienna  and  several  other  cities  remaining  in  posses- 
sion of  the  French,  till  the  conclusion  of  a  definitive  treaty. 

News  of  the  defeat  of  his  generals  by  Wellington  at  Tala- 
vera,  reached  Napoleon  at  Vienna,  towards  the  end  of  July. 
Shortly  afterwards,  a  German,  named  Stapps,  made  several 
attempts  to  gain  access  to  the  emperor;  but  the  singularity  of 
his  demeanour  excited  suspicions  which  led  to  his  arrest.  A 
large  knife  was  found  upon  his  person,  and  he  confessed  it  had 
been  his  intention  to  kill  the  emperor,  whom  he  looked  upon 
as  the  scourge  of  his  country.  The  dread  of  assassination  in- 
duced Napoleon  to  hasten  the  negotiations  for  peace,  which 
were  brought  to  a  conclusion  on  the  14th  of  October  ;  France, 
as  usftial  on  such  occasions,  acquired  a  considerable  increase 
of  territory,  and  the  Princes  of  the  Rhenish  confederation 
shared  in  the  spoils  of  the  vanquished ;  even  Russia  was  re- 
warded with  an  additional  province  for  having  sent  an  army 
of  39,000  men  towards  her  frontiers.  Besides  these  several 
dismemberments  of  her  territory,  Austria  agreed  to  pay  a  con- 
siderable indemnity  towards  defraying  the  expenses  of  the 
war,  acceded  to  all  the  alterations  already  made,  or  to  be  here- 
after made  in  Italy  and  the  Peninsula,  and  concurred  in  the 
{•rohibitory  system,  by  which  Napoleon  sought  to  ruin  the 


396  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciIAP. 

commerce  of  Great  Hrilain.  Tlio  Empnror  I'miicis  ronsentocl, 
luoroovcr,  (llioiiijli  wiiliout  makiiiir  :i  slipulalion  to  that  vlYcci 
in  tlifi  treaty,)  to  jrive  up  the  Tyrol  to  IJavaria.  The  itihahit- 
ants  of  that  district  hail  tried,  durinjj  ilu;  war,  to  assert  their 
national  independence  in  connexion  with  Austria,  under  the 
lianners  of  their  celebrated  chief,  llofer.  They  slili  refused  to 
bend  to  the  yoke  of  Bavaria,  and  maintained,  for  some  time, 
an  arduous  and  often  successful  slruii:rle,  but  were  finally  sub- 
dued, and  their  patriotic  chief  was  seized  and  executed. 

England,  meanwhile,  ever  ready  to  extend  the  hand  of  friend- 
ship to  any  nation  that  declared  itself  llic  enemy  of  France, 
liad  sought  to  elfect  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Austria  in  two 
ditFerent  quarters.  A  division  of  British  troops  in  Sicily  was 
ordered  to  embark  for  Naples  and  to  reduce  (Jalabria  ;  but  no 
permanent  advantage  was  gained  i)y  the  attempt.  An  enter- 
prise of  far  greater  moment  occupied  tli3  attention  of  the  na- 
tion during  the  summer.  Extensive  preparations  were  made 
for  filtincr  out  a  formidable  armament,  consisting  of  thirty-uine 
ships  of  the  line,  and  liiirty-six  frigates,  besides  a  great  num- 
ber of  gun-boats  and  bomb-vessels,  with  other  small  craft,  and 
near  10,000  land-forces,  destined  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
possession  of  the  islands  in  the  Scheld,  and  (hsstroying  the 
French  ships  in  that  river,  as  well  as  the  arsenals  of  Antwerp 
and  Flushing.  The  fleet  sailed  on  the  28th  of  July,  under  the 
orders  of  Sir  Richard  Strachim.  'I'hc  command  of  the  land- 
forces  was  confided  to  I^ord  (,'hatliau».  On  th(!  1st  of  August, 
Flushing  was  invested,  and  after  sustaining  a  heavy  cannonade 
and  bombardment,  surrendered  on  the  l.'ilh,  the  garrison,  con- 
sisting of  r),(M)0  men,  remaining  prisoners.  'I'iie  islands  of 
Schowen  and  Beveland  were  taken,  and  the  ZealandtTS  seemed 
dis|)osed  to  favour  the  British  cause.  But  the  English  com- 
mander neglected  to  follow  up  these  successes.  iNIost  of  the 
troops  were  left  on  board  the  transports,  instead  of  being  em- 
ployed against  the  forts  on  the  Scheld,  till  the  sickness,  which 
lisuallv  prevails  in  those  parls  during  the  aulumnal  season, 
seized  and  disabled  them  ;  and  till  the  French  had  collected  a 
large  army  for  the  defence  of  Antwerp,  and  moved  their  ship- 
ping far  up  the  river.  Early  in  September,  the  British  tronps 
evacuated  every  part  of  Zealand  except  the  island  of  W'alche- 
rcn,  the  fortitications  of  which  were  repaired  with  much  labour 
and  expense.  A  malignant  fever,  however,  made  dreadful 
ravarres  among  the  troops,  and  it  Ix^came  necessary,  in  order 
to  jjnvent  the  entire  destructifui  of  the  armament,  to  ai)an(l(m 
Walchcren  also.     Such  was  the  issue  of  this  expensive  and 


ILVIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  337 

unfortunate  expedition.  Bat  these  disasters  and  disappoint- 
ments were  not  without  alleviation:  in  otiier  quarters  t)ie 
British  navy  maintained  its  wonted  superiority.  Early  in 
April,  a  gallant  and  successful  attack  was  made  by  Lords 
Gambler  and  Cochrane  on  a  French  squadron,  of  which  four 
ships  of  the  line  were  destroyed.  In  October,  Captain  Hal- 
lowell  captured  the  whole  of  a  French  convoy  in  the  bay  of 
Rosas.  The  island  of  Martinico,  and  the  city  of  St.  Domingo, 
in  the  West  Indies,  the  isles  of  Bourbon,  Zante,  Cephalonia, 
Cerigo,  and  St.  Maura,  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, and  the  seplinsnlar  republic  was  restored.  The  colony 
of  Cayenne  was  taken  by  a  combined  force  of  English  and 
Portuguese. 

During  his  residence  in  Vienna,  Bonaparte  issued  a  decree, 
announcing  that,  from  the  1st  of  June,  the  papal  territories 
should  form  a  part  of  the  French  empire,  and  Rome  be  a  free 
imperial  city.  The  states  of  the  Church,  Napoleon  averred, 
were  tiefs  granted  by  his  predecessor,  Charlemagne,  to  the 
Bishops  of  Rome  ;  it  was  now  his  pleasure  to  resume  them, 
this  measure  being  necessary  for  the  security  of  his  army  and 
the  prosperity  of  his  empire.  It  was  in  vain  that  Pius  VII. 
protested  against  this  decree,  and  published  a  bull,  by  which, 
without  naming  the  emperor  individually,  he  excommuni- 
cated the  promoters  and  abettors  of  so  unjust  a  spoliation  ; 
this  measure  made  no  alteration  in  the  designs  of  Napoleon. 
On  the  Gth  of  July,  before  two  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
a  troop  of  French  soldiers,  under  the  command  of  General 
Radet,  beset  the  palace  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff;  and,  being 
assisted  by  the  gendarmerie  and  some  Romans  of  the  lowest 
class,  disarmed  the  papal  guard,  who  had  been  forbidden  to 
m^ke  any  resistance,  and  got  possession  of  the  principal  en- 
trance. Having  broken  down  the  door  which  led  to  the  apart- 
ments of  the  Pope  and  of  Cardinal  Pacca,  they  advanced  into 
the  presence  of  his  Holiness,  who,  being  awakened  by  the 
tumult  of  the  assault,  had  dressed  himself,  and  with  perfect 
composure  awaited  the  issue  of  this  new  aggression.  Around 
him  were  assembled  Cardinals  Despuiget  and  Pacca,  toge- 
ther with  several  prelates  and  ecclesiastics.  The  general,  on 
entering,  turned  pale,  and  stood  for  some  moments  silent,  near 
the  door,  in  front  of  his  troops  :  he  then  advanced,  and  with 
a  trembling  voice  informed  the  Pope  that  a  very  disagreeable 
and  painful  commission  had  devolved  upon  him  ;  but  having 
tak«;n  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  emperor,  he  felt  bound  to  exe- 
cute it;  that  he  was  charged  to  demand  from  his   Holiness, 

31 


338  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EIROPE.  [^CHAP. 

in  the  name  of  his  imperial  majesty,  the  renunciation  of  his 
temporal  soverci<,rnly  ;  that,  in  case  of  refusal,  he  had  orders 
to  conduct  tiic  Pope  to  the  quarters  of  the  goneral-in-chicf, 
MioUis,^  who  would  acciuaint  him  witii  his  ulterior  destina- 
tion. To  this  address  his  Holiness  calmly  replied;  "If  you 
think  yourself  ohli;,red  on  account  of  your  oath  to  execute 
such  orders  from  your  emperor,  do  you  think  we  can  ahan- 
don  the  riiiht.5  of  the  Holy  See,  which  by  so  many  oaths  we 
are  bound  to  oi)tain  .'  We  cannot  renounce  what  does  notbe- 
loncr  to  us.  The  emperor  may  take  our  life,  hut  he  will  never 
obIi<re  us  to  retract  what  we  have  done."  Then,  rising  from 
his  seat,  and  putting  his  breviary  under  his  arm,  he  advanced 
towards  the  door,  where  General  Radet's  carriage  stood  in 
readiness;  his  Holiness  entered  it,  accompanied  by  Cardinal 
Pacca  ;  it  was  then  about  three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  After 
following  for  some  time  a  circuitous  route,  tiiey  drove  out  of 
Rome  by  the  Porta  del  Popolo.  As  they  stopped  to  change 
horses,  the  Pope  mildly  reproached  Radct  with  having  deceived 
him.  Why,  he  asked,  instead  of  conducting  him  to  the  Pa- 
lais Doria,  where  Miollis  resided,  had  the  general  thus  com- 
pelled him  to  quit  Rome,  without  attendants,  and  even  with- 
out other  garments  than  those  in  which  he  was  actually 
attired.  Radet  attempted  a  few  words  of  excuse,  and  replieil, 
that  his  Holiness  would  speedily  be  rejoined  by  his  suite, 
who  would  carefully  provide  every  thing  that  was  nccessarv. 
On  resuming  the  journey,  the  Pope  asked  Cardinal  Pacca,  if, 
in  the  hurry  of  departure,  he  had  thought  of  bringing  away 
any  money.  Roth  drew  out  their  purses ;  in  that  of  his 
Holiness  they  found  one  pape(to,i  in  the  cardinal's  three 
gro.i.ti.X  Showing  his  solitary  pape/fo  to  Gom^ral  Radet, 
the  Pope  said,  smiling,  "Of  all  our  principality,  see  what  you 
have  left  us  !"  He;  replied  with  modest  diirnitv  to  the  alfcct- 
ing  demonstrations  of  grief  and  veneration  which  he  met 
with  from  all  classes  of  his  subjects  ;  and  often  repeated  this 
simple  but  sul)limc  recommendation,  "  Courage  and  prayer  !" 
On  arriving  at  the  Chartreuse  of  Plorence,  he  was  conducted 

•  In  removing  the  Pope  from  Rome,  Miollis  seems  to  have  acteJ  on  hi« 
own  responsibility,  without  having  received  precise  orders  to  that  efTcct 
from  Napoleon,  who  had  only  charjjed  him  to  maintain  tranquillity  in 
Rome.  As  Radct  refused  to  act  without  n  written  order,  Miollis  jjave  him 
one,  hut  so  rovrred  with  erasures  and  nlterations  ns  to  he  ahnost  illetrilile. 
In  il,  Radet  was  commandrd  to  arrest  (.'ardinal  I'acca,  the  Pope's  principal 
minister;  in  case  of  opposition,  bis  Holiness  also,  and  conduct  them  bn\\ 
V>  Florence. 

\  About  eleven  [<ence,  |  Nearly  eight  penc*. 


XLVni.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  339 

to  the  apartment  occupied,  ten  years  before,  by  his  venerable 
predecessor.  His  Holiness  was  then  in  a  state  of  great  suf- 
fering ;  the  burning  heat  of  a  midday  sun,  in  the  month  of 
July,  and  in  a  closed  carriage, had  brought  on  the  first  attack 
of  a  serious  indisposition.  A  short  period  of  repose  seemed 
indispensably  necessary ;  but  Colonel  Boisard  arriving  the 
same  evening,  with  orders  from  Elisa  Baciocche  Bonaparte, 
who  then  governed  in  Tuscany,  for  his  immediate  removal,  the 
august  captive  was  compelled  on  the  following  day  to  resume 
his  journey,  unaccompanied  by  Cardinal  Pacca.  At  a  short 
distance  from  Florence,  the  heat  being  intense,  the  Pope  re- 
quested a  glass  of  water.  The  multitude  who  surrounded 
the  carriage  at  every  halting-place,  vied  with  each  other  who 
should  be  so  fortunate  as  to  supply  this  demand.  "  From 
me,  from  me,  Holy  Father!"  was  lieardon  all  sides.  "  From 
all,  my  childien,  from  all,"  replied  the  venerable  old  man, 
with  tears  in  his  eyes.  On  many  occasions  a  word,  a  look 
would  have  insured  his  deliverance  :  the  small  troop  of  sol- 
diers composing  his  escort  would  quickly  have  been  over- 
powered by  a  numerous  and  resolute  peasantry.  A  chival- 
rous youth  who  had  forced  his  way  through  the  crowd  to 
present  some  choice  fruit  to  his  Holiness,  made  the  oiler  in 
two  energetic  words,  "  Vuole  ?  Dica  !"  But  the  Pope  would 
not  run  the  risk  of  bloodshed,  and,  affectionately  entreating 
the  multitude  to  disperse,  continued  his  route  towards  Alex- 
andria, where  he  arrived  on  the  15th.  On  the  21st  he  reached 
Grenoble,  where  he  was  to  make  a  short  stay.  The  heroes 
who  had  so  nobly  defended  Saragossa,  and  were  there  detain- 
ed prisoners  of  war,  demanded  permission  to  go  in  a  body  to 
meet  him  ;  their  example  was  followed  by  the  entire  popula- 
tion of  the  city  and  suburbs.  At  the  beginning  of  August, 
Colonel  Boisard  had  orders  to  conduct  the  Pope  to  Valence, 
and  thence  to  Avignon.  His  entry  into  the  latter  city,  which 
had  been  so  long  under  the  dominion  of  the  Holy  See, 
resembled  a  triumph ;  the  inhabitants  crowded  round  the 
carriage,  which  had  stopped  in  the  middle  of  the  chief  square  ; 
and  so  great  was  the  concourse  from  the  neighbourinfif 
villages,  that  the  mayor  found  it  necessary,  by  closing  the 
city  gates,  to  prevent  their  entrance.  At  Nice,  arrangements 
were  made  to  give  his  Holiness  a  suitable  reception.  On 
approaching  the  Pont  du  Var,  he  alighted  from  his  carriage 
to  cross  the  bridge  on  foot :  he  advanced  alone,  his  attendants 
following  him  at  a  short  distance.  The  scene  was  singularly 
impressive  ;  ten  thousand  persons  were  on  their  knees  iu 


340  OENERA].    HISTORY    OK    EITROPE.  [cHAP. 

profoiiiiil  silenre  on  tlie  opposite  side,  each  oc(Mipyrni»  hia 
desliiu'd  slalioii,  ilie  noMe?*  wi'uriiiu  tlicir  (li'coratioiis,  llie 
ecclesiastics  the  dress  peculiar  to  their  order,  'IMu;  jjious 
Queen  of  Elruria,  between  her  two  chiliren,  implored 
his  hli'ssinu;  with  tears.  *'  llow  altered  are  llic  times!"  she 
exclaimed.  "True,"  replied  Pius,  "but  all  is  not  bitter- 
ness :  we  are  no  lonjrer,  O  my  daughter,  at  Rome  nor  at  Flo- 
rence, yet  see  these  people,  listen  to  their  arclamatiDns  !" 
The  streets  of  the  city  were  strewed  with  flowers  at  his  en- 
trance every  niglit  during  his  stay,  the  houses  were  splendidly 
illuminated,  and  sacred  hymns  were  sung  in  m.isic  beneatii  iiis 
windows.  On  setting  out  for  Savona,  as  it  was  thought  ex- 
pedient to  choose  an  unfrequented  road  ihrougli  the  mountains, 
and  the  Sovereign  Pontifl"  travelled  liy  night,  a  lady  of  distinc- 
tion conceived  tlie  ingenious  idea  of  sending  out  servants  to 
illuminate  his  path,  bv  hanging  lamps  on  the  trees  ;  this  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  others,  and  finally  by  order  of  the 
municipal  authorities.  On  arriving  at  Savona,  the  Pope  wag 
at  first  lodged  in  the  mansion  of  a  family  of  the  name  of 
Santon  ;  but  five  days  later,  tlie  episcopal  palace,  from  which 
the  bishop  removed,  was  assigned  for  his  residence.  lie  had 
but  two  small  rooms  for  his  own  private  use;  his  tal)h',  how- 
ever, to  whicli  he  was  at  lil)erty  to  invite  whom  he  pleased, 
was  handsomely  served,  and  Count  Salraatoris  waited  on 
him  daily  to  take  his  orders.  Su(!h  was  his  position  during 
the  rest  of  tliis,  antl  the  whole  of  the  two  following  years. 

Though  Napoleon  appeared  to  despise  the  excommunica- 
tion issued  against  the  authors  and  abettors  of  the  recent 
spoliations,  the  indilFi^rence  he  alTected  was  not  sincere.  He 
ordered  a  list  to  lie  drawn  up  for  his  inspection,  of  all  the 
princes  who  had  been  under  a  similar  sentence.  A  project 
of  a  very  important  nature,  however,  now  occupied  his 
thoughts.  'J'he  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  widely-extended 
empire  over  which  he  ruled,  seemed  alone  necessary  to  give 
8tal)ility  to  the  dynasty  he  had  founded,  and,  for  this  |)ur- 
pose,  the  dissolution  of  his  marriage  with  Josephine  was 
indispensable  as  a  preliminary  step.  The  empress,  though 
reluctant,  was  induced  to  yield  her  consent ;  and  all  the 
princes  and  princesses  of  the  imperial  family  being  assembled, 
with  the  Arch-chancellor  (Jambaccri-s,  in  the  empf^ror's 
cabinet,  a  decree  dissolving  the  marriage  was  signed  by  all 
present.  The  senate  pass('d  a  law  authorizing  the  act,  in 
December:  Josephine  was  to  retain  tlie  title  of  empress,  and 
to  receive  an  annual  revenue  of  2,000.000  francs. 


XLU.]  OBNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  34l 

In  September,  some  changes  look  place  in  the  English 
ministry,  from  which  the  Duke  of  Portland  withdrew  on 
the  plea  of  age  and  infirmity.  Lord  Casllereagh  and  Mr. 
Canning  also  resigned,  and  were  succeeded,  in  their  respect 
ive  posts,  by  the  Earl  of  Liverpool  and  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley.  Mr,  Percival,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  new 
administration,  united  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
with  that  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  25th  of  Octo- 
ber being  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  majesty's  accession, 
the  day  was  celebrated  throughout  the  kingdom  as  a  jubilee, 
with  marked  demonstrations  of  loyalty  and  affection.  To 
occasional  attacks  of  his  mental  malady,  was  added  an  al- 
most total  privation  of  sight :  afflictions  wliich  rendered  the 
king  an  object  equally  worthy  of  commiseration  and  re- 
spect 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

EUROPE,  FROM    THE    PKACE    OF  VIENNA,  IN   1809,  TO    THE  WAR 
WITH    RUSSIA,    IN    1812. 

The  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  resumed  its  sittings  in 
January,  1810.  The  king's  speech  having  been  read  by  com- 
mission, a  warm  debate  ensued,  relative  to  the  peninsular  war 
and  the  expedition  to  the  Scheld ;  the  usual  addresses  were, 
however,  carried,  as  well  as  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Lord  AVelling- 
ton  and  his  army,  for  the  bravery  displayed  by  them  at  Tala- 
vera.  The  questions  of  Catholic  emancipation  and  of  Parlia- 
mentary reform  were  again  agitated,  during  this  session  ;  but 
the  advocates  for  concession  were  far  outnumbered  by  their 
opponents,  and  both  of  these  important  measures  were  nega- 
tived by  large  majorities.  An  incident  occurred,  not  long  after 
the  meeting  of  Parliament,  which  attracted  for  a  time  the 
attention  of  the  public.  Sir  Francis  Burdett  published  an 
address  to  his  constituents,  denying  the  right  of  the  House 
of  Commons  to  imprison  the  people  of  England.  This  publi- 
cation was  voted  a  scandalous  and  seditious  libel,  and  orders 
were  issued  to  the  sergeant-at-arms  to  take  the  author  into 
custody.  Sir  Francis,  however,  disputed  the  legality  of  the 
speakers  warrant,  and  avowed  his  intention  not  to  submit, 
unless  compelled  by  force.  On  the  9th  of  April,  the  sergeant- 
at-arms,  with  a  party  of  police  and  a  detachment  of  military, 
forced  an  entrance  into  the  baronet's  house,  and  conveyed 

31* 


342  OENKRAL    HISTORY   OK    EUROPE.  [cHAF. 

him  to  the  Tower.  Tlip  escort,  on  its  return,  was  attacked 
by  the  populace;  several  sliols  were  lired,  and  two  or  three 
persons  h)st  their  lives.  At  tlie  prorotratinn  of  Parliament, 
Sir  Francis  was  liherated,  and  a  triumphal  jirocession  from 
the  'I'ower  to  his  house  in  Piccadilly  was  planned  by  liis 
friends;  but  lie  disappointed  their  exi)ectati(Mis,  returning 
privately  by  water,  in  order  to  avoid  any  occasion  of  furtlier 
mischief. 

The  affairs  of  Spain,  at  the  close  of  1809,  seemed  almost 
desperate.  The  defeat  of  the  central  army,  under  General 
Areizajifa,  was  followed  by  that  of  the  left,  commanded  by  the 
Duke  Del  I'arque,  and  of  the  riirht,  under  the  orders  of  Hlake. 
'I'he  French  main  army,  under  Joseph  13ona])arte,  Soult,  and 
Victor,  forced  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Morena  in  January,  and 
took  Andujar  and  Cordova,  wliil(!  a  division  comnianded  by 
Sebastiani  entered  Granada.  Malaga  was  reduced  shortly 
after,  and  completed  aline  of  posts  in  possession  of  the  French. 
The  approach  of  the  eneiuy  induced  the  Supreme  Junta  to 
remove  to  Cadiz.  'I'he  members  of  that  body  were  suspected 
of  a  willingness  to  compromise  with  Joseph  Bonaparte  ;  and 
on  the  day  of  their  departure,  the  people  of  Seville  rose 
tuinultuoiisly,  demanding  their  deposition,  and  calling  upon 
Gcucral  Romana  to  defend  the  city.  Instead  of  (■<iMij)lying 
with  the  requisition,  he  proceeded  to  IJadajoz,  and  Seville, 
unprepared  for  resistance,  surrendered  in  February  to  Victor. 
Large  stores  of  ammunilion  and  200  j)ieces  of  ordnance  fell, 
on  this  occasion,  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  now 
becan  to  make  formidable  preparations  for  the  siege  of  ('adiz. 
The  junta  refused  to  admit  7,000  Hrilish  troops  fur  the 
defence  of  diat  city  :  two  regimenta  oidy  were  allowed  to  enter, 
on  condition  that  they  should  not  be  employed  in  the  fortress. 
The  Duke  of  Albucjuerrpie,  at  the  head  of  a  Sjianish  army, 
arrived  in  the  Isle  of  JiCon,  before  the  French  couUl  reach  it, 
and  made  every  preparation  for  a  vigorous  defence.  The 
suspicions  against  the  junta  induced  that  body  to  transfer  its 
authority  to  a  regency,  conij)oscd  of  five  persons,  who,  how- 
ever, were  only  to  act  till  the  Cortes  should  assend)le,  and 
who,  from  tlie  out.set,  were  placed  in  a  very  embarrassing 
position.  Tiiey  issued  their  orders  in  tlu!  name  of  a  captive 
prince,  and  had  not  the  power  to  enforce  their  execution,  in  a 
pnuntrv  occupied  or  traversed  on  all  sides  by  hostile  armies. 
In  the  mean  while,  the  I-reneh  took  possession  of  a  fortress 
ai)out  two  mile.s  from  Cadiz,  where  they  erected  works;  and 
before  the  close  of  the  year,  they  were  enabled  to  throw'shells 


XLIX.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  343 

into  the  city ;  the  distance,  however,  rendered  their  effect 
inconsiderable. 

In  the  Other  parts  of  Spain  the  war  was  carried  on  with 
great  activity ;  the  French  were  constantly  harassed  by  the 
desultory  operations  of  the  guerillas;  often  vanquished,  but 
never  subdued,  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  the  Alpujarras  in 
Granada,  were  ever  on  the  alert  against  the  invaders.  In 
Navarre,  Biscay,  and  Asturias,  patriotic  insurrections  were 
organized,  and  leaders  sprang  up  to  train  the  peasantry. 
Under  the  assumed  names  of  El  Pastor,  El  Manco,  Ei 
Empecinado,  several  signalized  themselves  by  turns  in  this 
desultory  warfare.  A  Spanish  force  captured  Ronda,  but  an 
expedition  undertaken  by  the  English  against  Malaga  entirely 
failed  ;  and  the  commander.  Lord  Blaney,  was  made  prisoner. 
On  the  other  hand.  Marshal  Suchet,  after  gaining  great  advan- 
tages in  Catalonia  and  Arragon,  was  defeated  with  considerable 
loss  by  General  Caro. 

The  disasters  of  the  Spanish  commanders  in  the  early  part 
of  the  year,  had  obliged  liord  Wellington  to  remove  his  army 
from  Badajoz  to  the  north  of  the  Tagus,  and  to  confine  his 
views  for  a  time  to  the  defence  of  Portugal.  He  chose  a 
strong  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  whicli  having  fortified,  and 
thus  provided  for  retreat  and  embarkation,  should  they  be- 
come necessary,  he  advanced  to  watch  the  movements  of 
Ney,  Soult,  and  Regnier,  who  were  stationed  in  Leon.  His 
army  consisted  of  30,000  British,  and  60,000  native  troops. 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  was  invested  by  Ney  on  the  11th  of  June. 
About  that  time  Marshal  Massena  arrived  with  80,000  men 
from  Paris,  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  destined  for 
the  conquest  of  Portugal.  The  advanced  guard  of  the 
British  forces  was  repulsed,  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo  surrendered 
to  the  enemy  in  July.  Almeida,  with  a  garrison  of  5,000 
men,  Eno-lish  and  Portuw'uese,  was  next  invested,  and  com- 
pelled  to  open  its  gates  to  the  invaders  in  August.  Massena 
now  advanced  into  Portugal ;  Lord  Wellington  retreated 
before  him  towards  Coimbra,  purposing  to  concentrate  his 
forces  in  that  neighbourhood,  and  there  oppose  the  march  of 
the  French.  He  passed  to  the  right  of  the  Mondego,  and 
occupied,  with  his  centre  and  right,  the  Sierra  Busaco,  a 
ndge  of  hills,  extending  to  that  river.  Massena  arriving  in 
front  of  his  position  on  the  26th  of  August,  resolved  on  an 
attack,  which  he  earned  into  eflfect  the  following  day.  The 
French  pushed  up  the  hill  with  great  resolution,  and  one 
division  reached   the   summit  of  the  ridge  ;  but  they   were 


344  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHiLP. 

rcp\ilsc(l  at  tlie  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  Portuguese  troops, 
under  Marshal  Heroslord,  rcntlcrcd  ellu-ient  aid  on  this  occa- 
sion. After  tliis  action,  l^ord  Wrllinglon,  linihng  that 
Massena  had  gained  the  road  from  Oporto  to  Coiml)ra,  con- 
tinued to  retreat  till  he  reacheil  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras, 
about  thirty  miles  from  Lisbon,  carrying  with  him  almost  the 
whole  population  of  the  intervening  country,  including 
that  of  Coimbra.  Much  individual  distress  was  caused  by 
this  measure,  l)ut  it  was  relieved  by  liberal  contributions  in 
Lisbon  and  in  England,  Massena  having  reconnoitred  the 
lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  and  ascertained  the  impracticability 
of  fiircinsf  them,  withdrew  to  a  fortified  position  at  Saiitarem, 
where  he  remained  during  the  winter.  His  army  suHered 
many  privations  and  inconveniences,  from  which  the  British, 
with  the  capital  and  an  open  sea  lu'hind  tluMU,  were  exempt. 
Such  were  the  respective  positions  of  the  invaders  and 
defenders  of  Portugal  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  National  Cortes  of  Spain  assembled  in  September,  in 
the  isle  of  Leon  ;  tlie  regency  was  dissolved  in  the  following 
month,  antl  the  government  intrusted  to  an  executive  council 
of  three  members.  Among  other  enactments,  the  ('ortcs 
passed  a  decree  in  favour  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and 
conferred  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Spanish  America,  the  privi- 
lege  of  sending  members  to  the  national  representation.  But 
this  concession  did  not  suffice  to  secure  their  alleiriance  :  and 
this  year  witnessed  the  first  outbreak  of  that  revolt  which  has 
since  caused  so  much  disorder  and  l»loodshed.  'J'lie  spirit  of 
discontent  first  manifested  itself  in  the  colony  of  Caraccas. 
Other  provinces  joined  in  asserting  their  independence,  and, 
in  April,  a  union  was  formed,  under  the  name  of  the 
American  Confederation  of  Venezuela.  The  city  and  great 
part  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres  took  part  in  the  revolt, 
while  .Monte  Video  continued  faithful  to  Spain  ;  this  circum- 
stance gave  rise  to  a  sanguinary  war  between  the  two  states. 

The  conquests  achieved  by  the  British  navy,  in  1810, 
were  of  consideral)le  importance,  (iuadaloupe,  the  only 
island  still  remaining  to  the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  waa 
taken  in  February  by  Sir  J.  Beckwith.  During  the  same 
month,  Ambnyna  was  taken  from  tlie  nnleh,  1)V  a  liritish 
force  from  Madras;  and  in  Auirust.  the  isle  of  Banda,  though 
protected  by  700  regular  troops  and  'MM)  militia,  surrendered 
to  an  En<rlish  frigate,  the  Carolina,  a(Tordiii<r  a  rich  bootv  to 
the  f  aptors.  To  this  acquisition  was  added  that  of  the  isles 
of  Bourbon  and  Mauritius:   the  French  batteries  at  Madagus- 


XLIjC.^  general    history    of    EUROPE.  345 

car  were  destroyed ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  year,  France 
possessed  not  a  single  foot  of  land  in  the  East  or  West 
Indies,  nor  a  ship  in  the  Indian  seas.  But  these  advantages 
to  England  were  counterbalanced,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the 
daily-increasing  power  of  Bonaparte  on  the  continent.  Ilis 
grand  aim  at  this  epoch  was  to  form  an  alliance  conducive  to 
the  stability  of  his  dynasty;  and  his  marriage  with  Maria 
Louisa,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  to  the 
astonishment  of  all  Europe,  was  accomplished  without  diffi- 
culty. The  espousals  were  celebrated  at  Vienna,  on  the  1 1th 
of  March,  the  Archduke  Charles  receiving  the  hand  of  his 
niece  as  proxy  for  his  late  antagonist.  The  empress-elect 
immediately  set  out  for  France,  and  was  met  by  Napoleon  at 
Compeigne.  The  civil  contract  was  signed  at  St.  Cloud  on 
the  1st  of  April,  and  on  the  following  day  the  religious 
ceremony  took  place  in  the  chapel  of  the  Louvre.  In  order  to 
proceed  to  a  second  marriage,  it  had  been  necessary  to 
declare  the  first  invalid  ;  for  which  purpose,  the  archiepisco- 
pal  see  being  vacant,  two  new  ecclesiastical  courts  were  called 
into  existence,  by  the  sole  authority  of  the  emperor,  who 
positively  declined  having  recourse  to  the  Pope.  The 
union  of  Napoleon  with  Josephine  had  not  been  sanctioned 
by  the  church,  until  the  eve  of  their  joint  coronation,  and 
then  so  privately  as  to  exclude  even  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses. On  this  circumstance,  and  on  the  absence  of  the 
proper  pastor,  the  first  of  these  courts  grounded  a  decision 
favourable  to  the  divorce.  All  tlie  necessary  dispensations 
had,  it  is  true,  been  granted  by  the  Pope,  at  the  solicitation 
of  Cardinal  Fesch  on  that  occasion  ;  but  the  court  might  justly 
consider  as  not  proved,  a  fact  which  rested  on  the  assertion 
of  one  individual,  unsupported  either  by  documentary  evi- 
dence or  by  living  witnesses.  The  second  court  came  to 
a  similar  conclusion,  on  the  plea  that  the  emperor's  interior 
consent,  as  he  alleged,  had  been  wanting,  and  that,  considering 
the  marriage-ceremony  performed  in  his  cabinet  null,  he  had 
gone  through  it  merely  to  gratify  Josephine.  There  were, 
however,  many  among  the  cardinals*  whom  the  reasons  of  the 
two  courts  failed  to  satisfy  ;  and  though  all,  to  the  number  of 
twenty-six,  assisted  at  the  civil  contract,  thirteen  absented 
themselves  from  the  religious  ceremony,  alleging,  as  their 
only  motive,  that  the  dissolution  of  the  first  marriage  had  not 
been  sanctioned  by  the  Pope.     The  wrath  of  the  emperor  on 

*  All  the  cardinals  who  were  not  disabled  by  age  or  infirmity  had  been 
comjielled  to  quit  Italy  and  reside  in  Paris. 


846  GENERAI,    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

this  occasion  \v:is  extreme ;  he  not  only  forbade  thoin  to 
appear  at  court,  hut  ohliired  them  to  lay  aside  tiie  piirpk^  and 
assume  the  black  dress  worn  bv  ordinary  cicrijvini'ii.*  A 
few  days  later  they  were  i)aiiishcd  into  various  towns  of 
France,  and  deprived  of  the  revenue  that  had  been  assijrued 
theui  for  tlicir  maintenance  :  their  slender  wants,  were,  how- 
ever, abundaiilly  supplied  by  voluntary  contrii)uti()ns. 

A  remarkable  incident  took  place  this  year  in  Sweden. 
The  Prince  of  Auirustenl)urn',  who,  upon  the  deposition  of 
Gustavus  IV.,  had  l)een  declanul  heir  to  that  ttirone,died  sud- 
denly, and  a  suspicion  was  excited,  that  he  had  been  carried 
oflT  ijy  poison.  As  the  deceased  prince  was  very  popular, 
Count  Ferson,  who  had  been  his  enemv,  was  drajrijed  from, 
his  carriaire  on  the  day  of  the  funeral,  and  torn  to  pieces  i)y 
the  mob.  Government,  to  appease  the  people,  instituted  an 
inquiry,  the  result  of  which  was,  that  the  Prince  of  Auuus- 
tenburg  had  died  of  apoplexy.  In  August  the  diet  asseml)led, 
to  elect  another  successor  to  the  throne.  The  candidates 
were  four  in  numl)er;  the  son  of  the  deposed  monarch,  the 
King  of  Denmark,  the  brother  of  the  late  crown-prince,  and 
Beruadolle.  The  reasons  which  induced  the  States  to  give 
the  preference  to  the  French  marshal,  are  involved  in  mys- 
tery;  ii  seems  |)roba!)le  that  the  emperor  favoured  the  eh  c- 
tion,  as  he  generously  allowed  licrnadolte  a  sum  of  2,(»()0,()00 
francs  to  meet  the  expenses  of  his  installation.  Some  mis- 
undrrstaniling  had,  however,  occurred  between  them,  relative 
to  the  battle  of  Ratisl)on  fluring  the  Austrian  campaign,  ;md 
Bernadotte  was  not  unwillinjr  to  transfer  his  services  where 
they  were  likely  to  be  better  appreciated.  In  his  domestic, 
as  well  as  in  his  foreign  policy,  the  views  of  Bonaparte  were 
singularly  despotic.  Pursuing  his  system  of  annexations,  he 
compelled  his  brother  Louis,  by  a  series  of  insults  and  en- 
croachments, to  abdicatf!  the  crown  of  Holland  ;  and  the  Seven 
Provinces  were  t'orlhwilh  added  to  tlu;  empire  of  France. 
Louis,  during  his  short  reign,  had  studied  the  interests  and 
gained   the   alTeclion    of  his   people,  and   his   departure  from 

•  Hence  arose  the  dcKi^nation  of  hitck  and  red  cardinals,  which  for 
some  tirni!  ili-<Uii.»ui-.hfil  ihi-  tlrin  from  itie  more  teriiporizinfj.  The  lihirl!  car- 
dinals were  Mallei,  I'ii;rMielh,  I,i  Sotna^lia,  Scotii.  iSaluzzo,  (laleiri,  Urari- 
cadoro,  (Jonsalvi,  Louis  HiilTi),  Lilla,  I)i  I'ietro,  Opizzoiii,  and  Cial>rir||i. 
Cardinal  Pacca  was  Klill  a  (irisoncr  at  Fenestrt'lles,  whither  he  had  hecn 
conveyed  when  pep araied  from  the  Pojm-  at  Florence :  he  remained  in 
c«(>tivity  three  yi'ars  and  a  half;  it  a.m  during  his  ministry  that  the  hfU 
of  excuininuuicalion  had  Itcen  published. 


XLIX.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  347 

among  them  was  a  subject  of  regret  to  all.  The  Ilanse 
towns,  with  tlie  whole  of  the  coast,  from  the  Elbe  to  the 
Ems,  were  likewise  incorporated  with  France.  The  Elector- 
ate of  Hanover  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
and  the  conscription  laws  were  extended,  as  well  to  that  as  to 
all  the  other  kingdoms  of  recent  creation.  While  these 
arbitrary  measures  were  enforced  by  the  French  emperor, 
the  King  of  England  experienced  a  return  of  the  malady  un- 
der which  he  had  suffered  in  1789,  and  of  which  he  had  in 
1801  and  in  1804  transient  attacks.  The  death  of  his  young- 
est and  favourite  daughter,  Amelia,  caused  him  such  poignant 
affliction,  as  to  occasion  a  relapse  into  that  state  of  mental  aber- 
ration which  clouded  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  and  life. 
Parliament  had  been  three  times  prorogued  in  the  hope  of  his 
recovery,  when  the  continuation  of  his  indisposition  suggested 
to  ministers  the  necessity  of  vesting  the  roval  powers,  with  cer- 
tain restrictions,  in  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Notwithstanding  the 
objections  raised  by  the  opposition,  who  wished  to  invest  the 
regent  with  the  full  exercise  of  tlie  royal  prerogative,  resolu- 
tions for  a  restricted  regency  were  carried,  and  a  deputation 
from  both  Houses  informed  the  prince  of  the  decision.  He 
accepted  the  profTered  trust,  though  not  without  objecting  to 
the  restrictions  with  which  it  was  accompanied.  The  care 
of  the  king's  person  and  the  management  of  his  household 
were  committed  to  the  queen. 

1811. — The  domestic  affairs  of  Great  Britain,  during  this 
first  year  of  the  regency,  wore  a  gloomy  and  unpromising 
aspect.  The  extent  of  commercial  distress,  caused  by  the  ex- 
traordinary rigour  with  which  tlie  continental  system  was  en- 
forced, in  all  the  countries  where  the  influence  of  France 
extended,  was  so  great  as  to  induce  Parliament  to  appoint  a 
committee  to  concert  measures  of  relief.  On  its  recommenda- 
tion, the  sum  of  £6,000,000  was  allotted,  to  be  advanced  to 
such  merchants  as  should  apply  for  it,  and  give  security  for 
its  repayment.  In  Ireland,  the  system  of  domestic  policy 
adopted  by  the  regent  was  a  source  of  keen  disappointment. 
The  Catholics  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  and  of  Ireland  in 
particular,  had  hoped  that  the  accession  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales  to  power  would  have  brought  them  a  redress  of  griev- 
ances;  yet  they  found  him  retaining  a  ministry,  avowedly 
hostile  to  the  concession  of  their  claims.  They  resolved, 
therefore,  to  address  Parliament  and  the  regent,  on  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  the  disqualifying  statutes,  and  purposed 
forming  a  general  committee,  to  prepare  their  petitions.    The 


348  OKNERAL    HISIORY    OF    ETROPE.  [cHAP 

Irish  j^overnment,  liowever,  issued  a  proclamation,  prohibit 
iiiq^  the  c'k'clioii  of  Catholic  delegates,  and  ortlerinj^  the  arrest 
and  prosecution  of  electors.  The  Catholics,  notwithstanding, 
assembled  on  the  31st  of  July;  uj)on  which  five  persons  who 
had  assisted  at  the  meeting  were  arrested,  and  bound  over  to 
stand  their  trial  for  the  viitlalion  of  the  ('onvention  Act.  On 
that  of  Dr.  Sheridan,  who  was  one  of  the  prisoners,  the  chief 
justice  and  judges  varied  with  the  jury  as  to  the  verdict  to  be 
given.  'I'he  former  conceived  that  he  had,  the  latter  tliat  he 
had  not  violated  the  Convention  Act.  He  was  pronounced 
"  Not  guilty,"  and  the  Catholics  continued  to  meet;  but  go- 
vernment, jndcring  that  Sheridan's  acquittal  was  owing  to  a 
defect  of  evidence,  instituted  proceedings  against  Mr.  Kirwin, 
another  of  the  arrested  delegates,  who  was  declared  guilty; 
whereupon  the  Catholic  committee  ceased  to  exist  as  a  dele- 
gated body. 

To  these  scenes  of  domestic  dissension,  the  ascendency 
acquired  by  Englishmen  in  foreign  countries  presents  a  strik- 
ing contrast.  In  August  a  splendid  acquisition  was  made  to 
the  British  empire  in  Asia,  by  the  reduction  of  Hatavia,  the 
capital  of  the  Dutch  setdcments  in  the  East  Indies,  with  the 
island  of  Java,  in  which  it  is  situated.  The  Governor-ge- 
neral of  India,  Lord  Alinto,  j)lanne(l  and  accompanied  the  ex- 
pedition. The  IJritisii  troops  huiiled  unopposed,  and  liaving 
lodged  themselves  in  the  suburbs,  the  burghers  surrendered 
the  city,  which  had  been  previously  evacuated  by  the  garri- 
son. The  Dutch  army,  amounting  to  1(»,000  nun,  was  great- 
ly superior  in  numbers  to  the  English,  and  lay  entrenched  in 
a  strong  position,  between  the  river  Jacatra  and  an  artificial 
canal,  neither  of  which  was  fordable ;  s(!ven  redoubts  and 
many  batteries  mounted  with  heavy  cannon,  occu|)ied  the 
most  elevated  grounds  within  the  lines.  The  Dutch  com- 
mander-in-chief, (Jcneral  Jansen,  was  in  one  of  them,  when 
the  assault  was  made  l)v  the  British:  the  seven  redoidils  were 
carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  the  assailants  rushing 
in  at  every  point,  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  army  was  killed, 
taken,  or  dispersed  ;  the  loss  of  the  English  scarcely  amount- 
ing to  900  men.  General  Jansen,  with  about  50  hs»rse,  the 
remnant  of  his  10, 000  men,  made  a  feeble  attempt  at  resist- 
ance, which  terminated  in  the  surrender  of  himself  and  his 
troops,  with  the  islanil  of  Java  and  all  its  dej)cnilencies.  This 
imporUint  conquest  being  completed,  not  a  vestige  remained 
of  llie  CJallo-Hatavian  diuninioii  in  the  East. 

In  the  Peninsula,  the  war  was  carried  on  with  gnat  activity 


XLIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  349 

and  with  various  success.  Early  in  the  year,  Soult  reduced 
the  strongly-fortified  town  of  Olivenza,  and  defeated  a  Spa- 
nish army  under  the  orders  of  Mcndozabel,  who,  the  Marquis 
de  Roinana  being  dead,  had  succeeded  to  the  command.  The 
French  general  then  laid  siege  to  Badajoz,  which  surrendered 
in  March  with  its  garrison  of  7,000  men,  not  however  with- 
out having  for  some  time  braved  the  efforts  of  the  besieging 
army.  Massena,  meanwhile,  maintained  his  position  at  San- 
tarem,  till  the  difficulty  of  procuring  provisions  obliged  him 
to  retreat  towards  the  Spanish  frontier.  In  the  night  of  the 
5th  of  March,  he  broke  up  his  fortified  camp;  and  by  the 
skill  with  which  he  directed  the  movements  of  his  army, 
preserved  it,  though  closely  pursued  by  Lord  Wellington, 
from  any  material  disaster.  But  the  French  marshal  and  his 
soldiers  tarnished  their  military  fame,  by  the  cruelties  they 
exercised  on  their  march.  On  the  4th  of  April  they  passed 
the  Portuguese  frontier,  and,  entering  Spain,  continued  their 
retreat  across  the  Amieda. 

After  Massena's  retreat,  Lord  Wellington,  leavinc  the  com- 
mand  of  his  army  to  Sir  Brent  Spencer,  with  orders  to  block- 
ade Almeida,  went  to  visit  Marshal  Beresford,  who  commanded 
a  united  force  of  English  and  Portuguese  in  Estremadura. 
He  then  took  a  position  from  whence  he  could  invest  Olivenza 
and  Badajoz,  which  he  was  extremely  desirous  to  recover 
from  the  French.  Olivenza  surrendered  to  Marshal  Beresford 
in  Aprd,  and  Lord  Wellington,  having  concerted  measures 
with  him  for  the  blockade  of  Badajoz,  returned  to  his  own 
head-quarters.  That  city  was  accordingly  invested  on  the 
I2th  of  May;  but  the  news  that  Soult  was  advancing  to  its 
relief,  induced  Beresford  to  withdraw  his  army  from  its  walls, 
and  march  towards  the  Albuera  to  meet  the  enemy.  Having 
been  joined  by  the  Spanish  corps  of  Blake  and  Castanos,  he 
posted  his  troops  on  a  ridge  of  ground  which  overlooks  that 
river.  Here  he  was  attacked  on  the  mornino- of  the  16th; 
the  battle  was  maintained  for  five  hours  with  such  coolness 
and  bravery  as  to  exalt  either  army  in  the  estimation  of  the 
other  ;  but  the  French  were  eventually  defeated,  and  Soult 
retired  toward  Andalusia.  The  allies  being  inferior  in  cavalry, 
did  not  think  it  prudent  to  hazard  a  pursuit.  The  renewal 
of  the  siege  of  Badajoz  was  the  immediate  result  of  this 
brilliant,  though  hard-earned  victory.  Lord  Wellington,  who 
nad  not  been  able  to  reach  that  city  in  time  for  the  engage- 
ment, arrived  before  it  on  the  19th.  The  siege  was  now 
vigorously  pushed ;  the  trenches  were  opened  and  a  breac.*^ 

32 


350  OENER.VL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

was  made  in  fort  St.  Chrisfoval.  On  the  Gth  of  June  the 
assault  was  bo^un  :  l)iit  tlie  clforls  of  the  assaihmts  were  ren- 
dcrtnl  unavailinir  hv  tlie  bravciv  of  tlie  I)esio<rod.  A  second 
assault  on  the  nii,rht  of  the  *Jth  liaving  also  failed,  and  intelli- 
gence arriving  that  Soult  and  Marniont  (to  whom  Massena, 
beinj^  recallerl  to  Paris,  liad  resigned  the  ronimand)  were 
advancing  with  their  united  forces.  Lord  VVelliuirton  judged 
It  expedient  to  raise  the  siege,  and  wiliidraw  the  allied  army 
across  the  Guadiana.  In  August  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  shortly  after  cantoned  his 
army,  which  was  sutlering  greatly  from  si(;kn('ss,  within  the 
Portuguese  frontier :  the  French,  under  Soult,  fell  back  upon 
Salamanca,  where  they  remained  during  the  winter  months. 
The  vicinity  of  Cadiz  was  the  theatre  of  an  engagement 
highly  honourable  to  the  British  arms.  General  Graham, 
commander  of  the  English  forces  in  that  city,  (inding  that 
part  of  the  besieging  army  had  quitted  its  environs  for  IJada- 
joz,  which  Soult  was  then  i)lockading,  fitted  out  an  exjied. 
lion  in  February,  consisting  of  4,000  British  and  7,000  Spanish 
troops;  the  command  of  which  was  given  to  Don  Manuel 
Lapena,  under  whom  (General  Graham  consented  to  serve. 
The  troops  embarked  on  the  18lh,  and  landeil  on  the  23d,  at 
Algcsiras.  On  the  4lh  of  March,  General  Lapena  having, 
by  a  well-directed  attack  on  the  enemy's  position  at  Sanli  Petri, 
succeeded  in  forming  a  communication  with  the  isle  of  Leon, 
ordered  General  Graham,  whom  he  had  left  on  the  heights 
of  Barossa,  to  descend,  and  commit  the  defence  of  that  post 
to  some  Spanish  regiments.  When  the  British  troops  had 
proceeded  halfway  down  the  hill,  they  were  apprized  that 
the  Frencli  under  Victor  were  makinij  for  the  heights.  The 
British  general,  considering  that  position  as  the  key  to  Santi 
Petri,  immediately  ordered  a  countermarch,  in  order  to  sup- 
port the  troops  posted  for  its  defence.  Some  of  his  men 
became  entan<{led  in  a  wood,  and  before  he  could  extricate 
them,  he  saw  the  Spaniards  retiring,  and  the  left  wing  of  the 
French  ascending  the  heights.  'I'heir  right  still  stood  upon 
the  plain,  and  (ieneral  (Jraham,  to  prevent  their  gaining  any 
further  advantages,  resolved  on  making  an  immediate  attack, 
with  the  troops  under  his  command.  A  gen(;ral  battle  wa." 
the  result  of  this  determination  :  the  number  of  the  French 
engaged  in  it  was  H.IKIO,  nil  well  appointed  and  al)ly  i  om- 
manded  ;  that  of  the  iMijjlish  was  only  3,000;  yet  in  less 
than  an  hour  and  a  half  Marshal  Victor  was  comixllcd  In 
retreat,   after  havinir  sustained   consi(lfral>le   loss.      But  the 


XLIX.]  GENERAI,    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  351 

English  and  Spaniards  reaped  more  glory  than  advantage 
from  their  victory  ;  the  blockade  of  Badajoz,  which  it  had 
been  the  chief  object  of  the  expedition  to  interrupt,  was  not 
impeded  by  it.  The  disappointment  which  resulted  from  tlie 
failure  of  this  enterprise,  was  aggravated  by  the  death  of  the 
Duke  d'Albuquerque. 

While  so  large  a  part  of  the  French  armies  was  thus  em- 
ployed in  watching  and  preventing  t!ie  designs  of  the  allied 
troops  in  the  south  and  west  of  Spain,  another,  and  not  an 
inconsiderable  force,  endeavoured  to  gain  the  Spanish  fort- 
resses in  the  east.  In  April,  however,  that  of  Figueras,  occu- 
pied by  them,  was  surprised  by  a  body  of  Catalonians,  and 
taken  without  firing  a  shot,  the  garrison  remaining  prisoners. 
Tarragona  was  invested  by  Suchet  on  the  4th  of  May  ;  an 
obstinate  defence  only  protracted  its  fall.  On  the  28th  of 
June  it  was  taken  by  storm,  and  its  brave  defenders  were 
massacred  by  their  victors.  Every  species  of  outrage  and 
cruelty  was  suffered  on  this  occasion  by  the  unfortunate  'J'ar- 
ragonians.  The  city  was  set  on  fire,  and  numbers  of  the 
inhabitants  thrown  into  the  flames.  Suchet  himself  relates, 
in  his  official  account  of  this  transaction,  that  4,000  persons 
were  killed  within  the  walls,  and  of  those  who  endeavoured 
to  escape,  1,000  were  either  sabred  or  drowned,  and  10,000 
made  prisoners.  Figueras  was,  about  the  same  time,  retaken 
by  the  French  under  Macdonald.  From  Tarragona,  Suchet 
entered  the  province  of  Valencia  and  laid  siege  to  Murviedro. 
General  Blake,  who  had  advanced  to  its  relief,  was  defeated, 
and  the  city  compelled  to  surrender.  Following  up  his  suc- 
cess, Suchet  next  besieged  Valencia,  into  which  Blake  had 
retreated  ;  after  a  bombardment  of  three  days,  the  Spanish 
general  agreed  (January  9th,  1812)  to  a  capitulation,  by  whicli, 
though  defended  by  18,000  troops  of  the  line,  that  city  was 
surrendered  to  the  French,  a  great  number  of  officers  of  rank, 
with  Blake  himself,  remaining  prisoners.  Pensacola,  a  fort- 
ress of  great  strength,  a  Gibraltar  in  miniature,  was  shorUy 
after  taken  by  the  French,  through  the  treachery  of  the  go- 
vernor. 

These  triumphs  of  Napoleon's  generals  failed  to  bring  sta^ 
bility  to  the  throne,  or  happiness  to  the  mind  of  him  in  whose 
name  they  were  effected.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  wanting  the 
affections  of  liis  subjects,  and  destitute  of  such  pecuniary 
succours  as  were  necessary  to  support  his  regal  dignity,  fled 
from  Madrid  to  Paris  in  a  fit  of  sudden  despondency,  and, 
failing  to  obtain  from  his  imperial  brother  means  to  recrui/ 


352  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cTIAP. 

tlie  Spanish  treasury,  solicilrd  permission  to  retire  to  a  private 
station.  A  fresh  supply  of  troops  and  orders  to  retain  his 
sovereiijnlv  were  i{iven  him  by  Napoleon.  The  ('ortes  con- 
tinued to  sit  in  the  isle  of  Leon,  and  to  make  important 
ehani^es  in  the  ancient  and  fundamental  laws  of  the  Spanish 
inonnrehy.  Their  South  American  colonies,  in  tlie  mean 
while,  persevered  in  asserting  their  iuilependenee,  and  holilly 
contended  with  the  royalists,  though  they  failed,  duiing  this 
year,  to  gain  any  signal  advantage  over  them.  In  Mexico, 
a  series  of  sanguinary  engagements  terminated  in  the  discom- 
fiture of  the   patriot!^. 

Amidst  the  variety  of  affairs  which  occupied  the  attention 
of  tlie  Emperor  Napoleon,  those  of  the  chureh  were  liy  far 
the  njost  important  and  intricate.  He  had  triumi)hed  over  the 
chief  continental  princes,  but  the  invincible  constancy  of  the 
feel)le  and  aijed  Pontiff,  whom  he  still  held  captive  at  Savona, 
placed  a  barrier  to  his  projects  of  universal  dominion,  which 
he  could  not  remove  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Threats, 
spoliation,  privations  of  every  kind,  solitude,  and  a  total  sepa- 
ration from  all  who  could  advise  or  console,  had  been  resorted 
to  by  the  emperor  to  enforce  compliance  with  his  wishes,  yet 
Pius  remained  rirm  in  his  refusal  to  compromise  his  conscience 
and  tiie  rights  of  the  Holy  See,  or  to  enter  into  any  neiroiiations 
with  the  spoliator,  till  allowed  to  take  tlie  advice  of  his  spiritual 
councillors,  and  restored  to  the  independent  exercise  of  his  au- 
thority in  the  city  of  Home.  The  rigours  of  his  captivity 
weie  therefore  redoubled.  On  the  11th  of  January,  while 
taking  the  air  in  the  garden  adjoining  the  episcopal  palace, 
his  a|)artinents  were  entered  by  thi!  emperor's  emissaries,  and 
searched  with  the  most  minute  exactness.  The  seals  were 
set  upon  every  oi)ject  that  bore  the  slightest  trace  of  hand- 
writing; the  Pope's  despatches,  public  as  well  as  private, 
even  his  breviaries,  were  seized,  carried  aw;iy,  and  sent  off  to 
Paris,  ('omit  Mertliier,  who  had  hilherlo  filled  the  olhce  of 
master  of  his  |)alace,  suddenly  disappeared  :  his  |)lace  was 
supplied  i)y  a  steward,  who  announced  that  each  Italian  com- 
posing the  household,  the  I*ope  includt;d,  was  in  future  to 
receive  from  the  imperial  treasury  no  more  than  five  paoli 
(about  twenty  pence)  a  day.  This  absurd  regulation  was 
enforced  for  seventeen  days,  during  which  the  inh.iliilants  of 
Savona  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  testifying  their  allachment 
and  veneration  for  the  illustrious  captive,  by  an  abundant  sup> 
plv  of  every  thiiiL'  twedfnl.  As  these  testimonials  of  respect 
did  not  meet  the  cinjicror's  views,  things  wi;re  re-established 


XLIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  363 

on  their  former  footing  ;  a  splendid  dinner  was  daily  provided, 
at  which  the  Pope  never  appeared,  and  other  necessary  ex- 
penses duly  defrayed  from  a  sort  of  civil  list  assigned  for  the 
purpose,  over  which  he  declined  exercising  any  control. 
Among  the  papers  seized  in  January,  were  found  a  brief  con- 
ferring extraordinary  powers  on  the  Cardinal  di  Pieto,  and 
another  addressed  to  Cardinal  Maury.  From  that  moment 
the  use  of  pens  and  paper  was  denied  to  his  holiness,  and  all 
communications  with  persons  from  abroad  expressly  prohi- 
bited ;  Cardinal  Doria,  his  confessor,  and  his  Maestro  di  Ca- 
mera, Moiraghi,  to  whom  he  was  singularly  attached,  were 
removed  and  sent  to  a  distant  prison.  The  Pope  endured  all 
these  outrages  with  heroic  firmness,  and  without  the  slightest 
mark  of  pusillanimity  or  discouragement. 

Napoleon,  meanwhile,  continued  to  nominate  to  the  vacant 
sees  in  Germany,  in  Italy,  and  in  France.  Cardinal  Maury 
was  named  to  the  archbishopric  of  Paris,  on  the  refusal  of 
that  dignity  by  Cardinal  Fesch,  to  whom  it  had  first  been 
offered.  The  Bishops  of  Faenza  and  Nancy,  whose  subservi- 
ency to  the  will  of  the  emperor  earned  them  this  distinction, 
were  respectively  appointed  to  the  patriarclial  and  archiepisco- 
pal  sees  of  Venice  and  Florence.  But  as  the  Pope  refused 
to  give  canonical  institution  to  any  of  these  nominees,  the 
chapters  in  most  instances  refused  to  acknowledge  them,  and 
thus  drew  down  on  themselves  the  vengeance  of  Napoleon, 
which  was  seldom  braved  with  impunity.  Eight  fortresses, 
converted  by  him  into  state  prisons,  were  crowded  with  per- 
sons of  every  rank,  chiefly  ecclesiastics,  who  were  immured 
there  on  the  slightest  suspicion,  and  detained  for  weeks, 
months,  or  years,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  despot.  In  this  state 
of  aflairs.  Napoleon  inquired  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commis- 
sion, which  he  convoked  anew  in  March,  from  whom  his 
bishops  were  to  obtain  canonical  institution,  in  case  all  com- 
munication should  be  interrupted  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  subjects  of  the  empire.  To  discuss  this  question  with 
greater  solemnity,  he  called  together  unexpectedly  the  members 
of  the  commission,  with  the  principal  theologians,  the  coun- 
cillors of  state,  and  the  grand  dignitaries  of  the  empire.  The 
emperor  opened  the  sitting  by  declaiming  violently  against 
what  he  termed  the  obstinacy  of  the  Pope :  on  a  sudden,  by 
one  of  those  abrupt  transitions,  so  familiar  to  him,  he  turned 
to  M.  Emery,  the  superior  of  the  Oratorians,  then  nearly 
eighty  years  of  age,  and  said,  "  What  is  your  opinion  of  the 
authority  of  the   Pope?"     "Sire,"   replied   that  venerable 

33* 


854  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROrE.  j^CHAF. 

ecclesiastic,  "I  can  have  no  other  opinion  than  tluit  which  is 
contained  in  the  catechism  ta\ifriit  hy  your  orders  in  all  the 
rluirches  of  l-'rance.  In  answer  to  the  question,  '  What  is 
meant  hy  the  Pope?'  I  lind  this  reply,  ''i'iie  head  of  the 
Church,  the  Vicar  of  Christ  on  earth,  to  whom  all  Ciiristians 
owe  ohedirnce.'"  Napoh'on  a]i|)care(l  surpi iscd  :  :in(l,  afier 
muttering  tiie  word  ('(itic/ii.stii,  coMtiniicd,  "  I  do  not  contest 
the  spiritual  power  of  the  Pope ;  hut  his  temporal  power 
was  conferred  on  him  hy  Charlemaj:ne,  and  I,  who  am  the 
successor  of  Charlcmaiine,  am  resolved  to  deprive  him  of  it." 
The  Abbe  ?]mery  cited  JJossuet,  who  asserts  the  independ- 
ence and  full  liberty  of  the  head  of  tlie  Churcli  to  be  essen- 
tial to  the  exercise  of  his  spiritual  ])0\ver.  'J'o  this  Napoleon 
replied,"!  do  not  reject  the  authority  of  Bossuet :  all  that 
was  very  true  in  his  time,  when  Europe  was  sui)ject  to  many 
rulers  ;  but  what  inconvenience  can  there  l)e  in  the  Pope's 
submission  to  me,  now  that  the  continent  acknowled<res  no 
other  master  ?"*  This  question  was  of  too  personal  a  nature 
not  to  excite  a  momentary  embarrassment ;  yet  the  Abbe 
Emery  liad  the  noble  courajre  to  reply,  that  affairs  mipht  not 
always  continue  in  their  actual  position,  and  that  the  incon- 
veniences foreseen  by  IJossuet  miglitat  some  future  day  occur, 
wlierefore  it  was  better  not  to  change  an  order  of  things  so 
wisely  established,  'i'he  emperor  appeared  convinced,  and, 
on  rising  to  withdraw,  noticed  no  one  else,  but  saluted  the 
Abbe  Emery  with  visil)le  marks  of  esteem  and  veneration. 
The  counsels  of  the  courageous  Altbc  were  however  soon 
disregarded  for  the  more  agreeable  dictates  of  flattery.  The 
idea  of  ap[n'aling  to  an  assembly  of  prelates,  incorrectly 
termed  a  national  council,  charmed  the  vanity  of  Napoleon, 
who,  witli  this  view,  in  his  newly-assumed  character  of  em- 
peror of  the  west,  called  to  Paris  the  greater  part  of  the  bi- 
shops of  France  and  Italy.  This  assembly,  which  consisted 
of  six  cardinals,  nine  archbishops,  and  eighty  bishops,  held 
its  first  and  only  session  lui  lb*-  17th  of  .fune.  After  the  usual 
preliminary  ceremonies.  Cardinal  Fesch,  who  presided,  took 

•  The  rolrliralpd  srulptiir,  Pnnovn,  w;is  called  to  Paris  this  yrar  to  model 
a  staliu'  of  the  EmprcKK  Marin  I.nnisa.  Napoleon  fre(|iienlly  assisted  at 
the  KittiriKK,  ronverHinu  rnimliiirly  with  the  artist,  and  wax  not  displeased 
when  that  fuilhful  Huljeet  of  his  Indine.ss  ex|iostulated  with  him  nn  the 
detention  of  his  sovertiKii.  "  How  !"  said  Napoleon,  '•  he  would  not 
expel  the  EnKlish  from  his  Htatrs  !  he  resisted  my  will,  who  am  the  sovc- 
reicn  of  sixty  millions  of  siilijeets  !"  Thi"  statue  was  no  sooner  rom- 
lileteil  than  (-atiova  set  out  for  Kotnc,  refusing  the  dignity  of  genator,  offcreif 
nim  by  the  emperor. 


XLIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  355 

the  oath  of  fidelity  and  true  obedience  to  the  Holy  See :  his 
example  was  followed  by  all  the  other  members.  This  com- 
mencement of  proceedings  was  so  displeasing  to  the  emperor, 
that  he  substituted  to  the  council  a  commission  of  twelve  bi- 
shops;  eight  of  that  number  continuing  to  oppose  his  views, 
he  dissolved  the  commission  and  imprisoned  the  Bistiops  of 
Troyes,  Ghent,  and  Tournay,  who  had  most  strenuously  sup- 
ported the  authority  of  the  Pope.  Cardinal  Fesch  also  fell 
into  disgrace  witli  his  imperial  nephew,  and  was  advised  to 
withdraw  to  Lyons,  of  which  city  he  was  archbishop.  The 
object  of  Napoleon,  in  convoking  the  council,  had  been  to 
dissolve  the  Concoi-dat  of  1801,  and  to  take  from  the  Pope 
the  right  of  confirming,  or  of  refusing  to  confirm,  the  nomi- 
nation of  bishops,  thus  preventing  the  intrusion  of  unworthy 
persons  into  the  government  of  the  Church.  The  emperor 
also  hoped  to  intimidate,  by  the  eclat  of  tlie  proceedings  and 
the  numbers  whom  his  fiat  had  assembled,  tlie  meek  and 
peaceable  Pontiff,  on  whom  personal  motives  could  make  no 
impression.  But,  in  all  these  projects,  he  was  singularly 
unsuccessful :  the  convocation  of  the  council  only  served  to 
render  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  more  resplendent ;  and 
though  a  verbal  acceptation  of  a  decree  presented  to  his  holi- 
ness, by  a  deputation  of  six  prelates,  was,  by  dint  of  earnest 
entreaties  and  exaggerated  statements  of  the  danger  of  a 
schism,  extorted  from  him  ;  a  few  hours'  reflection  sufficed  to 
sliow  him  the  error  into  which  he  had  been  inadvertently  be- 
trayed, and  he  sent  to  recall  the  prelates,  but  they  had  already 
set  out  for  Paris.  The  concessions  thus  obtained,  were,  how- 
ever, to  the  inexpressible  joy  of  the  good  Pope  and  of  all 
sincere  lovers  of  religion,  rejected  by  Napoleon  as  insuffi- 
cient. Pius  was  left  tranquil  in  his  solitude  at  Savona  during 
the  winter  months,  and  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  after  so 
many  plans  and  so  much  agitation,  remained  unaltered. 

Besides  the  occupation  thus  afforded  him,  the  emperor  was 
intent  on  raising  a  navy,  which  might  in  time  dispute  with 
England  the  empire  of  the  sea.  For  this  end,  the  military 
conscription  was  changed,  in  the  thirty  maritime  departments, 
into  a  naval  one,  and  seamen  from  Denmark  and  various 
parts  of  the  French  empire  were  sent  to  man  the  fleet  fitting 
out  at  Antwerp.  During  the  summer  months,  Napoleon 
made  a  tour  of  inspection,  and  visited  the  shipping  and  fortifi- 
cations of  the  principul  sea-ports.  The  large  and  commercial 
Rity  of  Hamburg  now  formed  part  of  the  French  empire,  to 
which  it  had  been  annexed  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 


•50  GENERAL    HISTORy    OF    EUROPE,  fcHAr. 

Anotlicr  of  Napolcon'ss  fuvouriic  plans  tended  to  lessen  the 
nunilxT  of  jjiivate  seminaries,  \vhic;li  were  suhject  to  the 
bishops,  and  to  anjrnient  that  of  the  universities,  where 
much  pains  were  taken  to  give  the  youth  of  France  a  military 
character.  "  'I'hese  priests,"  said  he,  in  one  of  his  moments 
of  skepticism,  "  oidy  think  of  fitting  men  for  the  other  wcmUI: 
I  want  soldiers  for  this."  On  the  2d  of  April,  his  empress 
gave  hirth  to  a  son,  who  was  named  Napoleon,  and  entitlej 
King  of  Home. 

1812. — The  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  assembled 
on  the  7th  of  January  ;  the  regent's  speech  was  delivered  i)y 
commission.  The  king  being  still  unable  to  resume  the 
cares  of  royalty,  and  the  j)eriod  allotted  for  the  continuance 
of  restrictions  upon  the  regent's  power  having  expired,  the 
full  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative,  though  not  the  title  of 
sovereign,  devolved  upon  the  latter,  and  the  civil  list  was 
triinsferred  to  him.  A  new  establishment  was  set  up  for  the 
king,  to  support  which,  £170,<K)0,  including  £50,000  re- 
signed by  the  regent,  were  allotted;  i3lOO,000  were  granted 
to  the  prince,  and  £9000  a  year  to  each  of  the  royal  prin- 
cesses, exclusive  of  the  £4000  per  annum  allowed  from  the 
civil  list.  'I'hc  regent,  after  some  clTort^i  to  form  a  ministry, 
m  which  Lords  Grey  and  Grcnville  might  be  included, 
retained  Mr.  Percival  and  his  colleagues  in  office.  The  seals 
of  llie  foreign  department  were  resigned  by  Manpiis 
Wellesley,  and  shortly  after  commilUMl  to  Lord  (,'asllereagh. 

Distress  and  consequent  riots  continued  to  prevail  in  the 
maiiuricturing  districts  of  England;  and  so  organized  a 
system  was  adopted  by  the  maleconlents,  as  led  to  a  belief, 
that  their  views  were  not  confined  to  tlie  attainment  of  imme- 
diate relief,  but  partook  of  a  revolutionary  nature.  Govern- 
ment endeavoured,  by  rigorous  measures,  to  suppress  these 
disturbances;  but  the  manufacturers,  and  the  country  in 
general,  attributed  their  origin  and  continuance  to  the  opera- 
lion  of  the  orders  in  council.  So  general  a  dissatisfaction  at 
last  ongag<"d  the  legislature  to  institute  an  inquiry  into  the 
state  of  commerce  and  manufactures  ;  but  the  labours  of  the 
committee  appointed  in  April  for  that  purpose,  were  sfs- 
pended,  and  the  adininistralion  depriv(!d  of  its  leader,  by  the 
assassination  of  .Mr.  I*t;rcival,  who  was  sliot,  in  the  lobby  of  the 
House  of  (Jomrnons,  !)y  a  person  named  Hellingham.  To 
protract  the  lil(!,  and  sootlu!  the  aniruish  of  the  dvino'  n)iuister, 
was  the  first  impulse  of  the  l)y-staii(lers  :  their  (  ll'orts  were 
however  unavailing;  Mr.  Percival  expired  after  a  short  perioi 


3CIIX.]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  357 

of  intense  suffering.  Bellingham,  after  having  taken  his 
deadly  aim,  fearlessly  remained  among  the  spectators  of  its 
fatal  efficacy,  and  hesitated  not,  when  called  for,  to  ac- 
knowledge himself  the  perpetrator  of  an  act,  to  which,  he 
judged,  no  infamy  or  punishment  could  be  attached.  When 
brought  to  trial,  he  alleged  in  his  justification,  that  having 
been  wrongfully  imprisoned  in  Russia,  and  reduced  from 
comparatively  affluent  circumstances,  to  extreme  indigence, 
he  had  often  ineffectually  applied  for  redress  to  the  English 
ambassador  there  ;  and  that  having,  on  his  return  to  England, 
found  the  ministry  equally  deaf  to  his  complaints,  he  had  ta- 
ken revenge  for  their  neglect  in  the  assassination  of  their 
leader,  without  being  influenced  by  personal  feelings  of  ani- 
mosity towards  his  victim.  He  was  sentenced  to  death, 
and  suffered  the  awarded  penalty  on  the  18th  of  May. 

After  a  protracted  discussion  between  the  members  of  the 
old  cabinet,  and  the  whig  parly,  relative  to  the  formation  of 
a  new  ministry,  a  conciliation  of  parties  being  found  im- 
practicable, Lord  Liverpool  was  appointed  prime  minister ; 
Lord  Sidmouth,  secretary  for  the  home  department;  Lord 
Harrowby,  president  of  the  council ;  and  Mr.  Vansittart, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Catholic  affairs,  and  the  orders  in  council,  continued  to 
occupy  Parliamentary  and  general  attention.  Mr.  Canning 
proposed,  and  carried,  that  the  Commons  should,  during  the 
next  session  of  Parliament,  take  into  consideration,  the  laws 
affecting  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
A  similar  motion,  made  by  Marquis  Wellesley,  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  was  lost  by  one  voice  ;  but  the  Catholics  found  con- 
solation for  present  disappointment,  in  the  conviction  that 
their  course  was  at  least  progressive,  and  in  the  hope  that  its 
triumph  was  but  deferred.  The  result  of  the  inquiry  into 
the  state  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  was  a  repeal  of  the 
orders  in  council,  as  far  as  they  regarded  American  vessels. 
But  this  concession  came  too  late  to  avert  war  between 
England  and  America.  Angry  feelings  had  long  existed  in  the 
latter  country  against  the  British,  and  had  been  aggravated  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year  by  an  unfortunate  collision  which  took 
place  between  an  English  sloop  of  war,  and  an  American  fri- 
gate. The  former  had  32  men  killed  or  wounded  in  the  affi-ay  ; 
the  loss  of  the  Americans,  who  were  greatly  superior  in  force, 
was  inconsiderable.  The  governments  of  the  two  countries  dis- 
avowing any  hostile  orders  given  to  the  two  comman(.ers,  this 
affair  produced  only  a  temporary  exasperation  :  other  event* 


868  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

now  widened  the  breach,  and  the  Americans  issued  a  dechira- 
lion  of  war  against  En-jlaiid,  on  the  17th  of  June,  live  days 
previous  to  the  ri-peal  of  thi;  orders  in  council. 

At  an  early  period  of  the  year,  Lord  Wellington,  finding 
his  troops  sulFicicntly  recovered  from  sickness  and  fati<^ue, 
atrain  laid  sieije  to  Ciud  id  Rodriiro,  and,  in  the  evening  of  the 
19th  of  .lanuary,  carried  tliat  important  fortress  by  storm. 
The  garrison  was  considerably  reduced  in  numbers,  and  tiie 
loss  of  the  besiegers  was  also  groat,  esperiallv  in  olRcers, 
among  whom  was  General  Crawford,  who  fell,  mortally 
wounded,  as  he  was  mounting  the  breach  at  the  head  of  his 
troops.  This  brilliant  alfair  o'otained  for  TiOrd  Wellington  a  vote 
of  thanks  from  the  Cortes,  with  the  rank  of  a  grandee  of  Spain 
of  the  first  class,  and  the  title  of  Duke  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  The 
Prince  Regent  of  Rnirland  created  him  an  earl,  and  I'arliament 
voted  him  a  giant  of  1^20, 000  per  annum.  The  Urilish  com- 
mander now  prepared  to  invest  Badajoz  ;  a  fire  from  twenty- 
six  pieces  of  cannon  was  opened  on  the  place,  March  31st, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  skill  and  perseverance  with  which 
it  was  defended  by  General  Fiiilopon,  it  was  carried,  April 
6th,  partly  by  assault  and  partly  by  escalade.  An  immense 
quantity  of  ammunition  and  implements  of  war,  witli  133  brass 
cannon,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  The  reduction  of 
Badajoz  shed  an  additional  lustre  on  the  arms  of  the  allies; 
but  the  triumjdi  was  pundiased  with  the  loss  of  .'i.OOO  Ilrilish 
and  Portuguese,  killed  or  wounded  in  the  sieije  and  assault. 
Soult,  who  was  advancing  to  rcdieve  the  fortress,  on  hearing 
of  its  surrender,  retreated  into  Andalusia;  upon  which,  FiOrd 
WeHiiigioii  detached  General  Sir  R.  Hill  to  de-^troy  the  l)ridge 
of  Almare/,  which  otlereil  tlu;  only  g(»od  communication  across 
the  Tagus.  The  enterprise  was,  in  every  respect,  successful. 
The  reduction  of  Ciudad  Rodriiro  and  Badajoz  enabled  T/ord 
Wellington  to  advance  into  the  interior  of  Spain.  Having  pro- 
ceeded, almost  without  opposition,  to  Salamanca,  he  entered 
that  city  amidst  the  joyous  acclamations  of  the  inhabitants; 
while  Marmont,  retrealin;r  l)efore  him,  took  up  a  position  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tormes.  After  much  tiuje  spent  by 
both  armies  in  a  variety  of  evolutions,  a  general  battle  took 
place,  .July  2"2d.  which  was  iniiiutained  till  nigbtrdl,and  ended 
in  the  total  defeat  of  tin-  French.  Although  the  darkness  of 
the  night  was  favourable  to  the  retreating  enemy,  the  number 
of  j)risoners  taken  amounted  to  7,000,  among  whom  a  large 
proportion  were  officers.  Two  eairles,  six  standards,  eleven 
pieces  of    cannon,  and  several  ammunition-wagons,  fcrmed 


ttlX.'J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  359 

part  of  the  spoils  on  this  occasion.  After  the  battle  of  Sala- 
manca, Joseph  Bonaparte  retired  from  Madrid,  which  was  en- 
tered by  the  allies  on  the  17th  of  August.  Early  in  Septem- 
ber, liOrd  Wellington  marched  upon  Burgos,  through  which 
city  the  French  had  retired,  leaving  a  strong  garrison  in  the 
castle  ;  having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  carry  this  strong  fortress 
by  storm,  and  receiving  intelligence  that  the  united  forces  of 
Soult  and  Victor  were  advancing  towards  the  Tagus,  he  broke 
up  the  siege,  and,  in  the  night  of  the  20th,  commenced  a  re- 
trograde march  to  the  Douro.  The  allied  troops  were,  conse- 
quently, recalled  from  Madrid,  and,  on  the  2d  of  November, 
the  French  re-entered  that  city.  Lord  Wellington  displayed 
consummate  abilities  in  conducting  his  retreat  before  an  ene- 
my gready  superior  in  numbers,  and,  November  24,  again 
established  his  head-quarters  at  Freynada,  on  the  Portuguese 
frontier.  The  effects  of  the  battle  of  Salamanca  had,  in  the 
meanwhile,  been  felt  in  the  south  of  Spain  ;  the  French  raised, 
in  August,  the  siege  of  Cadiz,  and  withdrew,  after  blowing 
up  their  forts  and  batteries,  leaving  behind  them  a  numerous 
artillery,  mostly  rendered  unserviceable.  They  also  evacu- 
ated Sevdle  and  their  other  possessions  in  that  part  of  Spain. 
The  Cortes  testified  their  gratitude  for  the  distinguished  ser- 
vices of  Lord  Wellington  by  appointing  him  Commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Spanish  armies ;  a  measure  which  led  to  that 
union  of  efforts,  the  want  of  which  had  been  so  often  felt 
during  this  memorable  contest.  The  victory  of  Salamanca 
was  celebrated  in  England  with  illuminations  and  public  re- 
joicings. Lord  Wellington  was  created  a  Marquis  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  Parliament  voted  a  sum  of  ^100,000 
to  be  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of  estates  for  him  and  his  heirs. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  year  (1812)  a  change  was  made  in 
the  Spanish  regency,  General  O'Donnel  being  named  presi- 
dent, and  the  Duke  del  Infantado  vice-president.  The  Cortes 
put  forth  a  new  constitution,  which,  as  well  as  the  former  one 
of  1810,  had  a  revolutionary  and  irreligious  tendency,  though 
published  in  the  name  of  the  king.  The  Pope's  nuncio  and 
the  Bishop  of  Orense  were  banished,  and  many  other  Spa- 
niards were  sufferers  on  account  of  their  attachment  to  the  altar 
and  the  throne.  The  regency  and  Cortes  were  acknowledged 
by  several  foreign  powers  :  England,  Russia,  and  others,  con- 
tinned  to  treat  with  this  assembly,  which  acted  in  the  name 
of  Ferdinand, 


860  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cnAP. 


CHAPTER  L. 

THE    RUSSIAN'  CAMPAIGN. 

The  aspect  of  foreign  aiTairs  was  allercd  this  year  bv  ihe 
defection  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  from  the  maritime  system 
of  Najjoleon,  and  hy  the  war  which  ensued  between  tliese 
inonarchs.  Aicxandor  bad  issued  an  ukase*  at  the  close  of 
1810,  by  which  English  produce,  in  neutral  ships,  n\iirht  be 
imported  into  the  Russian  dominions ;  and  ihough  Napoleon 
proclaimed  tliat  he  woulil  turn  his  arms  against  every  nation 
whose  ports  should  be  opened  to  British  merchandise,  or  de- 
nationalized vessels,  Alexander  did  not  revoke  the  permis- 
sion. In  reply  to  the  remonstrance  made  by  the  French  mi- 
nister, early  in  1812,  {]w  Russian  ambassador  required,  as  the 
conditions  upon  which  Alexander  would  forego  a  direct  trade 
with  England,  and  adopt  thf;  French  system  of  license,  thai 
Prussia  and  Swedish  Pomerania  should  be  evacuated  by  the 
French  troops.  The  seizure  of  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  in 
violation  of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  was  an  additional  sul)ject  of 
complaint  on  the  part  of  Russia;  she  was,  however,  willing 
to  conclude  a  treaty  of  exchange  for  that  duchy,  should  France 
accede  to  her  other  proposals  ;  but  to  these  Bonaparte  returned 
no  reply.  Remote  preparations  for  war  had  been  made  by 
both  parlies,  during  the  preceding  year;  and  no  sooner  was 
the  inelhca'-y  of  n<-gutiation  apparent  to  Napnleon,  than  he 
left  Paris  for  the  Russian  frontier.  Previous  to  his  departure,  he 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Austria,  which  bound  each  of  its  con- 
tracting parties  to  assist  the  other,  if  attacked,  and  guarantied 
the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  Porle,  in  Europe.  Overtures  of 
peace  were  also  made  by  the  French  emperor  to  Great  Bri- 
tain ;  but  as  one  of  the  articles  proposed  "  that  the  present 
dynasty  in  Spain  sluiuld  be  recognised  and  the  nation 
governed  according  to  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes,"  Lord 
CasiUreagh  replied  that  the  proposal  was  inadmissible. 
Alexander,  on  his  side,  concluded  a  treaty  of  amity  and  mu- 
tual defence  with  (ireat  Britain  and  Sweden,  and  having  thug 
acipiired  two  |)owerftd  allies,  he  set  out  from  St.  F'etersburg, 
and  joined  the  general-in-chief,  Barclay  de  'I'olly,  at  Wilna. 
80,000  men,  divided  into  seven  corps,  and  forming  the  centre 
of  the  Rvissian  forces,  were  there  assembled  under  his  orders. 
To  the  south  of  CJrodno.  Bairration,  with  (').'). 000  men,  was 
posted,  and  at  Krowno,  Wittgciistien,  with  20,000. 
•   An  imjic-rial  order. 


t-j 


GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  861 


Nsrpoleon  quitted  Paris  on  the  9th  of  May  ;  from  that  city 
to  Dresden,  whither  he  was  followed  by  the  empress  and  a 
nnmerous  court,  his  route  was  one  continued  triumpli.  The 
different  divisions  of  the  invading  army  were  stationed  along 
the  sliores  of  the  Vistula,  and  Napoleon  had  no  sooner  passed 
that  river,  than  he  was  hailed  by  the  Poles  as  the  restorer  of 
their  national  independence,  A  deputation  from  the  diet  of 
Warsaw  craved  his  protection  for  "  the  cradle  of  reviving 
Poland,"  and  the  majority  of  the  nation  warmly  espoused 
his  cause.  The  forces  which  were  called  together  for  the 
invasion  of  Russia,  surpassed  in  numbers,  in  equipment,  and 
in  discipline,  any  that  had  been  brought  into  the  field  since 
the  ages  of  barbarism.  They  amounted  to  600,000  men, 
among  whom  were  Germans,  French,  Italians,  Prussians, 
and  Poles,  and  were  divided  into  ten  corps;  the  Austrian  auxi- 
liaries being  commanded  by  Prince  Schwartzenburg;  the  ca- 
valry by  Murat;  the  old  guards  were  led  by  La  Febre,  the 
new  by  Mortier,  and  the  advanced  guard  by  Jerome  Bonaparte. 
These  different  divisions  entered  the  Russian  territory  by  vari- 
ous routes.  Macdonald,  who  commanded  the  left  wing,  and 
was  opposed  to  Prince  Wittgenstein,  rested  his  invasion  on 
the  Baltic,  and  threatened  Revel,  tlien  Riga,  and,  lasdy,  St. 
Petersburg  itself.  Though  thrice  defeated  by  the  Russian  gen- 
eral, he  carried  on  the  war  with  judgment  and  valour  under 
the  walls  of  Riga,  which  city  was  ably  and  successfully  de- 
fended by  General  Essen,  and  held  out  till  Macdonald,  at 
Napoleon's  command,  withdrew  his  army.  With  regard  to 
his  right  wing,  the  French  emperor  relied  on  the  support  of 
Turkey,  and  in  this  he  was  disappointed.  He  had  concluded 
that  the  Russian  army  of  Volhynia,  under  Tormasof,  would 
follow  the  movements  of  Alexander,  whereas  it  advanced  in  a 
contrary  direction.  Tormasof  was  defeated  ;  but  the  peace  of 
Buchares,  which  was  then  concluded  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte,  left  the  army  under  'J'schigakoff  at  liberty  to  join  in 
the  contest  against  the  invaders  of  the  empire,  and  to  march 
from  the  Danube  against  Prince  Schwartzenburg. 

Between  these  two  wings,  the  grand  army  marched  tow^ards 
the  Niemen,  in  three  separate  masses ;  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
with  80,000  men,  took  the  direction  of  Grodno ;  Prince 
Eugene,  with  75,000,  that  of  Piloni ;  Napoleon,  with 
200,000,  that  of  Kowno.  On  the  23d  of  June,  the  imperial 
columns  reached  the  Niemen;  on  the  following  night,  bridges 
were  thrown  across  the  river,  and  three  successive  days  were 
•mployed  in  effecting  the  passage  of  the  troops.     They  wer^ 

33 


362  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  fcHAP 

provided  with  provisions  for  twenty  days,  in  wliifh  time  Na« 
poleon  hoped  to  reach  Wihia,  and  to  have  grained  at  least  one 
decisive  victory.  Tlie  ohjcct  of  the  Russians  was  to  eflecj 
the  dt'struction  of  the  invadc^r,  not  hy  attempting  liis  defeat 
in  tlie  early  stage  of  the  campaign,  hut  hy  hiying  waste  tlie 
country  hefore  him,  and  by  opposing  his  progress  only  in 
such  positions  as  miiiht  insure  his  defeat  with  trifling  loss 
on  their  sitle.  IJy  these  means  it  was  foreseen  that  his 
strength  would  be  inscnsil)ly  diminished ;  and,  should  he  ad- 
vance into  the  heart  of  the  country  and  winter  overtake  him 
there,  liis  entire  ruin  would  he  accomplisiied.  It  was  in  con- 
formity with  this  plan,  that  the  Russians,  witli  their  emperor, 
retreated  from  the  Niemen  to  the  Dwina.  A  considerable 
disadvantage,  however,  resulted  from  this  plan.  IVince 
Bagration  was  separated  from  the  army  of  the  centre, 
and  Poland  was  abandoned  to  the  enctny.  Alexander  had 
given  orders  that  the  diflVrent  divisions  of  the  Russian  forces 
should  assemble  at  Drissa.  'J'hc  wliole  niain  l)ody  reached 
the  place  of  concentration  without  loss;  and  a  corps  under  the 
orders  of  Doctorof,  wiiich  had  been  left  at  Grodno,  found 
means,  though  with  difticulty,  to  force  its  way  thither. 
Prince  Bagration,  for  the  same  end,  inarched  first  upon  Wilna, 
and  afterwards  upon  Minsk  ;  but  finding  both  these  places 
preoccupied  by  the  French,  he  advanced  towards  Slontsk, 
with  llie  iutcnlion  of  proceeding  from  thence  to  Witei)sk. 
To  efi"(ct  llie  junction  of  the  two  armies,  Barclay  de  Tolly 
quitted  Drissa,  and,  arrivinif  liefore  Witepsk,  took  »ip  a  posi- 
ti(»n  with  a  view  of  giving  battle  to  the  French,  who  were 
advancing  towards  it ;  but,  on  receiving  intelligence  that 
J'rince  Bagration  had  been  compelled  to  fall  back  ui)nn  the 
road  to  Smolensk,  he  altered  his  intention,  and  resolved  to 
retire  in  the  same  direction,  liis  troops  effected  their  retreat 
on  the  night  <if  tin;  27th  of  July,  in  such  order  as  to  leave 
the  enemy  no  indication  of  the  road  they  had  taken.  Prince 
Bagration,  wiio  had  l)een  joined  by  Ilctman  PlatofT,  at  the 
head  of  a  large  body  of  ('ossacks,  crossed  the  BeresinSv  at 
Bohreush  ;  ami,  cutting  his  way  throuirh  the  divisions  of 
Davoust  anil  Mortier,  which  were  suuioned  on  the  Dnieper  to 
intercept  his  progress,  reached  Smolensk  on  the  7th  of 
Auirust  ;  the  united  force  of  Barclay  ami  Baifration  amounted 
to  1:j(),()()0  men.  When  Napoleon  had  sulhciently  refreshed 
his  trof)ps,  and  had  been  apprized  that  reinforcements  were 
advancing  from  Tilsit  to  his  assistance,  he  ordered  Murat  and 
Beauharnais  to  force  the  passage  of  the  Dnieper.     News  of 


t.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  363 

this  movement  caused  General  Barclay  de  Tolly  to  retire  to 
the  heights  above  Smolensk,  which  was  strongly  garrisoned. 
Prince  Bagration  was  stationed  on  the  Moscow  road,  anc' 
every  necessary  precaution  taken  to  arrest  tlie  progress  of  the 
enemy. 

Bonaparte  arrived  before  Smolensk  on  the  16th  of  August, 
and  ordered  the  assault  of  tlie  suburbs,  and  the  destruction  of 
the  bridges,  by  which  a  communication  was  maintained  be- 
tween the  garrison  and  the  army  on  the  heights.  Ney  com- 
manded the  French  left,  Davoust  the  centre,  and  Prince  Po- 
niatowsky  the  right;  the  cavalry,  under  Beauharnais  and 
Murat,  and  the  guards,  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person, 
formed  the  rear.  In  the  etforts  of  the  French  to  gain  their 
object,  and  of  the  Russians  to  prevent  its  attainment,  thou- 
sands fell  on  both  sides.  The  Russians,  having  disputed  every 
point,  were  driven  into  the  city,  and  the  French  advanced  to 
its  walls.  A  destructive  fire  from  th-:  outworks  retarded  for 
a  while  the  farther  progress  of  the  besiegers ;  but  breaching 
batteries  were  quickly  raised,  and  the  Russian  left  was  forced 
to  retire  within  the  ramparts.  The  contest  raged  Avith  undi- 
minished fury  till  long  after  sunset;  at  length,  the  Russians, 
finding  die  works  no  longer  tenable,  set  fire  to  the  city  in 
several  places  and  retreated.  At  two  o'clock  on  the  follow- 
ing morning,  the  French  mounted  a  breach,  which  they  had 
made  on  the  evening  of  the  16th:  their  progress  was  unre- 
sisted, except  by  widely-extended  flames.  The  defenders  of 
Smolensk  had  retired,  and  to  its  conquerors,  who  had  hoped 
that  it  would  afford  them  remuneration  for  the  fatigue  which 
they  had  sustained  previous  to  its  capture,  wrecks  of  life 
and  greatness,  flaming  palaces  and  blackened  skeletons  were 
alone  discernible.  Napoleon,  as  he  viewed  the  vast  scene 
of  desolation  before  him,  exclaimed,  "  Never  was  a  war  prose- 
cuted with  such  ferocity;  never  did  defence  put  on  so  hostile 
a  shape  against  the  common  feelings  of  self-preservation. 
These  people  treat  their  own  country  as  if  they  were  its  ene- 
mies." He  ordered  the  immediate  pursuit  of  the  retreating 
army,  which,  however,  made  good  its  march  through  Viasma. 
This  city,  like  Smolensk,  was  destroyed,  and  presented  to 
its  invaders  ruin  and  desolation. 

On  the  28th  of  August,  General  Barclay  de  Tolly  resigned 
his  command  to  Prince  Kutusoff".  The  new  commander-in- 
chief  took  up  a  position,  with  the  intention  of  giving  battle 
at  Borodino,  four  wersts  in  advance  of  Mojaish,  on  the  .Mos- 
cow road.     On  the  4th  of  September  the  French  arrived,  in 


804  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAF 

great  forro,  in  the  viciiiitv.  On  the  inornin<j  of  the  7th,  Da- 
voust  and  I'oniaDwsky  attarkcd  the  Hussian  left ;  Nay  of». 
posed  their  centre,  and  Beauharnais  their  riijht.  The  hatde 
poon  became  <jeneral;  it  rasped  till  ni<:ht  rendercil  thecontcnd- 
in<r  parlies  no  lon;rer  visiltle  to  each  other.  Victory  was 
claimed  by  both  parties;  and  Bonaparte  and  KutiisotF,  in  their 
several  bidielins,  announced  it  as  trained  by  tlicir  respective 
armies.  The  Russians  retained  j)ossessic)n  of  the  held  u(  Bo- 
rodino, but  tlieir  loss  was  immense,  and  the  French  were  not 
arrested  in  their  progress. 

Kutusofl'.  fiiulinir  iliat  tlie  enemy  was  advancincf  upon  the 
capital,  and  jmli;iiig  that  his  army,  until  the  arrival  of  expect- 
ed reinforcements,  would  fijrht  under  disadvantageous  circum- 
stances, passed  through  Moscow,  which  lie  determined  to 
abandon,  and  took  a  position  on  the  Kaluga  road.  He  or- 
dered that  the  arsenal  and  all  the  puiilic  and  private  treasures 
of  Mosv^ow  should  be  secured,  and  the  city  left  an  empty 
waste,  incapable  of  atlbrdinsr  spoil  or  refreshment  to  the  in- 
vading army.  "  The  sacritice  of  Moscow,"  he  said,  "  was 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  Russia:  it  was  an  immola- 
tion of  a  part  for  the  wliole."*  He  added  that,  had  he  per- 
sisted in  retaining  this  city,  he  should  have  abandoned  the 
rich  |)rovinces  of  Toula  and  Kaluga,  the  store-houses  of  the 
Russian  empire;  that,  by  relinquishing  it,  he  was  enabled  to 
cover  these  provinces ;  to  maintain  a  cmnmunication  with 
the  corps  of  Tormazof  and  Tschitrakotf;  to  intercept  the 
enemy's  line  of  operations,  and  to  cut  off  supplies  from  their 
rear.  (General  Winzinirerode  was  ordered  to  occupy  Twer, 
and  to  jtlacc  a  reiriment  of  (Jossacks  on  the  road  to  Yarraw- 
slotf.  Rostopchin,  Governor  of  Moscow,  after  having  se- 
cun'<l  its  treasure,  given  orders  for  its  total  m'acuation,  and  set 
fire  to  it,  advanced  at  tlie  head  of  40,000  of  the  inhal)itants,  to 
join  the  army  of  Kutusoff. 

The  French  marched  upon  the  capital  in  three  columns  ; 
Napoleon  by  the  route  from  Smolensk,  Poniatowsky  by 
Kduga,  and  Beauharnais  by  ZweniLdioro<l.  Privations  and 
desolation  awaited  them  in  every  stage  of  their  progress;  the 
Russian  peasantry  lied  at  their  a[)proaeh,  and  burned  the 
liou'^es,  grain,  and  forage,  along  their  whole  line  of  march  ; 
and  when  at  length  they  reached  Moscow,  for  the  possession 
f)f  which  they  had  cheerfully  nndertnine  want  and  peril,  il 
presented  to  their  view  a  vast  and  awful  conflagration,  and 
furnished  no  materials  wherewith  the  intention  of  its  destroy* 
•  K'itusoff's  letter  lo  Airxonilcr,  daletl  Scptemltcr  16th. 


L."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  365 

ers   could    be   counteracted,    for   all   fire-engines    had    been 
removed   by  Rostopchin's    order.      The    French,   however, 
made   their  way  to   the  Kremlin,  which   a  body  of  Russian 
soldiers,  who  had  refused  to  abandon  the  city,  tried  ineffect- 
ually to  defend  ;  and  there  Napoleon  fixed  his  head-quarters. 
On  the  16th  a  violent  wind  caused  the  flames  to  spread  on  all 
sides ;  they  extended  to  the  emperor's  residence,  and  obliged 
him  to  retire  to  Peterskoe.     After  a  lapse  of  four  days,  during 
wliich  the  city  appeared  enveloped  in  smoke  and  flame,  the 
fire  subsided,  and  Napoleon  returned  to  the  Kremlin.     Not- 
withstanding the  orders  of  Kutusoff,  Moscow  afforded  con- 
siderable spoil  to  the  enemy.     But  this  spoil  was  of  such  a 
nature  as,  by  enervating  the  French  soldiery,  rather  to  impede 
than  to  promote  the  purposes  of  their  emperor.     Silver  and 
china  wares,  wines  of  the  most  delicious  flavour,  silken  stuffs 
and   costly    furs,    were    the   hourly    prey   of    the    invaders, 
who,  during  their  stay  in  Moscow,  at  once  wanted  necessa- 
ries and  rioted  in  luxuries.     Neither  had  the  city  been  quite 
abandoned  by  its  inhabitants.     Many  of  them  had  refused  to 
adopt  the  Russian  commander's  plan,  and  these,  during  the 
enemy's  stay,  suffered  the  extreme  of  human  misery-     Bona- 
parte, seeing  himself  cut  off  fi-om  all  means  of  supply,  and 
his   troops  sinking  under  famine  and  disease,  tried  to  nego- 
tiate  with  Alexander.     He    sent  General   Lauristan   to   the 
Russian   head-quarters,  to    propose    preliminaries  of  peace. 
But    his    overtures,     which    were    renewed    three    several 
times,    were    as   often    contemptuously   rejected   by    Prince 
Kutusoff.     To     the    earnest    solicitations     of    the     French 
envoy,  the   Russian   general  replied ;    "  The    French   have, 
indeed,  proclaimed  the  campaign  terminated  at  Moscow  ;  but 
on  our  part  we  are    only   beginning."     Retreat,   therefore, 
became  imperative,  and  Napoleon  prepared  to  abandon  his 
enterprise.     Previously  to  leaving  the  city,  he   ordered  the 
destruction  of  such  of  its  buildings  as  had  escaped  the  ponfla- 
gration,  and  the  trial  of  twenty-six  Russians,  who  had  been 
taken  in  the  act  of  spreading  the  flames.     Ten  of  these  were 
sentenced  to  death,  and  sixteen  to  imprisonment.     Napoleon 
then  told  his  troops,  that  he  was  about  to  lead  them  to  winter- 
quarters,  and  ordered  Murat  to  drive  back  the  Russians  who 
guarded  the  Kaluga  road,  by  which  he  intended  to  retre-tt ; 
that  of  Witepsk  and  Smolensk  having  been  rendered,  by  ihc 
former  march  of  the  French  and  Russians  over  it,  nearly  i*n- 
passable.      Murat,  however,  was   defeated  by  Kutusoff';  a»'d 
General  Winzingerode  havinsr  repulsed  Delson,  who  iiad  be>  u 

33* 


366  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

ordered  to  lake  tlie  way  of  Dimitrof,  marched  upon  Moscow 
which  ho  rntcri'd  on  the  2-3(1  and  drove  llie  FrtMich  under  tlie 
walls  of  the  citadel.  Anxious  lo  prevent  hlood.slied,  he  and 
his  aid-de-camp  rode  up  to  the  enemy's  lines  with  a  (lair  of 
truce,  and  pioposed  a  capitulation.  The  French,  disregarding 
the  signal,  seized  and  imprisoned  them  in  the  Krendin.  'J'he 
Russian  (icneral  lUouviasky,  to  save  this  quarter  of  the  city, 
whicii  the  enemy  had  resolved  to  level,  forced  its  gates,  and 
seized  the  incendiaries  hefore  they  had  sprunir  the  second 
mine.     On   the  following  ilay  the  French  left  Moscow. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Russian  generals  stationed  in  die 
neiijiihourliood  of  Riga,  conlinu(;d  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy  in  that  quarter.  General  Essen  took  Miltau  ;  and 
Wittgenstein,  having  succeeded  in  preventing  Macdonald 
from  marching  upon  Petersliurg,  advanced  to  meet  the  armies 
of  Tormazof  and  TschigakolT,  which  ha<l  formed  a  junction, 
on  the  17th  of  Sejitember,  at  Sloutsk,  and  had  so  overawed 
Scliwartzenburg  and  Regnier,  as  to  induce  them  to  retreat 
precipilalely  to  Hiastofl*.  The  united  forces  were  ordered  to 
Minsk,  to  co-operate  with  the  movements  of  KutusofT,  and 
arrived  there  on  the  1st  of  November.  The  Russian  com- 
mander-in-chief posted  divisions  of  troops  on  every  road, 
over  which  he  su|)posed  the  enemy  might  seek  a  passage  ; 
and  he  rjnlercd  the  Cossacks  to  be  dispersed  in  all  directions, 
where  there  might  l)e  a  possibility  of  intercepting  the  ene- 
my's march.  'JMie  Russian  corps  of  Doctarof  comini:  '"l^  ^^''di 
three  divisions  of  the  retreating  army,  (November  22(1,)  an  oij- 
stinalely-contested  battle  was  fought:  the  French  proclaimed 
its  result  a  victory  to  their  arms,  but  they  were  compelled 
by  tlu!  Russians  to  make  towards  the  wasted  Mojaisk  road, 
now  become  their  only  line  of  retreat.  Deep,  broken  ways, 
the  want  of  every  necessary,  and  the  harassing  and  close  pur- 
suit of  the  Cossacks,  rendered  the  French  retreat  a  scene  of 
extreme  and  daily-increasing  wretchedness.  Their  sulTerings, 
however,  were  not  yet  hopeless  ;  they  still  looked  forward 
to  their  arrival  at  Smolensk  as  the  term  of  their  miseries. 
The  grand  Russian  forc^e  marched  in  a  parallel  direction  with 
the  retreating  army.  General  Miiloradovitch,  commander  of 
KutusofTs  advanced  iruard,  pressed  upon  their  left,  ami  a 
corps  was  stationed  at  Dorogobouche  to  pr(!vent  their 
passing  the  Dnicjper.  As  they  drew  near  to  V'iasma,  the 
hostile  forces  came  in  contact,  and  an  engagement  ensued 
beUveen  the  R  issian  <reneral  and  the  corps  of  Heaidiarnais, 
Nev,   and    Davoust,    in    which    the    French    were    defeated. 


I..J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  367 

When  the  fugitives  were  within  a  few  days'  journey  from 
Smolensk,  sucli  tempestuous  wcatlier  arose,  accompanied  by 
sniw  and  piercing  cold,  as  beiuimbcd  their  limbs,  and  pre- 
vented their  distinguishing  the  roads.  Hundreds  perished  of 
cold,  or  were  lost  in  the  deep,  impassable  snow.  Insubordi- 
nation resulted  from  these  additional  hardships  :  the  regiments 
marched  in  disorder,  and  spread  desolation  on  their  path,  set- 
ting fire  to  the  towns,  as  they  passed,  and  ill-treating  the 
inhabitants. 

When  Bonaparte  reached  Smolensk,  (November  9th,)  he 
found  there  none  of  the  comforts  anticipated  by  his  army  :  the 
supplies  were  hardly  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  immediate  wants 
of  the  advanced  guard  ;  and  when  Beaaharnais's  corps  arrived, 
their  astonishment  and  rage  were  excited  by  the  news,  that 
the  provisions  were  already  exhausted.  On  the  15th  of  No- 
vember, the  grand  army  was  again  in  motion,  and  Bona- 
parte expressly  commanded  that  each  corps  should  be 
attended  by  its  train  of  artillery.  KutusofT,  foreseeing  that 
the  French  would  advance  upon  Krasnoi,  hastened  to  inter- 
cept their  progress,  and  attacked  and  defeated  the  corps  of 
Davoust.  A  body  of  12,000  men,  disabled  by  cold  and 
hunger,  advancing  in  the  same  direction,  was  compelled  to 
surrender  ;  Ney,  himself,  having  with  difficulty  escaped,  fled 
under  cover  of  night  across  the  Dnieper.  Another  division 
of  the  retreating  army  surrendered  to  Milloradovitch.  The 
Russians  waited  some  days  at  Krasnoi,  for  the  arrival  of 
their  stores :  Bonaparte,  taking  advantage  of  this  circum- 
stance, hastened  to  the  Beresina,  which  he  hoped  to  pass 
without  molestation.  With  the  remnant  of  Victor  and  Oii- 
dinot's  corps,  (which  had  formed  a  junction  with  the  retreat- 
ing army,)  and  some  other  regiments,  he  advanced  on  the 
right  of  the  Beresina,  towards  Minsk.  Tschigakoflf  was  in 
his  front,  Kutusoff  on  his  left  and  rear,  and  Wittgenstein  on 
his  right.  On  the  25th,  he  threw  two  bridges  across  the  river 
at  Strudzianca,  over  which,  he,  with  Oudinot's  corps,  effected 
a  passage.  The  greater  part  of  the  French  army,  enfeebled 
and  dispirited  by  their  sufferings,  were  yet  on  the  eastern 
bank  when  Prince  Wittgenstein  reached  it,  November  28. 
A  scene  of  indescribable  confusion  and  horror  ensued.  The 
crowds  that  rushed  together  upon  the  bridges  broke  down 
one,  and  rendered  a  passage  over  the  other  impracticable. 
Many  of  the  fugitives  were  drowned,  others  were  suffocated, 
and  some  perished  by  the  hand  of  their  comrades  ;  anxiety 
for  self-preservation,  stifling  the  dictates  of  compassion  in  the 


3f58  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

minds  of  the  stronger,  sujrjrested  to  them  the  inluiman  expe- 
dient of  trampliiiij  on  or  drowninir  tlinse  whom  weakness  or 
intirniity  reiulered  iinahle  to  contend  for  a  passage.  After  a 
most  santjuinarv  action,  in  which  the  Russians  took  4000 
prisoners,  the  PoUiiiesc  corps,  commanded  by  Girard,  elfected 
the  passarro  of  the  Heresina,  and  then,  to  prevent  the  fartiier 
pursuit  of  the  Russians,  set  fire  to  the  bridge,  rcganliess  of 
the  fate  of  thousands  who  were  yet  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river.  'I'hese  made  tlieir  way,  with  cries  of  indiL^nation 
against  the  inhumanity  of  their  countrymen,  to  tlie  burning 
bridge;  a  few  succeed  in  passing  it,  but  a  far  greater  numl^er 
perislied  in  the  flames.  After  the  passage  of  the  Heresina, 
Napoleon  made  for  Wilna,  with  the  intention  of  repairing, 
without  delay,  to  Paris,  where  a  conspiracy,  formed  during 
his  absence,  by  three  ex-generals  of  the  republican  party,  had 
l)een  discovered  and  suppressed.  Having  appointed  Murat 
lieutenant-general,  he  pursued  his  journey,  travelling  incognito, 
on  a  single  sledge,  to  Warsaw,  and,  passing  rapidly  through 
Dresden,  Leipsig,  and  Mentz,  arrived  in  Paris,  at  midnight, 
on  the  18th  of  December. 

After  the  departure  of  IJonaparte,  no  trace  of  subordination 
was  observable  amonij  his  followers.  'J'he  chiefs  abandoned 
their  rcfiiments  ;  oflicers  and  soldiers  alike  limited  their  views 
to  the  attainment  of  individual  safety.  'I'liis  irreirularity, 
however,  defeated  its  object,  as  it  renden'd  the  fugitives  a 
more  easv  prey  to  the  Russians,  who  had  reconstructed  a 
bridge  across  the  Bercsina,  and  now  closely  pursued  and  cap- 
tured many  of  the  imperial  legions.  The  French  passed 
throujrh  Wilna  on  the  lOlh  ;  the  Russians  took  that  town  on  the 
11th,  and  on  the  14lh  advanced  to  Kowno.  iMacdonald,  who 
had  hitlierto  maintained  himself  in  Courland,  hearing  of  the 
discomfiture  of  the  grand  army,  prepan^d  to  abandon  Kiinigs- 
heru,  and  the  line  of  the  Niemen  ;  but  Wittgenstein,  who 
advaiUM'd  into  East  Prussia,  stationed  detachments  to  ])revent 
his  escape.  General  d'Yorck,  finding  himself  unsupported, 
signed  a  convention,  by  which  it  was  agreed,  thai  tlie  Prussian 
troops  should  retire  into  their  own  territory.  On  the  4tli  of 
January,  1813,  Memel  capitulated  to  the  Russians,  and  Kijnigs- 
berg,  in  spite  of  Macdonald's  viirorous  eflorts  to  defend  it,  sur- 
render(Ml.  To  reach  the  cities  still  L''arrisoned  liy  tlieir  country- 
men, was  the  only  object  that  now  animated  to  exertion  the 
feeble  wreck  of  Napoleon's  army.  Many  of  these  foriressea 
•"urrend  Ted  to  the  Kussi:ins,  diiriM«;  the  inonlli  of  .Iiinuary, 
1813.    Mnrienwerder  was  t  iken  by  Tschigakoll';  .Marienburgby 


LI.]  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  369 

PlatofF;  and  KutusoflT  fixed  his  head-quarters  in  the  capital 
of  Russian  Poland.  All  that  the  French  had  so  proudly  con- 
quered in  their  advance  to  the  Russian  frontier  was  now  lost 
The  plunder  of  Moscow  had  been  abandoned  in  their  retreat, 
and  recovered  by  their  pursuers.  Of  the  mighty  host  that 
had  passed  the  Niemen,  for  the  conquest  of  the  Russian 
territory,  it  is  computed  that  only  50,000  men,  including 
Prussians  and  Austrians,  repassed  that  river. 


CHAPTER  LI. 

FROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  WAR  WITH  AMERICA,  IN 
1812,  TO  THE  INVASION  OF  FRANCE  BY  THE  ALLIED  POWERS, 
IN    1814. 

The  declaration  of  war  issued  by  the  United  States  against 
England  was  soon  followed  by  active  hostilities.  The  Ameri- 
can General  Hull  on  the  12th  of  July  crossed  Detroit  river, 
erected  the  standard  of  the  Union  in  Upper  Canada  and  issued 
a  proclamation,  offering  to  the  Canadians  the  alternative  of 
peace,  liberty,  and  security,  if  they  would  separate  their 
interests  from  those  of  Great  Britain  and  decline  taking 
part  in  the  approaching  contest;  but  as  his  invasion  had  been 
expected,  measures  were  already  taken  for  the  defence  of  the 
province,  and  the  command  of  the  forces  collected  for  that 
purpose  given  to  Major-General  Brock  by  Sir  George  Pre- 
vost,  the  British  Governor.  General  Hull,  whose  proclama- 
tion had  produced  no  effect,  advanced  on  Fort  Maiden,  but 
soon  retreated  to  Detroit.  Brock  followed  him,  and  in  an 
engagement  gained  a  slight  advantage,  which  he  used  to  excite 
the  fears  of  the  American  General.  On  summoning  him  to 
surrender.  Brock  to  his  own  surprise  obtained  the  capitulation 
of  the  place  on  the  16th  of  August.  For  this  shameful  sur- 
render Hull  was  afterwards  tried  and  condemned  to  death. 
The  fall  of  Detroit  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Americans.  Their 
Indians  were  in  revolt,  and  the  English  had  now  formed  a  line 
of  communication  with  them,  and  threatened  the  whole  west- 
ern frontier  of  the  Republic.  An  army  of  national  militia  as- 
sembled in  Western  New  York.  To  retrieve  their  cause  a 
detachment  of  the  American  army  crossed  the  Niagara  in  Oc- 
tober, and,  in  spite  of  a  resolute  opposition,  gained  the  heights. 
The  sanguinary  battle  of  Queenstown  followed,  in  which  Brock 


370  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  [ciIAP 

was  defeated  and  slain  :  but  the  small  American  force,  unsup- 
ported by  tiio  main  Ixxly,  wjismxiu  siirroundtMl  ami  ct)m|)ellcd 
losurrciidi'i'  to  General  Sheatilj.  These  triumphs  of  the  English 
on  land  were  more  than  counterbalanced  by  their  reverses  on 
the  element  over  which  they  had  hitherto  held  luirivalled  do- 
minion. On  the  17lh  of  August  the  Guerriere  of  f  )rty-ninegun3 
was  forced  to  strike  to  the  American  frigate  G>nstitution.  i'ho 
American  l)rig  Wasp  was  indeed  captured  by  Sir  .John  Beres- 
f(;rd,  but  the  English  lost  two  other  ships  before  the  end  of 
the  year. 

The  levity  of  conduct  imputed  to  the  Princess  of  Wales  in 
1800,  became  ajrain  a  topic  of  discussiou  in  1813  ;  the  sub- 
ject being  revived  liy  a  letter  from  the  princess  to  the  regent, 
complaining  that  she  was  debarred  from  the  society  of  her 
daughter.  This  letter  and  the  papers  relative  to  the  former 
investigation  were  suhmilled  to  the  meml)ers  of  tlie  privy- 
council,  who  were  required  lo  decide  wheth(!r  the  intercourse 
between  the  Princess  of  Wales  and  the  Princess  Cliarlotte 
ought  to  be  subject  to  restrictions.  The  privy-council  having 
decitlcd  in  the  anirmative,  the  princess  appealed  to  (he  House 
of  Commons,  by  which  assembly  she  prayed  her  cause  might 
be  iuvestiiraled.  iMr.  Stuart  Wortley  made  a  motion  lo  that 
elTect,  hut  failed  to  carry  it,  and  the  business  rested  for  the 
present. 

The  charter  of  the  East  India  Company,  which  had  nearly 
expired,  was  renewed,  with  some  modilications,  and  Parlia- 
ment was  again  called  upon  to  discuss  the  policy  of  conceding 
equal  rights  to  a  large  class  of  British  subjects.  A  bill  was 
introduced  by  Mr.  Crattan,  (April  liOih,)  enal)ling  (Catholics 
lo  hold,  with  some  few  exceptions,  any  militarv  or  (  ivU  ap- 
pointment, and  to  sit  and  vote  in  either  House  of  Parliament, 
after  taking  a  sjiccilied  oath,  of  which  the  chief  provi- 
sions were,  allegiance  to  the  king,  support  to  the  Protestant 
succession  and  existing  church  establishment,  a  renunciation 
of  all  belief  in  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  within 
the  United  Kingdom,  or  of  any  power  possessed  by  him  to 
depose  princes  at  pleasure.  In  the  course  of  the  discussion, 
the  bill  was  newly  modelled,  so  as  to  give  to  the  crown  a 
I'rtn  in  the  appointment  of  the  Catholic  bisl)o|)s,  and  the 
inspection  of  all  bulls  and  dis|)ensalious  from  Rome.  On 
the  subject  of  the  vrlo,  much  dilference  of  opinion  for  some 
lime  prevailed  among  th(!  Icadinir  uninbcrs  of  the  Catholic 
body.  In  England,  apprehensions  were  not  generally  enter- 
tained, that  any  inconvenience  would  result  from  the  interfc- 


LI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  371 

rence  of  the  state  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  till  Dr.  Milncr,*  a 
prelate  equally  distinguished  lor  his  zeal  and  erudition, 
raised  his  voice  in  opposition,  and  tlie  Irish  hierarchy  and 
people  joined  in  rejecting  concessions  if  fettered  by  such  a 
clause.  In  order  to  insare  its  omission,  or,  should  that  bo 
found  impracticable,  to  prevent  the  bill  from  passing  into  a 
law,  Mr.  O'Conor,  of  Balenagare,  with  two  other  gentlemen, 
was  deputed  from  Ireland.  The  House  was  in  committee  on 
the  subject,  wlien  the  speaker  rose,  (May  24,)  and,  after  a 
variety  of  observations,  moved  and  carried  by  a  majority  of 
four  voices,  that  the  words  "  to  sit  and  vote  in  either  House  of 
Parliament,"  be  left  out  of  the  bill :  \ipon  which  Mr.  Pon- 
sonby  said,  that  as  without  that  clause  it  was  neither  worth 
the  acceptance  of  the  Catholics,  nor  the  support  of  their 
advocates,  he  should  move  "  that  the  chairman  do  now  leave 
the  chair."  This  motion  being  carried,  the  bill  was  aban- 
doned ;  but  the  propriety  of  conceding  or  refusing  the  right 
of  veto  to  the  crown,  continued  for  some  time  longer  to  form 
a  topic  of  discussion  between  the  advocates  and  opponents 
of  the  measure. 

While  the  Catholics  of  Great  Britain  were  thus  struggling 
unsuccessfully  for  the  recovery  of  their  civil  rights,  tlieir 
chief  earthly  pastor  had  to  contend  with  difficulties  of  a 
nature  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  the  church.  From  the 
date  of  the  rejected  brief  already  mentioned,  Pius  VII. 
continued  undisturbed  in  his  solitude  at  Savona,  till,  in  June, 
1812,  orders  were  issued  for  his  immediate  transfer  to  Fon- 
tainebleau.  The  journey  was  to  be  performed  with  all  possible 
secrecy  and  expedition  :  a  few  hours  only  were  allowed  for 
indispensable  preparations,  and  the  Pope  was  compelled  to 
lay  aside  the  attire  peculiar  to  his  rank,  that  he  might  not  be 
recognised  on  the  road,  nor  received  with  honours  similar  to 
those  which  had  formerly  attended  his  progress.  He  travelled 
alone,  (his  attendants  quitted  Savona  several  hours  later;)  and 
on  arriving  at  the  monastery  of  Mount  Cenis,  fell  dangerously 
ill ;  yet  the  journey  was  continued,  Pius  remaining  shut  up 
night  and  day  in  a  close  carriage,  which  he  was  never  allowed 
to  quit.  Thus,  rapidly  traversing  France,  he  arrived  (June 
13th)  at  Fontainebleau,  where  apartments  were  assigned  him 
in  the  ancient  palace  of  the  Kings  of  France.  From  that  time 
forward,  he  was  treated  with  greater  deference  and  courtesy, 

*  Author  of  a  "  History  of  Winchester,"  "The  End  of  Religious  Con* 
troversy,"  and  many  other  works.     He  died  in  1836. 


S72  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

and  allowed  to  receive  occasional  visits.  Rut  the  cardinals, 
in  whose  foiinsfls  and  synipalliy  he  miuht  have  found  conso- 
lation, were  (ns|)eise;l  in  their  various  places  of  exile  ;  and 
the  conversation  of  those  who  were  now  ahout  his  person, 
served  only  to  increase  the  irksonieness  of  his  captivity. 
They  placed  before  his  eyes  in  vivid  colours  the  desolate 
condition  of  the  universal  church,  which  they  said  might 
bo  justly  termed  "Acefala,"  or  without  a  head,  since  the 
faithful  were  debarred  from  all  communication  with  the  chief 
pastor;  they  dwelt  on  the  particular  hardshij)s  of  numerous 
sees,  so  long  vacant  in  Italy,  (Germany,  and  France;  on  the 
exile  and  imprisonment  of  so  many  cardinals,  prelates,  and 
other  ecclesiastics,  dragged  from  city  to  city,  from  prison  to 
prison;  and  pointed  out,  in  conclusion,  a  reconciliation  with 
the  emperor,  or,  in  other  words,  a  condescension  to  his  unjust 
demands,  as  tlic  only  remedy  for  so  many  evils.  It  may 
readily  be  conceived  how  sorrowful  an  impression  these 
reiterated  representations  must  have  made  on  the  mind  of 
Pius,  worn  out  with  afflictions,  and  now  reduced,  l)y  illness, 
to  a  state  of  extreme  debility.  Seven  months  had  elapsed  in 
this  manner,  since  the  Pope's  arrival  at  F'ontaineblea\i,  when 
Napoleon,  defeated,  but  not  disheartened,  njturned  from  his 
disastrous  camj)aign  in  Russia,  and  vigorously  applied  him- 
self to  collect  the  last  resources  of  his  widely-extended  era- 
pin;  for  a  fresh  contest. 

At  this  important  crisis  of  his  affairs,  a  reconciliation,  either 
real  or  simulated,  with  the  Sovereign  PonlifV,  apj)eare(l  to  him 
a  measure  of  sound  policy,  not  to  be  neglected.  The  pro- 
longed captivity  of  a  veneralilc  old  man,  revered  bv  the  ma- 
jority of  Eiir(»j)ean  nations  as  the  head  of  their  rehirion,  and 
reverenced  by  all  for  his  personal  virtues,  iiad,  he  well  knew, 
alienated  frf»m  his  L'^overnment  the  hearts  of  many,  as  well  in 
France,  as  in  Poland  and  (iermany,  where  the  powers  whom 
he  had  crushed  or  humbled  made  use  of  this  motive  to  inflame 
the  popular  indignation  against  his  person.  To  remove  these 
impressions.  Napoleon  took  advantage  of  the  new  year,  to 
send  his  cliamlierlaiu  to  l'\)nlainet)leau,  charged  with  comj)li- 
mcnUiry  messages  to  the  Pope,  from  himself  and  the  empress, 
'i'his  renewal  of  intercourse  was  followed  by  the  unex|)ecle(l 
arrival,  January  lUlh,  of  Napoleon  himself,  who,  repairing 
instantly  to  the  Pipe's  apartment,  saluted  him  with  all  the  cor- 
diality of  long-eslalilished  frieudsiiip.  Slranire  as  such  con- 
duct miirlit  ajtpear  from  one  who  had  despoiled,  insulted,  and 
imprisoned  him,  Pius  received  these  exterior  demonstration! 


LI.]  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  373 

of  kindness  with  his  usual  sweetness :  the  goodness  of  his 
heart  had,  indeed,  always  inclined  him  to  attribute  the  ill- 
treatment  which  he  had  so  often  experienced,  rather  to  inferior 
agents,  than  to  the  emperor  whom  he  had  so  highly  obliged 
But  if  the  courtesy  of  this  first  meeting  induced  him  to  augur 
favourably  of  Napoleon's  dispositions,  he  was  soon  unde- 
ceived. During  the  succeeding  days,  other  interviews  took 
place  ;  the  plan  of  a  new  concordat  was  again  brought  forward, 
in  which  several  provisions,  injurious  to  the  rights  of  the  Holy 
See,  were  intermingled  with  promises  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
peror to  restore  to  liberty  the  exiled  and  captive  cardinals,  and 
to  make  other  arrangements  for  the  welfare  of  the  church. 
These  latter  motives  had  great  weight  with  the  Pope.  Yield- 
ing to  the  personal  solicitations  of  Napoleon,  and  the  earnest 
entreaties  of  the  prelates  who  seconded  his  views,  he  con- 
sented, January  25,  to  affix  his  signature  to  a  series  of  articles 
which  were  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  future  concordat,  with 
the  express  stipulation  that  they  should  not  be  made  public, 
nor  considered  valid,  until  examined  and  approved,  according 
to  the  customary  forms,  by  a  consistory  of  cardinals.  Napo- 
leon promised  all  that  was  required,  and,  while  a  pen  was  hur- 
riedly thrust  into  the  Pope's  hand,  stood  by  to  sign  after  him  ; 
yet,  without  any  regard  for  this  express  reserve,  hastened  to 
publish  the  articles  as  a  definitive  treaty,  and  to  declare,  in 
announcing  the  conclusion  of  a  new  concordat  throughout  the 
whole  French  empire,  that  all  the  differences  which  had  so 
long  subsisted  between  France  and  the  Holy  See  were  satis- 
factorily settled.  In  proof  of  this,  the  disgraced  cardinals  were 
recalled,  and  invited  to  appear  at  court.  Cardinals  Consalvi 
and  Pacca  arrived  at  Fontainebleau  before  the  end  of  the  month, 
and  his  Holiness,  who  now  saw  cause  to  regret  the  confidence 
he  had  placed  in  the  emperor's  good  faith,  conferred  with  each 
upon  the  subject  of  the  premature  publication  of  the  articles, 
in  the  crude  and  imperfect  state  in  which  they  were  drawn 
up.*  After  mature  consideration,  it  was  concluded,  that,  be- 
ing simple  preliminaries,  they  were  open  to  future  amend- 

•  The  third  article  was  chiefly  objectionable,  and  was  as  follows: — "  The 
demesnes  which  his  Holiness  possessed,  and  which  are  not  alienated,  shall 
be  exempt  from  every  species  of  tax  ;  they  shall  be  administered  by  agents 
or  charges  d'aflaires.  Those  which  are  already  alienated  shall  be  made  good 
to  (he  amount  of  2,000,000  francs."  Hence  it  might  be  inferred  that,  in 
signing  this  article,  the  Pope  consented  to  be  indemnified  for  the  sove- 
reignly of  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  already  seized  and  still  retained  by  th« 
French  emperor. 

34 


874  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

ment  or  rejection.  Ills  Holiness,  therefore,  addressed  an  au- 
tojjrapli  letter  to  Napoleon,  in  which  he  declared  the  |)re- 
tended  concordat  null  and  of  no  value.  Ilavinsj  doHpalched 
this  formal  revocation  to  tiie  emperor,  i)y  ("oloncl  Lairorsse, 
he  communicated  a  copy  of  it  to  all  the  cardinals  and  prelates 
at  Fontainehleau,  authoriziiiir  dicm  to  make  il  known,  in  every 
way  that  circumstances  would  jjcrmit.  This  precaution  was 
not  superfluous :  the  letter  was  suppressed  by  Napoleon,* 
who,  notwithstanding  the  Pope's  ener<rclic  remonstrances,  by 
a  second  decree,  issued  on  the  following  day,  declared  the  con- 
cordat, styled  of  1813,  binding  on  all  archbishops,  i)ishops, 
and  chapters,  throughout  the  countries  subject  to  France. 

The  publication  of  this  decree  excited  fears  that  Napoleon 
would  enforce  it^  execution  by  violent  measures  :t  l)ut  the 
moment  was  not  favourable  to  excite  a  schism  in  the  church, 
or  to  redouble  the  murmurs  of  tlie  people  ;  and  he  appeared 
willing  to  defer  his  projects  till  his  return  from  the  important 
campaign  on  which  he  was  about  to  enter,  lie  had  now  col- 
lected a  sufficient  force  to  enable  him,  notwithsiandiuii  the 
disasters  of  the  preceding  year,  to  take  the  field  with  undi- 
minished confidence.  Hy  a  decree,  dated  January  11th,  the 
senate  placed  350,000  men  at  his  disposal.  'J'o  complete  this 
number,  the  conscription  was  enforced  with  unusual  rigour; 
mere  children  were  carri(>d  oil'  from  tlicir  homes,  to  swell  the 
ranks  of  the  imperial  legions,  and  to  dye  the  soil  of  Germany 
with  their  blood,  as  their  elder  brothers  had  perished  amidst 
the  snows  of  ilussia.  Napoleon  also  published  a  flattering 
account  of  the  French  finances,  attributing  his  late  reverses  to 
the  rigour  of  an  inhospitable  climate,  and  assuring  his  people 
that  a  continuation  of  the  war  would  soon  restore  France  to 
her  military  attitude,  and  terminate  in  a  glorious  and  advan- 

•  Il  is  not  positively  known  what  cflect  the  Pope's  letter  pro»luce(l  on 
Napoleon.  Il  was  assorted  at  the  time,  that  he  exrlaimed  in  treat  ancjer  at 
the  council  of  state — "  If  I  do  not  cut  oil  the  heads  of  some  of  these  priests 
at  Fontainehleau,  I  shall  never  come  to  any  arrangement."  One  of  his  irre- 
ligious flatterers  replied,  that  il  was  lime  for  him  to  follow  the  example  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  declare  hirnwlf  absolute  head  of  the  religion  of  Ihe  state. 
"No,"  paid,  iS'apoleon,  using  a  familiar  comparison,  "Ce  serail  casscr  lc« 
vilrea." 

f  The  French  hishnps  were  ordered  to  quit  Fontainehleau,  and  no  one 
was  admitted  to  see  the  Pope  hut  the  cardinals.  During  the  night  of  the 
.Sth  of  April,  ('ardinal  di  Pietro,  then  confessor  to  his  Holiness,  was  seized 
And  carrieil  olF  to  Aiiroiinc,  nndi^r  ihf  custody  of  a  gendarme.  .\  great 
ntiioher  of  ecclesiastics,  for  refusing  iilicdience  to  ihe  new  concordat,  wer« 
baniibcd  to  Corsica,  and  suhjecU-d  to  lliu  luont  inbuuiaa  Ircali  lenU 


LZ."]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  375 

tageous  peace.  Having  thus  endeavoured  to  revise  the  con- 
fidence of  his  subjects,  he  appointed  the  Empress  Maria 
Louisa  to  act  as  regent  during  his  absence,  and  quitted  Paris, 
to  take  the  command  of  his  army,  on  the  15th  of  April.  Ar- 
riving at  Erfurth  on  the  25th,  he  issued  orders  for  all  his 
forces  in  Germany  to  march  towards  Leipzig.  They  con- 
sisted, independently  of  the  imperial  guard,  of  twelve  corps, 
formidable  in  numbers,  though  few  veterans  were  to  be  found 
among  them,  and  commanded  by  marshals  of  long-standing 
renown  for  military  skill:  their  right  wing  was  led  by  Mar- 
mont,  the  centre  by  Ney,  the  left  by  the  Viceroy  Eugene 
Beauharnais,  the  old  and  new  guard  were  under  the  immediate 
command  of  the  emperor,  with  Marshal  Berthier  as  chief  of 
his  staff. 

Russia,  in  the  mean  time,  prepared  to  add  fresh  wreaths  to 
the  laurels  she  had  gained,  and  to  annihilate  the  force  which 
her  armies  had  shown  was  not  unconquerable.  Not  satisfied 
with  opposing  to  France  her  individual  exertions,  she  tried  to 
rouse  the  long-dormant  energy  of  the  European  powers,  and 
induce  them  to  join  with  her  in  the  approaching  contest.  Tiie 
Prussians  earnestly  besought  their  sovereign  to  accept  the 
proffered  alliance  of  Alexander.  Frederic  William  answered 
the  appeal  of  his  subjects  by  an  effort  to  mediate  between 
France  and  Russia;  and  with  this  view  proposed,  that  the 
French  troops  should  retire  beyond  the  Elbe,  and  the  Russians 
behind  the  Vistula.  But  Napoleon  rejected  the  proffered  me- 
diation, and  a  treaty,  offensive  and  defensive,  was  immediately 
concluded  between  Alexander  and  Frederic  William.  A  war- 
like attitude  was  now  assumed,  and  great  military  preparations 
were  made  by  Prussia  ;  the  landwehr  was  ordered  out,  and 
numerous  volunteers  enrolled  themselves  in  their  country's 
service.  The  continental  system  was  abolished  in  the  Prus- 
sian states,  and  the  importation  of  French  merchandise  pro- 
hibited. Sweden,  too,  made  common  cause  with  the  coa- 
lesced powers,  and  signed  a  treaty  with  England  on  the  3d 
of  March,  by  which  she  engaged  to  furnish  the  allies  with 
30,000  troops,  to  be  commanded  by  the  crown-prince  ;  Great 
Britain  engaging,  on  her  side,  not  to  oppose  the  annexation 
of  Norway  to  Sweden,  to  cede  to  the  latter  power  the  island 
of  Guadaloupe,  and  to  pay  her  a  million  sterling  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  campaign. 

These  arrangements  being  made,  the  Russians,  under  Witt- 
genstein, crossed  the  Elbe  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the 
French  back  unon  the  Maine;  a  second  army,  under  Tschi' 


376  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EDROPE.  [cHAP. 

pakofT,  was  formed  into  two  divisions,  one  of  which,  under 
Phuofl',  laid  siege  i(»  I):iiitzig,  wliiU'  tlie  other  remained  on  the 
Vistula;  a  tliird,  undir  W  inzingiirode,  moved  on  the  Elbe; 
General  Bhicher,  with  25,(H)U  men,  passed  that  river  at  Dres- 
den ;  CJeneral  d'Yorek  M'as  at  IJerliu  with  the  main  I'russian 
army,  and  a  large  Sweiiish  force,  under  the  crown-prince, 
liernadoltc,  was  stationed  al  Slralsund.  'J'ii«;  Kus-sians  and 
Prussians,  headed  by  their  respective  sovereigns,  having 
united  their  forces,  which,  together  with  those  of  Sweden,  were 
computed  at  2Ul>,()U0  men,  a  sharp  coiillict  look  jjlacc  at 
Weissenfels,  (May  1st,)  in  which  the  French  had  the  advan- 
tage. On  the  following  day.  Napoleon  advanced  to  Liiizen 
on  his  way  to  Leipzig  ;  but,  being  met  and  attacked  by  the 
allies,  a  general  action  began  at  noon,  and  was  maintained 
with  various  success  during  the  rest  of  the  day.  Having  in 
vain  attempted  to  dislodge  the  FVench  by  an  attack  during  the 
night,  tlie  allies,  covered  by  their  numerous  and  excellent 
cavalry,  retreated  through  Altenberg  and  Colditz  to  Bautzen; 
and  thus  Napoleon  was  enal)led  to  march  through  Leipzig  to 
Dresden,  where  he  was  met  by  the  King  of  »S;Lxony,  who 
united  his  troops  to  those  of  France.  The  French  continued 
to  advance,  through  a  series  of  bloody  and  well-contested 
actions,  into  Silesia,  marking  their  progress  with  llames  and 
devastation;  and  on  the  1st  of  June,  one  of  their  divisions, 
under  General  Lauriston,  entered  Breslau.  The  Swedes, 
meanwhile,  were  not  slow  in  fulfilling  tlu;  cnffaL^emenls  they 
had  contracted  with  the  allies  ;  they  threw  a  body  of  troo|)S  into 
ILimburg.  which  the  Russians,  after  having  taken,  had  aban- 
doned, and  which  was  now  threatened  by  Marshal  DavousL 
'i'lie  Swedish  garrison  was,  however,  soon  recalled  to  act 
against  the  Danes  ;  and  that  unfortunate  city  again  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  French,  and  being  shortly  after  besieged  l)y 
the  allies,  had  to  sulfer  alike  from  its  enemies  and  its  de- 
fenders. 

NotwiUistanding  the  temporary  success  of  his  armies.  Na- 
poleon, through  the  medium  f»f  his  father-in-law,  transmitted 
to  the  lOmperor  Alexander  jiroposals  for  an  armistice,  prepa- 
ritory  to  arrangemenLs  for  a  general  pacification,  which  i)eing 
accej)ted,  it  was  siLnied  and  ratified  on  the  4th  of  .lune. 
Though  negotiations  for  peace  were  immeiliately  set  on  foot, 
Germany  still  resounded  with  preparations  for  war.  Napo- 
leon ordered  r(Mnforcements,  from  every  territory  uiuler  his 
control,  to  rally  round  his  sUandard.  i'russia  and  Kussia 
called  all  their  resources  into  action;  and  Austria,  i)i  whosn 


U.']  OENEKAX   HISTORY   OF   EUROPE.  377 

assistance  each  of  the  contending  parties  was  equally  ambi- 
tious, made  such  mighty  preparations,  as  seemed  to  promise 
victory  to  whichsoever  party  should  obtain  her  co-operation. 
The  armistice  terminated  on  the  10th  of  August,  without 
having  opened  the  way  to  peace.  A  declaration  of  war  by 
Austria  against  France,  and  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Russia 
and  Great  Britain,  were  the  immediate  results  of  the  failure 
of  her  mediation. 

Of  the  allied  forces  three  divisions  were  now  made :  the 
first,  consisting  of  the  whole  Austrian  force  and  some  large 
Prussian  and  Russian  detachments,  was  stationed  in  Bohe- 
mia ;  the  second,  composed  of  Russian  and  Prussian  regulars 
and  militia,  under  the  command  of  Blucher,  was  posted  in 
Silesia ;  and  the  third,  under  the  crown-prince  of  Sweden, 
was  stationed  in  Prussia  and  the  north  of  Germany.  Gene- 
ral Moreau,  who  had  recently  returned  from  America  to  visit 
his  old  friend  and  companion  in  arms,  Bernadotte,  was  pre- 
vailed upon  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  give  the  assistance 
of  his  military  talents  to  the  cause  of  the  allies.  He  arrived  at 
Stralsund  on  the  4th  of  August,  and  thence  hastened  to  meet 
the  allied  sovereigns.  Notwithstanding  the  defection  of  Aus- 
tria from  his  alliance.  Napoleon,  with  whom  Denmark,  Hol- 
land, Italy,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  all  the  other  states  of  the 
Rhenish  confederacy  were  united,  mustered  a  force  superior 
in  numerical  strength  to  that  of  his  opponents ;  the  main  body 
of  his  army  alone  was  estimated  at  300,000  men.  This 
force  occupied  Bautzen :  part  of  it  retreated  to  defend  Dres- 
den, near  which  the  allies  encamped  on  the  26th.  The  French 
had  expended  much  time  and  labour  in  fortifying  the  city, 
and  the  force  within  its  walls  amounted  to  130,000  men, 
headed  by  Napoleon  in  person.  On  the  same  day  the  con- 
federates attacked  the  redoubts,  silenced  one  of  them,  and  ob- 
liged the  enemy  to  retire  from  the  outworks.  Next  day  the 
French  became  the  assailants.  After  a  heavy  cannonade  had 
been  maintained  for  some  hours  by  the  hostile  enemies,  the 
confederates  were  apprized  that  Napoleon  had  detached  a  large 
force  to  attack  their  rear,  and  cut  them  off  from  Bohemia. 
This  intelligence,  and  a  conviction  that  Dresden  was  impreg- 
nable, caused  the  allies  to  retreat.  The  contest  of  the  27th 
cost  them  their  newly-arrived  and  much  valued  general,  Mo- 
reau,  who  having  lost  both  his  legs  by  a  cannon-shot,  expired 
on  the  3d  of  September.  The  allies  were  in  full  retreat, 
closely  followed  by  the  enemy,  when  an  unlooked-for  event 
gave  a  new  turn  to  affairs,  and  rendered  the  victory  of  Dres 

34* 


378  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

den  comparatively  unavailing  to  the  conqueror.  General 
Vandaniine,  at  the  head  of  ID, 000  men,  was  in  j)nrsuit  of  llie 
Au>siri:ins  under  Prince  Sch\vartzenl)urir,  wlicn  the  Prussian 
General  Kliesl,  l)y  takinjr  a  cross-road,  fell  ui)on  his  rear; 
Vainlamme,  llius  surrounded,  was  compelled  to  surriiidcr. 
When  the  allies  retreated  from  Dresden,  Honaparle  sent 
iMarslial  Ney  to  act  against  Ik-rnadotte,  who  was  moving 
towards  the  Elhe  in  the  direction  of  Leipzig.  The  two  ar- 
mies met  at  Denevilz.  The  crown-i)rince,  assisted  by  the 
Prussians  under  Bulow,  succeeded  in  routing  the  French  and 
obliirinir  them  to  retreat  on  Torgau. 

The  prospects  of  the  allies,  thenceforth,  wore  every  day  a 
more  cheering,  those  of  Napoleon  a  more  gloomy  aspect. 
Keinforcemenls  were  unceasingly  arriving  to  the  former,  while 
tlie  numerical  strength  of  the  latter  was  decreasing,  and  many, 
on  whose  supfjort  he  counted,  were  beginning  to  desert  his 
cause.  Early  in  Octol)er,  the  allies,  having  been  joined  by 
the  Polo-Russian  army,  under  General  Benningsen,  and  by 
Hetman  Platoll",  resolved  to  execute  a  plan  they  had  long 
contemplated  :  to  interpose  their  forces  between  Dresden  and 
the  Khine,  attack  the  French  army  in  the  rear,  and  cut  olF  its 
retreat.  Prince  Schwartzenburg  advanced  for  this  purpose 
from  Bohemia  towards  Leipzig,  and  formed  a  junction  with 
Blucher  and  Bernadotte  ;  the  position  of  the  allies,  in  rear  of 
the  enemy,  extending  from  Dessau  to  the  Bohemian  frontier. 
A  seasonable  support  here  awaited  them.  Bavaria  having 
formed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Austria,  united  her  forces  to 
those  of  the  allies.  Napoleon,  apprized  of  the  def(!Ction  of 
Bavaria,  recalled  his  troops  from  the  direction  of  Berlin,  and 
moved  upon  Leipzig,  wliicli  city  he  reached  on  the  l')lh  of 
Oetdber.  'I'lie  cont'e(lerat«-s  were  posted  round  it,  and  on  the 
20t!i  two  great,  and  several  less  considerable  engagements 
simultaneously  took  place.  Of  the  greater  actions,  the  one 
between  Prince  Schwartzenl)urg  and  part  of  the  French  force, 
under  the  personal  command  of  Napoleon,  seemed  at  first 
favourable  to  his  standard  ;  but,  towards  the  close  of  the  day, 
the  allies  retrieved  their  losses:  the  others  were  iiulecisive. 
The  17th  was  spent  by  both  armies  in  making  dispositions 
for  a  renewal  of  hatUe.  On  the  18th,  the  allies,  in  three 
columns,  marehed  at  an  early  hour  upon  the  positions  c)irisf!n 
by  the  French  emperor.  iJatlle  was  niaintaiiu;d  with  doul)ii'ul 
success,  till  the  Saxons,  by  deserting  to  the  allies,  turned  thp 
scale  against  their  old  confederates.  Niirht  parted  the  com- 
batants ;   the   allied   army  bivouacked  oa   the  field  of  balUe, 


LI.]]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  379 

and  Napoleon  returned  to  Leipzig.  The  French,  although 
not  driven  from  the  field,  had  lost  40,000  men  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners  ;  their  ammunition  was  exhausted,  and 
the  means  of  supplying  themselves  with  this  necessary  article 
were  at  a  distance.  Under  these  circumstances.  Napoleon 
resolved  to  retreat,  by  a  route  which  he  had  opened,  on  the 
17th.  On  the  night  of  the  18th,  the  heavy  baggage  and  part 
of  the  artillery,  cavalry,  and  guards,  moved  for  Weissenfels ; 
next  day  orders  were  given  for  a  general  retreat.  The  allied 
army  advanced  early,  on  the  19th,  to  take  Leipzig,  the  defence 
of  which  had  been  committed  to  Macdonald  and  Ponia- 
lowsky.  A  Saxon  officer,  deputed  by  the  city  magistrates, 
requested  from  the  sovereigns  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  pre- 
paratory to  a  capitulation.  Alexander,  in  person,  received 
the  officer,  but  denied  his  request ;  the  King  of  Saxony,  with 
as  little  success,  sent  flags  of  truce  to  the  allied  monarchs,  to 
avert  a  bombardment.  Leipzig  was  carried  by  assault,  and 
the  allies  entered  it  two  hours  after  the  departure  of  Napo- 
leon. The  conquerors  effected  their  entrance  with  as  little 
individual  damage  as  possible ;  but  the  sanguinary  conflicts 
of  the  16th  and  18th  had  left  to  the  inhabitants  comparatively 
nothing  worth  preservation,  in  Leipzig  or  its  environs.  Their 
superb  buildings,  their  gardens,  parks,  and  groves,  all  presented 
a  vast  scene  of  ruin  and  pestilence ;  putrid  carcasses,  fallen 
or  deserted  mansions,  and  human  suffering  in  coundess  forms, 
met  the  view  of  the  confederates  on  all  sides.  Many  French 
officers,  who  had  remained  behind,  were  taken  prisoners ; 
amongst  them  was  Bertrand,  commander  of  the  city.  The 
number  of  those  who  perished,  or  were  made  prisoners,  on 
the  19th  of  October,  may  be  computed  at  29,000  or  30,000. 
During  the  efforts  of  negotiation  already  noticed,  extreme 
confusion  prevailed  among  the  retreating  troops  ;  baggage, 
cannon,  horse,  foot-guards,  and  droves  of  cattle,  all  inter- 
mingled, impeded  each  others'  progress,  and  rendered  it  hardly 
practicable.  The  Pleisse,  the  Elster,  and  some  lesser  rivers, 
over  which  the  fugitives  had  to  pass,  heightened  the  difficulty 
of  their  retreat.  Bonaparte  ordered  the  grand  bridge  between 
Leipzig  and  Lindenau  to  be  blown  up,  as  soon  as  the  French 
should  have  effected  a  passage  over  it ;  the  soldiers  appointed 
to  execute  this  service,  misunderstanding  the  orders  given 
them,  blew  up  the  bridge  before  the  rear-guard,  under  Mac- 
donald and  Poniatowsky,  had  passed.  Numbers,  whose 
retreat  was  thus  cut  off,  were  taken  prisoners  ;  many  perished 
in   the   waters ;    Macdonald    swam    across.      Poniatowsky 


i60  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  []CIIAF 

boldly  plunffod   into  the   flood,  whore  itd  l)ank.s  were  marsh)' 
and   liiu'd  by  Russian  and   Saxon    rilliMncn  ;  his  horse  sank 
and  with  it  its  gallant  rider,  and  neitlu-r  rose  again.     Many  of 
ficers  who  followed,  .shared  his  fate.     The   Bavarians,  under 
Wrede,  took  post  at  llanau,  as  did  IMuchcr  at  ('ohlentz,  to 
intercept   tlic   retreating    army.      Wrede,   alter  having  obsti 
nately  disputed,  was  obliged  to  permit  their  passage.     They 
advanced  to  Frankfort,  and,  passing  the  Rhine  at  Mentz,  ren 
dered    liluchrr's    precaution  unavailing.      On  the  Uih  of  No- 
vember Napoleon  entered    Paris,   and  convened   the  senate 
By  a  senatorial  decree,  300,0(10  men  were  placed  at  the  dispo- 
sal of  the  war-minister,    to   retrieve    the   faded   glory  of  the 
French  arms. 

The  Austrian,  Bavarian,  and  part  of  the  Russian  and  Prus- 
sian armies,  marched  towards  the  Rhine,  and  fixed  their  head 
quarters  at  Frankfort,  (November  5lh,)  while  Bernadolte 
with  the  army  of  the  north,  advanced  into  Hanover,  restored 
the  former  government,  and  took  Lul)eck  and  Cliickstadt.  A 
division  of  the  French  army,  under  Marshal  Goiivion  St.  Cyr, 
which  Napoleon  had  left  in  garrison  at  Dresden,  being  closely 
blockaded  by  the  Russians,  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  great 
misery  by  famine,  consented  to  surrender  in  November,  on 
condition  of  being  allowed  to  return  to  France.  They  had 
already  begun  their  march,  when  the  terms  of  the  capitulation 
were  annulled  by  the  allies,  and  they  were  detained  j)risoners, 
to  the  nund)er  of  40,000.  The  French  garrison  at  Stettin 
was  compelled  in  like  manner  to  capitulate. 

From  Frankfort  the  allies  issued  a  proclamation  explanatory 
of  their  political  views  :  they  sought  not  to  conquer  France, 
for  they  were  willing  to  allow  her  a  greater  extent  of  territory 
than  she  had  ever  possessed  under  her  kings,  but  to  restore 
to  other  powers  that  peace  and  independence  of  which  Na- 
poleon had  depriveil  them  :  on  ihe^-e  terms  they  oll'ertd  peace. 
Napoleon,  by  rejecting  it,  gave  the  death-blow  to  his  power; 
the  allies  prei)ared  to  cross  the  Rhine,  anil  entered  France. 
Nor  was  it  the  eastern  frontier  of  his  empire  alone  that  was 
menaced  by  hostile  legions :  the  French  arms  were  as  unsuc- 
cessful in  Spain  as  in  (iermany,  and  the  Rhine  and  the  Pyre- 
nees were  e(jually  ineflicient  barriers  against  Furope,  coalesced 
to  elT(!ct  his  downfall. 

At  the  close  of  1812,  the  French  main  army,  considerably 
we:iken«(l  by  the  withdr.iwal  of  several  divisions  to  reinforce 
the  army  on  the  lOlbe,  was  in  canlonmenl-s  in  the  vicinity  of 
^laiiianca  and  Valladolid.     Soiilt  was  ;:t  Toledo,  and  Josc^ph 


U."]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  381 

Bonaparte  at  Madrid.  In  the  March  following  they  moved, 
as  if  to  concentrate  themselves  in  tlie  northern  and  north-east- 
ern provinces,  and  in  April  advanced  closer  upon  the  Douro. 
It  was  not  till  the  month  of  May,  that  Lord  Wellington,  at 
the  head  of  considerable  reinforcements,  moved  from  his 
head-quarters  at  Freynada,  and,  having  chased  the  enemy  from 
Salamanca,  re-entered  that  city  on  the  26th.  The  French, 
under  Joseph  Bonaparte  in  person,  evacuated  Valladolid,  aban- 
doned the  capital  and  their  positions  on  the  Douro,  retreated 
to  Buro-os,  and  thence  across  the  Ebro  to  Vittoria,  with  the 
English  in  close  pursuit  on  their  rear.  The  allied  army 
passed  the  Ebro  (15th)  and  marched  upon  Vittoria,  which 
city  they  reached  on  the  20th,  and  on  the  following  day  gained 
one  of  the  most  complete  victories  recorded  in  the  annals  of 
war.  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  at  an  early  hour,  took  the  heights 
of  Puebla  and  the  village  of  Subigena  d'Alava.  The  Earl  of 
Dalhousie  and  Sir  Thomas  Picton,  who  held  the  centre  of  the 
allied  army,  moved  against  the  heights  which  command  the 
valley,  while  Sir  R.  Hill  attacked  the  French  left.  The  latter 
abandoned  the  valley,  and  fled  in  the  direction  of  Vittoria. 
The  left  of  the  allied  army,  under  Sir  Thomas  Graham,  had 
intercepted  the  retreat  of  the  French  army  upon  the  high 
road  into  France,  and  they  were  obliged  to  retire  by  that  of 
Pampeluna,  upon  which  they  could  hold  no  position ;  nor, 
consequently,  wait  for  the  drawing  off  of  their  artillery  and 
baggage.  They  saved  but  one  gun.  The  allies  lost  nearly 
4,000  men  in  the  battle  of  Vittoria ;  the  French  double  that 
number.  A  large  French  force  took  up  its  position  on  the 
road  from  Pampeluna  to  Bayonne,  but  was  dislodged  from 
thence,  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  Tolosa ;  Castanos  defeated 
the  enemy  on  the  Bidassoa,  and  Sir  R.  Hill  conquered  the 
army  of  the  centre,  which  had  hitherto  remained  in  the  valley 
of  Rastan,  and  obliged  it  to  cross  the  Spanish  frontier.  The 
English  legislature  voted  its  thanks  to  Lord  Wellington  for 
the  splendid  victory  achieved  at  Vittoria ;  the  prince-regent 
named  him  a  field-marshal,  and  the  Spanish  government  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Vittoria,  and  a  landed 
property  of  great  value, 

Bonaparte,  who  had  withdrawn  Soult,  one  of  his  ablest 
generals,  from  the  Peninsula  to  the  Elbe,  now  directed  him  to 
return  to  Spain,  with  the  title  of  "  Lieutenant  de  I'Empereur," 
and  sent  him  reinforcements  to  repair  the  losses  which  the 
late  reverses  had  caused  in  the  Gallo-Spanish  army. 

The  Anglo-Sicilian  army,  which  had  arrived  on  the  eastern 


383  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EVROPE.  [cHAP. 

coast  of  Spain,  in  1812,  remained  inactive  in  Alicant  till  the 
April  of  the  jircsentyear.  After  the  takinif  of  Fort  St.  l*!iilii)pe, 
Sir  John  .Murray,  by  order  of  Lord  \V(llini;ton,  laid  ^'wgc  to 
'J'arrajTona.  He  acted  in  concert  with  a  British  squadron, 
commanded  by  Captain  Hallowell,  and  for  some  days  main- 
tained the  siege  with  vigour  and  a  prospect  of  success  ;  but 
when  apprized  that  Suchel  was  advaniinu^  with  a  large  force 
to  relieve  the  town,  he  desisted  from  further  operations,  re- 
ernl)arke(l  his  troops,  (June  17th,)  and  sailed  to  Alicant. 
Lord  William  Ikntinck  took  the  command  of  the  forces,  and 
prepared  to  renew  the  siege ;  being  compelled  by  Suchet  to 
retreat,  he  (in  Septemlier)  resigned  the  command  to  Lieutenant- 
general  Clin,  and  embarked  to  Sicily.  IJut  the  chief  efforts 
of  the  allies  were  made  on  the  side  of  the  western  Pyrenees, 
of  which  they  possessed  the  principal  passes;  and  the  sieges 
of  Pampeluna  and  St.  Sebastian  were  vigorously  maintained. 
On  the  21th  July,  Soult  ordered  an  attack  upon  the  positions 
occupied  I)y  Generals  Hill  and  Byng,  in  which  he  succeeded. 
Sir  Laurie  Cole  and  Sir  Thomas  Picton  fell  back  to  cover  the 
lilockade  of  Pampeluna,  before  which  Soult  arrived  on  the 
27th.  Next  day  the  hostile  armies  fought  a  general  battle 
along  the  heights,  in  which  the  allies  were  victorious.  On 
the  .'{0th  the  French  renewed  the  contest ;  but  they  werf 
ultimately  repulsed,  and  driven  in  confusion  towards  their  own 
territory.  'J'he  efforts  of  Sir  T.  Graham  to  take  St.  Sebastian 
weri!  long  luisucressful  ;  its  defence  was  protracted  from  the 
beginning  of  July  till  the  18th  of  September,  wlien  it  was 
finally  reduced.  On  the  7th  of  October,  the  allied  f^nglish 
and  Sj)anis!i  army  entered  France,  by  crossing  tlie  Bidassoa; 
attacked  the  enemy's  entrenchments,  and  took  eight  pieces 
of  cannon.  Next  day  the  French  positions  were  carried. 
The  surrender  of  ]*ami)eluna  to  Don  (^arlos  d'Espana,  shortly 
after,  haviuL"^  |)laced  an  additional  force  at  the  disposal  of  Lord 
Wellington,  he  attacked  the  entrenchments  on  the  Nivelle, 
drove  tlie  French  from  their  central  position,  pursued  them 
across  that  river,  and  conipelled  them  to  retire  (Novendic'r  1 1th) 
to  their  fortilied  camp  near  Hayomie.  Although  the  bad  state 
of  the  roads  prevented  the  immediate  advance  of  the  English, 
they  had  at  least  secured  a  firm  footing  in  France,  from  which 
the  French  made  many  fruitless  ellorts  to  dislodge  them. 
Finding  this  impracticable,  they  aI)andoncd  their  line  of 
defence,  and  withdrew  into  their  own  territory.  Napoleon, 
being  now  convinced  that  any  further  attempts  to  retain  poa- 
•ession  of  Spain  would  be  ini  Ifectual,  concluded  a  treaty  (L)e 


U.  J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  383 

ceinljor  6lh)  with  Ferdinantl,  whom,  on  certain  conditions,  he 
agreed  to  restore  to  liberty  and  the  possession  of  the  Spanish 
crown.  This  treaty  was  invalidated  by  a  decree  of  the  Cortes, 
which  annulled  all  acts  signed  by  the  king  during  his  captivity. 

The  reverses  of  Napoleon  encouraged  the  Hollanders  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  which,  in  his  days  of  conquest,  he  had 
imposed  upon  them.  Disaffection  to  the  French  government 
had  long  subsisted  amongst  this  people,  and  the  malecontents 
now  organized  a  plan  of  counter-revolution,  and  compelled 
the  French  authorities  to  leave  Amsterdam,  On  the  15th  of 
November,  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  appointed  a  provisional 
government  for  the  administration  of  public  affairs;  and,  to 
render  the  counter-revolution  complete,  two  envoys  were 
deputed  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  then  in  England,  to  inform 
him  of  the  recent  occurrences,  and  to  solicit  his  acceptance 
of  the  sovereignty  of  Holland.  With  this  request  the  prince 
complied,  arrived  at  Schoevingen  on  the  30th,  and  on  the  3d 
December,  made  his  entry  into  Amsterdam,  amidst  the  joyful 
acclamations  of  the  inhabitants.  He  was  proclaimed  William 
1st,  sovereign  Prince  of  the  Netherlands. 

The  war  between  Great  Britain  and  America,  though  pro- 
secuted with  vigour,  had,  during  this  year,  no  decisive  result. 
The  American  General  Winchester  was  surprised  and  taken 
at  Fienchtown  by  a  party  of  English  and  Indians  under  Proc- 
tor, who  tarnished  his  victory  by  the  horrors  of  an  hadian 
massacre,  committed  after  a  promise  of  protection.  Attempt- 
ing to  pursue  his  advantage,  Proctor  laid  siege  to  Fort  Meigs, 
on  the  Miami:  but  that  post  was  resolutely  defended  by 
General  Harrison,  who  at  last  compelled  Proctor  to  raise  the 
siege,  and  retreat  to  Canada.  Meanwhile  hostilities  took 
place  on  Lake  Ontario.  Sir  George  Prevost  crossed  and  sur- 
prised Ogdensburg,  but  the  Americans  soon  fitted  out  a  flotilla 
which  made  them  masters  of  the  lake.  Under  the  command 
of  GeJieral  Dearborn  they  took  Toronto  in  spite  of  the  vigor- 
ous opposition  of  a  large  British  and  Indian  force  under  Gen- 
eral Sheaffe,  who  failing  to  arrest  their  progress  retired  to 
Kingston.  Dearborn  encouraged  by  this  success  proceeded 
to  attack  the  British  posts  on  the  Niagara  and  took  two  of 
their  forts.  In  September  the  American  and  English  flotillas 
on  Lake  Erie  engaged,  and  the  former,  under  Commodore 
Perry,  captured  the  whole  British  force.  Harrison,  now  re- 
lieved in  the  west,  crossed  the  Deti'oit,  and  on  the  5th  of  Oc- 
tober completely  defeated  Proctor  in  the  bloody  battle  of  the 
Thames,  where  Tecumseh,  the  soul  of  the  Indian  confederacy, 


384  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciIAP. 

fell.  This  restored  peace  to  the  west.  In  the  east  General 
Hampton  made  aji  ineirectual  attempt  on  Montreal,  but  ou 
the  repulse  of  his  van  at  Chateangay,  fell  back.  At  the 
close  of  the  year  neither  party  had  gaini-d  any  advanta<»e. 
The  British  Parliament  met  in  the  month  of  November, 
and  a  siipplen)entary  loan  of  £20, 000, 000,  with  S(!vcral  fo- 
reign subsidies,  was  agreed  to  wiUiout  a  single  dissentient 
voice.  It  adjourned  on  the  20lh  of  December,  and  did  not 
again  assemble  till  the  ensuing  21st  of  iMarch.  This  interval 
was  one  of  intense  anxiety;  the  confederated  armies  entered 
France  in  various  directions,  and  the  affairs  of  tlie  continent 
were  evidently  drawing  to  a  crisis;  yet  it  still  remained  a 
problem,  if  the  warrior,  who  had  carried  his  victorious  eagles 
through  the  several  kingdoms  of  Europe,  could  be  subdued, 
even  by  the  united  efforts  of  all,  in  his  own. 


CHAPTER  LIT. 

FROM   THE    INVASION    OF    FRANCE    BY  THE  ALLIED    POWKRS,   TO 
THE    TREATY    OF    GHENT,    IN     181  i. 

The  allied  powers  divided  the  forces,  destined  for  the  in- 
vasion of  the  French  territory,  into  seven  grand  armies.  The 
first  was  commanded  by  Prince  Schwartzenl)urg ;  it  consisted 
of  seven  troops  of  Auslrians,  the  Russian  divisions  of  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly  and  Wittgenstein,  the  Bavarians,  under  Count 
Wrede,  and  the  Wirtfml)urghers,  under  their  prince-royal. 
The  second  army  was  commanded  ]>y  Blucher  ;  it  was  formed 
by  the  united  divisions  of  d'Yorck,  Klicst,  and  Bulow,  four 
Russian  corps,  and  the  Saxons,  utuler  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Wei- 
mar and  Baron  Theilman.  The  third  army  was  command- 
ed by  Bernadotle  ;  it  was  composed  of  the  Swedish  and  five 
Russian  corps,  the  Ilanseatic  troops,  the  contingents  of  the 
•states  of  the  Rhenish  confederation,  and  an  Auglo-(ierman 
corps.  The  fourth  was  the  Anglo-Batavian  army,  under  Sir 
Thomas  Graham.  The  fifth,  tlie  Anijlo-Spaiiish  army,  on 
the  Pyrenean  frontier,  cfunmanded  by  Loril  Wellington.  The 
sixth,  the  Austro-Ilalian  army,  commanded  by  Count  B-elle- 
garde.  The  seventh  was  composed  of  deserters  from  the 
French  cause:  it  was  that  of  M\irat,  who  signed,  .January 
11th,  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  coalesced  powers.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  this  overwhelming  force  was  already 


Lll.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  385 

in  motion,  and  advancing,  with  rapid  strides,  into  the  terri- 
tory of  France.  The  army  of  Silesia  had  passed  the  Rhine 
towards  the  norh;  the  English  had  forced  the  Pyrenees,  ta 
the  south;  the  Austrians,  by  the  capture  of  Geneva,  had  laid 
open  the  road  to  Lyons,  and  were  advancing  on  the  east;  the 
Crown-prince  of  Sweden,  having  overrun  Holstein,  and  com- 
pelled the  King  of  Denmark  to  sue  for  peace,*  was  penetrat- 
ing through  Holland  and  Belgium  into  France,  when  Napo- 
leon, committing  his  empress  and  her  son  to  the  care  and 
fidelity  of  the  Parisians,  set  out  (January  26th)  to  take  the 
command  of  his  army,  which  was  posted  between  the  Seine 
and  the  Marne.  Though  his  forces  were  far  outnumbered  by 
those  of  the  allies,  he  commenced  a  series  of  well-directed 
attacks  against  the  hostile  corps  by  which  he  was  surrounded, 
and  in  these  he  was  for  the  most  part  successful.  On  the 
29th  he  defeated,  at  Brienne,  40,000  Prussians,  under  Blucher ; 
but  that  general  being  reinforced  by  the  Austrians,  the  com- 
bat was  renewed  on  the  31st,  at  La  Rothiere,  when  the 
French,  repulsed  in  their  turn,  were  forced  back  upon  Troyes 
in  disorder,  and  harassed  by  the  Cossacks  in  the'yr  rear.  Find- 
ing his  numbers  unequal  to  oppose  an  effectual  resistance  to 
the  allies  in  so  many  different  quarters.  Napoleon  resolved, 
by  concentrating  his  forces  at  particular  points,  to  cut  off  their 
communication  and  defeat  them  in  detail.  In  pursuance  of 
this  plan,  Blucher,  who  was  now  marching  upon  Paris  by 
way  of  Chalons  and  Meaux,  became  his  first  object  of  attack. 
On  the  10th  of  February  a  corps  of  communication  between 
the  grand  army  and  that  of  Silesia,  under  the  Russian  Gen- 
eral Alsufieff,  was  routed  at  Champ-Aubert,  the  general 
himself  being  taken  prisoner.  Though  Napoleon  was  so 
much  elated  with  this  victory  as  to  exclaim — "  Another  such, 
and  I  am  upon  the  Vistula!"  it  was  but  the  prelude  to  one  of 
far  greater  importance.  The  hostile  armies  met  on  the  13th 
at  Montmirail ;  the  fortune  of  the  day,  though  long  undecided, 
was  at  length  favourable  to  the  French ;  and  Blucher  was 
compelled  to  retreat  upon  Chateau-Thierry,  with  the  loss  of 
10,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  a  complete  interruption  of 
his  communication  with  the  grand  army.  Under  other  cir- 
cumstances, the  victories  of  Champ-Aubert  and  Montmirail 
would  have  been  decisive;  but  Napoleon  was  now  so  com- 

*  The  King  of  Denmark,  the  last  and  most  faithful  of  Napoleon's  allies, 
acredeJ  to  the  continental  confederation,  and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  at  Kiel,  (January  14th,)  by  which  Norway 
was  ceded  to  the  latter,  in  exchange  for  Poincrania  and  the  island  of  Rugen 

35 


386  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

pletely  surroundccl  by  tlio  foroos  of  the  coalition,  that  even 
while  tlie  caniuui  d'  die  Hotel  des  Invaliiles  was  thuiulering 
forth  the  ai'cl:iiii;iii()iis  of  victory,  the  roll  of  hostile  artil- 
lery antiouiiced  that  the  enemy  was  apjiroaching  the  very 
gates  of  the  capital.  In  efTect,  while  Napoleon  liad  heen 
einploved  against  Bhicher,  Schwartzenbiir<r  had  taken  Sens, 
Nogent,  Hray,  and  Monterau ;  Wittgenstein  and  Wrede  had 
moved  towards  Mehin,  and  Hianciii  (Febrnary  16)  was  in 
possession  of  Fonlaineblean.  But  the  energies,  the  activity, 
and  the  resources  of  the  French  emperor  seemed  inexhausti- 
ble. By  a  variety  of  skilful  manceuvrcs,  and  by  successive 
victories  at  Vauchamp,  Nangis,  and  Monterau,  he  compelled 
the  allies  to  abandon  these  positions,  and  retreat  once  more 
behind  tlie  Aube. 

Amidst  the  brilliant  success  which  attended  his  arms,  where- 
ever  he  command(!d  in  person.  Napoleon  was  not  entirely 
fearless  of  his  impending  ruin.  Anxious  to  avert  it.  if  pos- 
sible, by  negotiation,  the  allied  armies  had  no  sooner  entered 
France,  than  he  despatched  Caulaincourt  to  the  sovereigns, 
with  propos^  for  an  armistice,  offering  an  immediate  surren- 
der of  lii(!  German  fortresses  still  occupied  by  his  troops. 
As  this  was  evidently  a  device  to  gain  time  and  recruit  liis 
army  wilii  the  rtUurning  garrisons,  the  allies  refused  a  suspen- 
sion of  arms,  but  agreed  to  name  plenipotentiaries  to  treat 
of  conditions  of  peace.  Negotiations  had  been  accordingly 
carried  on  for  some  time  at  Chatillon ;  Lords  Aberdeen, 
St(!wart,  and  Cathcart,  assisting  as  representatives  of  his 
Britannic  majesty,  and  Counts  Kazoumowskv,  Stadion,  and 
De  IIiiml)oldt,  as  the  respective  envoys  of  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia, 

A  draught  of  the  treaty,  agreed  upon  by  the  plenipoten- 
tiaries in  congress,  was  presented  to  Napoleon  on  the  18th. 
Thev  proposed  that  France  should  lie  limited  to  tlie  extei\t  of 
territory  which  she  had  held  under  her  kings,  and  that  I'ari'^ 
should  be  occupied  by  the  allied  troops,  till  the  conclusion  of 
the  definitive  treaty.  Napoleon,  whom  recent  victory  had 
elated,  was  not  in  a  temjMir  to  submit  to  these  conditions. 
Exclaiming,  in  a  tone  at  once  ironical  and  angry — "  Occupy 
Paris!  I  am  at  this  moment  nearer  to  Vienna  than  they  are 
to  Paris,"  he  tore  the  draught  submitted  to  his  ap|)roval. 
But  while  Napoleon  had  been  einplove<l  against  th(!  grand 
army,  Bbn^her  had  gained  time  to  recruit  his  forces,  and  had 
nitakfu  ('halr)ns,  Vitry,  and  Chateau- Fhifrrv.  He  now 
marched  to  form  a  junction  with  liul-jw  and   Winzingerodo, 


Lll.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  387 

who  had  advanced  through  Belgium,  and,  having  freed  it 
from  the  yoke  of  France,  vi^ere  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rheims  and  Soissons.  Napoleon,  called  alternately  to  oppose 
the  progress  of  Schwartzenburg  and  that  of  Blucher,  left 
Troyes  (February  17)  to  meet  the  Prussians  and  impede  the 
projected  junction  ;  which,  however,  was  effected  near  Sois- 
sons, in  spite  of  the  joint  efforts  of  Marmont  and  Mortier,  who 
commanded  under  the  empeior. 

The  allied  sovereigns,  anxious  to  give  renovated  vigour  to 
their  exertions,  signed  a  quadruple  alliance,  on  the  1st  of 
March,  at  Chaumont.  They  engaged,  should  Napoleon  per- 
severe in  rejecting  the  proposals  made  to  him  by  the  congress 
of  Chatillon,  to  bring  150,000  men  each  into  the  iield,  Great 
Britain  furnishing  a  subsidy  of  five  millions,  to  be  equally 
divided  among  the  three  continental  powers,  and  to  continue 
their  alliance  for  twenty  years. 

Schwartzenburg,  induced  by  Blucher's  success  again  to 
advance,  defeated  Oudinot  and  Victor  at  Bar-sur-Aube,  and 
entered  Troyes  ;  while  Platoff  seized  Arcis-sur-Aube  and 
Sezanne,  and,  by  means  of  detached  columns  of  horse,  main- 
tained a  communication  between  the  two  armies.  Napoleon 
arrived  on  the  6th  of  March  at  Laon,  near  which  the  united 
forces  of  Blucher,  Bulow,  and  Winzingerode  were  strongly 
posted.  On  the  7th,  he  attacked  and  drove  them  from  the 
field.  They  retreated  to  Laon  ;  he  pursued,  and,  on  the  9th, 
again  attacked  them;  but  the  battle  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the 
French,  with  the  loss  of  5,000  men  and  48  pieces  of  cannon. 
Napoleon  renewed  the  contest  on  the  following  day,  and  was 
again  unsuccessful.  Finding  his  troops  cut  down,  without 
gaining  any  advantage,  he  ordered  a  retreat,  and  his  worsted 
legions  fell  back  upon  Soissons.  Threatened,  however,  in 
that  position,  by  the  Count  of  St.  Priest,  who  had  taken 
Rheims,  Napoleon  marched  upon  that  city,  recovered  it,  and 
fixed  there  his  head-quarters.  Rendered  confident  by  these 
partial  successes,  he  now  demanded  of  the  congress  at  Cha- 
tillon, as  the  only  conditions  upon  which  he  would  accede  to 
peace,  that  the  French  empire  should  extend  to  the  Rhine  and 
the  Alps,  and  that  Antwerp,  Nimeguen,  and  Flushing  should 
be  incorporated  with  it ;  that  Italy  and  Venice  should  be 
allowed  to  Eugene  Beauharnais  ;  and  that  indemnities  should 
be  given  to  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  Spain,  to  Jerome  for  West- 
phalia, and  to  Louis  for  Berg.  His  conditions  were  rejected 
by  the  allied  powers,  as  subversive  of  the  very  principle  for 
which  they  had  taken  up  arms, — the  re-establishment  of  a 


888  OEMERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

just  equilibrium  anions  the  states  of  Europe;  up.>ti  which, 
the  congress,  on  the  18lh  of  March,  was  (inally  dissulvcd. 

Proclamations  were  now  adilresseil  to  tlie  French  nation  : 
one,  from  the  emperor,  ordered  a  levy  f'l  wjrtvap,  and  pro- 
nounced all  Frenchmen  traitors  who  shoulil  endeavour  to 
prevent  the  expulsion  of  the  invaders;  while  one,  from  the 
Austrians  and  Prussians,  tiireatened  with  certain  di^slruction 
all  who  should  oppose  their  progress,  or  who,  not  being 
soldiers,  sliould  be  taken  with  arms  in  their  hands. 

While  the  Russian,  Prus-sian,  and  Austrian  armies  were 
contending  with  Napoleon  on  the  Seine  and  Marne,  the  An- 
glo-Spanish force,  under  Lord  Wellington,  was  advancing  in 
an  opposite  direction.  On  the  24th  February,  General  Sir  J. 
Hope  ami  Admiral  Penrose  crossed  the  Adour  below  Hayonne. 
Soult,  to  arrest  their  progress,  took,  a  strong  position  in  front 
of  Orthes  ;  upon  which  Lord  Welliuijton  ordered  an  imme- 
diate attack.  The  French,  being  turned  on  all  sides,  retreated 
towards  St.  Sever,  and  thence  towards  Bordeaux,  but  fell 
back  ujjon  Tarbes.  An  anxiety  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty,  and  a  secret  association  to  promote  this  ob- 
ject, had  long  existed  in  the  south  of  France,  and  particularly 
at  Bordeaux,  whitiier  Lord  Wellington  was  now  advancing. 
The  royalists  in  those  parts  deputed  envoys,  early  in  the 
year,  to  Louis  XVIII.,  (who  since  1800  had  resided  in 
England,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Comte  de  Lille,)  inviting 
him  to  return  to  France.  The  Duke  d'Augouleme,  his 
nephew,  and  husband  to  the  daughter  of  Louis  XVL,  issued 
a  proclamation,  empowering  Lord  Wellington  to  act  for  the 
exiled  monarch,  till  his  arrival  in  the  French  territory.  A 
detachment  of  I.'), 000  men,  under  Marshal  Beresfurtl,  entered 
the  large  and  popidous  city  of  Bordeaux,  at  the  reipiest  of 
the  mayor,  the  Marquis  de  la  Rochejaquelein,  and  the  princi- 
pal inhal)itanLs,  who,  having  hoisted  the  while  flaL'',  went  out 
to  meet  the  English  troop.s  ami  accompany  them  iuU)  the  city. 
The  archbishop  congratvdated  the  Duke  d'Angouleme  in  the 
name  of  the  citizens,  and  a  solemn  TV  Deum  was  sung  in  the 
cathedral. 

In  the  mean  time.  Napoleon,  ignorant  of  the  dissolution  of 
the  congress,  and  encouraged  by  his  success  at  Rheims, 
coimted  upon  the  expulsion  of  his  enemies.  Mis  confidence 
of  ultimat<!  success  was  further  excited  by  the  ca|iture  of 
Chalons,  which  surrendered  to  Marshal  Ney  on  the  13lh  of 
JMarch  ;  but  the  allied  monarchs  were  preparing  to  make 
%  general  attack   upon  the  whole  French  line,  and  with  tliLa 


III.]  GENERAL    HISTORV    OF    EUROPE.  389 

intention  repassed  the  Seine  on  that  day.  Bonaparte  moved 
to  Epernay  on  the  16th,  and  thence  to  Fere  Champenoise, 
where  he  was  apprized  of  the  dissolution  of  the  congress. 
The  allies  concentrated  their  forces  in  front  of  Arcis,  to  give 
him  battle.  The  attack  was  begun  by  Napoleon,  but  his 
troops  were  repulsed  at  the  first  onset.  To  support  their 
drooping  courage,  he  placed  himself  at  their  head,  and,  to  the 
anxious  expostulations  of  his  staff,  replied,  "  Fear  not :  the 
ball  which  will  be  fiital  to  me  is  not  yet  in  existence."  The 
battle  was  maintained  till  night.  During  its  continuance,  re- 
inforcements arrived  to  both  parties :  at  its  close,  neither 
army  was  driven  from  the  field.  The  allies,  during  the  night, 
concentrated  themselves  on  the  heights  of  Mesnil-la-Com- 
tesse.  Bonaparte,  on  the  following  day,  reconnoitred  their 
position,  and  prepared  to  attack  it ;  but  suddenly  formed  the 
singular  design  of  passing  between  the  armies  of  the  allies, 
intending  to  cut  off  their  communication  with  the  Rhine,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  liberate  the  garrison  of  Metz,  for  which 
purpose  he  retreated  upon  Vitry  and  St.  Dizier.  The  corps  of 
Oudinot  and  Sebastian!  formed  the  rear-guard  of  his  army,  and 
to  them  he  committed  the  defence  of  the  bridge  of  Arcis ;  but 
they  were  dislodged,  and  the  grand  army  hastened  to  post 
itself  between  the  emperor  and  his  capital,  and  to  form  a 
junction  with  the  army  of  Silesia.  This  was  effected  at 
Chalons,  on  the  24th ;  and  the  united  allied  force,  now 
amounting  to  200,000  men,  began  to  move  by  rapid  and  con- 
tinued marches  upon  Paris.  The  combat  of  Fere  Champe- 
noise took  place  on  the  26th,  in  which  Marmont  and  Mortier 
were  defeated,  and  driven  back  upon  Paris  ;  the  allies  also 
captured  a  convoy  of  ammunition  and  warlike  stores,  on  its 
way  to  the  French  head-quarters.  On  the  20th,  the  two 
sovereigns  crossed  the  Marne,  at  Tripot,  and  the  next  day  at 
Meaux ;  the  remainder  of  the  29th  was  employed  in  pre- 
paring for  an  attack  on  Paris. 

Reverses,  in  the  mean  time,  attended  the  French  arms  in 
other  quarters.  The  north  of  France  was  invaded,  and  many 
of  its  towns  taken,  by  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Weimar.  Count 
Bubna  entered  Lyons,  (March  21st,)  notwithstanding  the  ex- 
ertions of  Augereau  ;  and  in  Italy,  Count  Bellegarde,  though 
vigorously  opposed  by  Beauharnais,  established  himself  on 
the  Mincio.  The  Dutch,  however,  failed  to  give  the  allies 
the  warm  support  which  their  first  insurrection  seemed  tc 
promise;  and  an  attack  made  by  Sir  T.  Graham  upon  Ber- 
gen-op-Zoom  was  unsuccessful. 

35* 


390  OKNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

^^'hen  NapdU'on  was  apprized  that  tlie  allied  sovereigns 
were  within  five  leagues  of  Paris,  and  that  Marmont  and 
Mortier  were  preparing  to  (Iffcnd  it  ;  anxious  to  avert  the 
threatened  ruin  of  his  eapital,  he  despatrhed  Count  Weissem- 
burg  (lately  taken  prisoner)  to  the  Emperor  Francis,  to  advo- 
cate the  cause  of  Maria  lionisa  and  her  son  ;  hut  neither  the 
representations  of  the  count,  nor  those  of  M.  Gaihois,  whom 
Napoleon  sent  upon  a  similar  errand,  effected  any  alteration 
in  llu'  purpose  of  the  Austrian  emperor. 

Tlie  united  armies  continued  their  marcli  by  three  different 
roads,  those  of  Meaux,  Soissons,  and  Lagny  ;  while  Mortier 
and  Marmont  fell  hack  to  take  a  position  on  the  lieights  which 
cover  Paris  towards  the  east.  Within  that  city,  tliese  events 
excited  fear,  exultation,  and  defiance;  but  fear  was  the  pre- 
vailing sensation.  The  partisans  of  the  Bourlions,  few  indeed 
in  number,  but  strong  in  zeal  and  in  the  goodness  of  their 
cause,  rejoiced  at  the  approach  of  the  allies,  who,  they  hoped, 
would  restore  the  ancient  dynasty ;  yet  calculated,  with  me- 
lancholy forebodings,  the  numbers  who  might  fall,  before  the 
desired  object  could  be  accomplished.  The  adherents  of  Na- 
poleon, on  the  other  hand,  while  they  affected  to  disbelieve  the 
near  approach  of  the  allies,  tried  to  rouse  the  Parisians  to 
repel  the  threatened  attack.  Crowds  of  peasants,  from  the 
neighbouring  villages,  rushing  into  the  capital,  increased  the 
general  confusion,  which  was  further  augniented  by  the  pre- 
cipitate departure  of  the  empress,  with  her  son  and  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  state. 

Early  on  the  30th  of  March,  two  officers,  deputed  by  the 
allied  sovereigns,  appeared  at  the  advanced  posts  of  Mortier 
and  Marmont,  with  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants  of  Pa- 
ris, informing  them,  that  the  only  olijcct  of  the  allies  was 
the  establishment  of  such  an  authority  in  France,  as  should 
"join  in  cementing  the  union  of  all  nations  and  govern- 
ments ;"  and  that,  in  the  choice  of  a  government  of  the 
nature  specified,  the  Parisians  would  be  supported  by  the 
confederates.  The  officers  were  denied  admittance,  and  both 
armies  prepared  for  l)attle.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  having  under 
his  orders  Marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier,  took  a  position  on 
the  heights  near  the  city  ;  his  right  wing  rested  on  Belleville  ; 
his  left  reached  from  Mousseaux  to  Neuilly;  his  centre  was 
protected  by  redoubts,  and  loO  jiicces  of  cannon  were  placed 
along  the  line.  'I'he  arrival  of  Napnlecm  being  hourly  ex- 
j)cc>te(1,  the  allies  resolved  on  an  iimmdiate  attack.  At  eight 
o'clock  tiie  heights  of  Belleville  and  Komainville  were  attacked 


UI.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  391 

by  General  Rayesski,  The  combat  was  sanguine  on  the 
heights  between  Romainville  and  Pantin,  and  victory  seemed 
to  incHne  to  tlie  French  standard,  the  artillery  making  dreadful 
havoc  among  the  allies ;  but  Barclay  de  Tolly,  arriving  with 
the  Russian  and  Baden  guards,  made  the  advantage  preponde- 
rate on  the  side  of  the  allies.  Joseph  Bonaparte  still  hoped 
to  save  the  capital,  when,  not  long  after,  the  confederate  ar- 
mies were  seen  in  full  force  on  the  plains  of  St.  Denis,  and 
orders  were  issued  for  a  general  attack.  Finding  that  the 
French  troops  could  not  hold  out  more  than  an  hour  and  a 
half,  Joseph  empowered  Marmont  to  capitulate,  and  fled  from 
the  city ;  yet  it  was  not  till  they  had  been  forced  from  all 
their  positions  and  driven  to  the  barriers,  that  the  marshal, 
judging  any  further  resistance  would  be  but  an  unavailing  ex- 
penditure of  the  lives  of  his  soldiers,  solicited  a  truce,  pre- 
paratory to  a  capitulation.  The  proposal  was  accepted  without 
hesitation  by  the  allied  monarchs,  and  the  capitulat  on  was 
concluded  on  the  morning  of  the  3 1st. 

Napoleon,  in  the  mean  time,  was  making  hasty  striles  to 
prevent  the  fall  of  his  capital.  When  he  was  first  apj^rized 
of  the  march  of  the  allies  upon  it,  he  ordered  that  it  s.iould 
not  be  sacrificed  by  an  obstinate  defence.  At  a  later  I  our, 
however,  he  sent  General  Gerardin  to  the  city  authori  ies, 
with  a  command  that  Paris  should  be  defended  to  the  utmost 
extent  of  their  power  and  ability,  and  with  an  assurance  that 
he  and  his  army  would  follow  in  twelve  hours  the  arrival  of 
his  despatches.  But  this  counter-order  was  received  too  late: 
the  capitulation  was  already  signed,  and  Marmont,  at  the  head 
of  his  troops,  had  retired  to  Essonne.  The  passing  events 
operated  variously  on  the  minds  of  the  Parisians ;  many  of 
them  having  assembled  on  the  31st,  at  the  Place  de  Louis 
Quinze,  M.  de  Vavineux  read  to  them  the  proclamation  of  P. 
Schwartzenburg ;  after  which  white  cockades  were  exhibited, 
and  cries  of  "Live  the  Bourbons,"  "  Down  with  the  tyrant," 
were  vociferated  on  all  sides,  except  where  a  few  faithful  ad- 
herents of  Napoleon  still  ventured  to  name  him  with  reve- 
rence, and  to  expostulate  with  their  fellow-citizens  upon  their 
altered  sentiments. 

The  two  sovereigns  made  their  triumphant  entry  into  Paris 
on  the  31st,  about  noon,  amidst  cries  of  "  Long  live  Alexan- 
der and  Frederic  William,  our  deliverers  !  Vive  Louis  X  VIIL  ! 
Ies  Bourbons  !"  "We  come  not  as  your  conquerors,  but  as 
your  allies,"  was  the  reiterated  reply  of  the  sovereigns.  About 
a  quarter  past  one  they  arrived  at  the  hotel  Talleyrand,  where 


392  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

the  Emperor  of  Russia  was  lo  reside,  and  immediately  en- 
tered upon  those  important  political  discussions,  by  which  the 
destinies  of  France  were  to  he  decided.  'I'hree  projects;  were 
successively  brought  under  consideration.  1st.  'i'o  make 
peace  with  Napoleon,  under  all  possible  securities.  2dly.  To 
esuiblish  a  regency.  3dly.  To  recall  the  Hourltons.  Alex- 
ander took,  for  some  time,  no  decided  part  in  the  debate,  in 
which  the  Parisian  statesmen  were  actively  engaged,  but  con- 
tinued walking  up  and  down  the  salooji,  with  some  appearance 
of  agiUition.  At  length,  on  liis  intimating  that  the  choice  of 
the  nation  might  fall  on  Bernadotte  or  Eugene  Beauharnais, 
Talleyrand  energetically  replied,  "  Sire,  there  are  but  two 
possible  alternatives;  Bonaparte  or  the  Bourbons."  On  an- 
otlier  occasion,  he  added,  "  Bernadotte,  Eugene,  a  regency, 
each  of  these  is  an  intrigue;  Louis  XVIII.  is  a  principle." 
These  words  produced  a  great  effect  on  the  assembly,  and 
induced  Alexander,  as  head  of  the  coalition,  to  sign  a  decla- 
ration, by  which  he  announced  that  the  allies  would  no  longer 
treat  with  Bonaparte,  nor  with  any  member  of  his  faniily  ; 
"  that  they  would  acknowledge  and  guarantee  the  constitution 
which  the  French  nation  should  adopt  for  itself;"  to  which 
end,  they  invited  the  senate  to  choose  a  provisional  govern- 
ment, "  which  might  provide  for  the  wants  of  the  administra- 
tion, and  prepare  a  constitution  suitable  to  the  French  nation." 
Upon  the  issuing  of  this  proclamation,  whicii  was  printed 
and  placarded  throughout  Paris  within  an  hour,  the  municipal 
coimcil  abjured  the  authority  of  Napoleon;  and  many  rej)re- 
sentations  of  his  tyranny,  and  of  the  horror  in  which  he  was 
held  by  the  people  of  France,  were  presented  to  the  .sove- 
reigns. On  the  following  day,  (April  1st,)  Talleyrand,  in  his 
quality  of  vice-grand  elector,  convoked  the  senate.  That 
assembly  declared  the  throne  forfeited  by  Napoleon,  and  the 
French  army  and  nation  released  from  tlieir  oath  of  fidelity 
to  him.  They  next  nanu  d,  :us  memlx^rs  of  the  provisional 
government.  Prince  Talleyrand,  General  Beurnonville,  the 
Comte  de  .Iaucf)ur,  the  Due  dc  DalI.erg,  and  M.  de  Montes- 
quiou.  The  legislative  body  assented,  on  tlie  ',i(\,  to  the  decree 
of  the  senate,  as  did  the  l)0(ly  of  advocates  and  Court  of  Cas- 
sation. 'I'he  Duke  of  Ratnisa  (Marmont)  signified  to  Prince 
Schwartzenburg  his  readiness  to  acijuiesce  in  the  decree  of 
the  senate,  anil  quit  the  service  of  the  eni|)erf)r,  on  condition 
that  his  troops  should  be  permitted  to  pass  into  Normandy, 
and  that  life  and  liberty  should  be  jruarantied  to  Napoleon,  if 
taken  prisoner,  in  a  territory  fixed  upon  by  the  allied  powers 


lll.^  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  393 

and  the  French  government.  The  marshal's  proposals  were 
accepted ;  but  his  pledge  was  afterwards  restored  to  him,  at 
his  own  request,  by  Prince  Schwartzenburg. 

These  adhesions  frustrated  the  hope  which  Bonaparte  had, 
till  then,  cherished,  of  retrieving  his  losses.  On  the  morning 
of  the  30th,  while  the  battle  raged  most  fiercely  on  the  heights 
near  Paris,  he  quitted  Troyes  at  an  early  hour,  and  hastened 
in  advance  of  his  army,  with  a  feeble  escort  of  cavalry,  towards 
the  capital.  He  arrived,  about  an  hour  after  midnight,  at  a 
village  within  twelve  miles  of  Paris,  where  he  received  from 
General  Belliard  the  unwelcome  news  of  its  surrender,  and  im- 
mediately despatched  Caulaincourt*  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
with  unlimited  powers  to  treat  and  to  conclude  upon  whatever 
conditions  should  be  demanded.  But  Alexander,  in  the  name  of 
the  allies,  refused  to  enter  into  any  negotiations,  and  Caulain- 
court  repaired  to  Fontainebleau,  where  Napoleon  had  established 
his  head-quarters.  Marshals  Macdonald,  Oudinot,  and  several 
other  general  officers,  arrived  there  on  the  31st,  and  a  council 
was  held  to  deliberate  on  the  course  to  be  pursued.  Napoleon 
talked  of  marching  upon  Paris,  though  the  wrecks  of  his 
army  assembled  at  Fontainebleau,  did  not  then  exceed  25,000 
men.  To  this  the  marshals  would  not  consent,  adding  that, 
should  he  persist  in  that  determination,  not  a  sword  would 
be  drawn  from  its  scabbard  to  assist  him  in  the  attempt.  The 
project  of  abdicating  in  favour  of  his  son,  suggested  by  Cau- 
laincourt,  was,  after  some  hesitation,  adopted  by  Napoleon, 
who,  having  drawn  up  and  signed  the  act,  charged  Ney, 
Macdonald,  and  Caulaincourt  to  be  the  bearers  of  it  to  the 
Emperor  Alexander.  The  three  envoys,  on  their  way  to 
Paris,  called  upon  Marmont,  at  Essonne,  and  invited  him  to 
heir  them  company.  He  assented,  and  they  went  together 
to  Prince  Schwartzenburg's,  to  withdraw  Marmont's  act  of 
adhesion,  that  he  might  unite  his  efforts  to  those  of  his  com- 
panions in  arms,  in  behalf  of  their  vanquished  chief.  They 
arrived  late  in  the  evening  at  the  hotel  Talleyrand,  where 
several  members  attached  to  the  provisional  government,  fear- 
ful lest  the  arrival  of  Napoleon's  commissioners  should  cause 
any  change  in  the  decision  of  Alexander,  had  assembled ;  and 
were  admitted  to  an  immediate  audience.  Macdonald  spoke 
with  great  warmth  in  favour  of  a  regency,  and  was  answered 

*  Caulaincourt  seems  to  have  acted  a  doubtful  and  ambiguous  part.  He 
has  been  accused,  perhaps  unjustly,  of  having,  in  conjunction  with  Talley- 
rand, urged  Napoleon  to  his  ruin,  by  flattering  him  with  vain  hopes,  and 
persuading  him  to  reject  the  most  reasonable  proposals  on  the  part  of  th» 
•Hies,  while  acting  as  his  envoy  at  the  Congress  of  Chatillon. 


394  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  (]cHAP. 

with  equal  cncrpy  by  General  DessoUcs,  who  liad  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  tlie  Huurhons.  AlcxantUr  |)r(»uiis((l, 
in  ronj unction  with  his  allies,  to  eive  the  subject  liis  serious 
coiisiileration,  and,  in  a  lew  iiours'  time,  to  make  known  to 
them  his  final  determination.  Takinfj  leave  of  the  llussian 
emperor,  the  envoys  passed  into  the  saloon,  where  tiie  mem- 
bers of  the  provisional  government  were  asscmbltd  ;  and  Tal- 
leyrand remarked,  that  should  they  succeed  in  their  object, 
they  would  compromise  all  who  liad  entered  that  room  since 
the  1st  of  April:  "as  for  myself,"'  lie  added,  "think  not  of 
me  ;  I  wish  to  be  compromised."  On  arriving  at  Ney's  hotel, 
there  to  await  Alexander's  decision,  Marmont  was  apprized 
that  Napoleon,  immediately  after  the  departure  of  the  envoys 
from  Fontainel)lcau,  had  sent  to  Essonne,  commanding  his 
immediate  attendance :  a  second  and  a  third  messenger  had 
reiterated  the  order.  Marmont,  as  has  been  seen,  was  then 
in  Paris  ;  the  generals  wiio  commanded  under  liim,  and  had 
with  him  given  in  their  adhesion  to  the  provisional  government, 
alarmed  at  this  rapid  succession  of  expresses,  and  dreading 
Napoleon's  vengeance,  had  resolved  to  march  for  Versailles, 
where,  on  their  arrival,  the  troops,  not  seeing  the  marshal 
at  their  head,  had  broken  out  into  open  insurrection.  This 
intelligence  induced  Marmont  to  set  out  with  all  speed  for 
Versailles.  He  w;is  met  by  his  generals,  who  vainly  entreated 
him  not  to  expose  liis  life  in  the  midst  of  a  rebellious  soldiery. 
'I'he  rei,riments  beinir  drawn  up  by  his  orders,  he  advanced 
alone  on  horseback,  "  How,"  he  exclaimed,  "  is  there  trea- 
son here  ?  Do  you  disown  me?  Am  I  no  longer  your  com- 
rade ?  Have  I  not  been  twenty  times  wounded  anu)ng  you  ? 
Have  I  not  shared  in  all  your  fatigues,  your  privations  ?  and 
am  I  not  ready  to  do  so  again  ?"  The  soldiers  interrupted 
liim  with  loud  shouts  of  "  Vive  le  Marechal !"  and  all  returned 
to  their  duty. 

While  these  events  were  passing  at  Versailles,  Ney,  Mac- 
donald,  and  Caulaincourt  hastened  to  obtain  Alexander's 
answer  before  the  iiisurroctionarv  movements  amonsj  Mar- 
mont's  corps  could  i)e  known.  'I'lie  emjieror  had  gone  on 
foot,  at  six  in  the  morning  of  the  5lh,  to  the  King  of  Prussia's 
residence,  and  the  two  sovereigns  returned  together  to  the 
hotel  Talleyrainl.  Alexandei  then  informed  the  envoys  that 
a  regency  was  impossible,  and  that  the  allies  could  be  satis- 
fieil  with  nothing  less  than  a  prompt  and  uncondiiional 
dixlicalion.  "  Three  days  airo,"  Alexander  observed,  "  Paris 
declared  itself;  since  then  ailhcsions  have  poured  in  from  all 


IJI  ]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  895 

quarters.  If  the  army  is  not  satisfied,  why  were  not  its  wishes 
made  known?"  Macdonald  replied,  that  the  opportunity  had 
not  offered,  since  none  of  the  marshals  were  in  Paris.  Upon 
his  adding  that  Napoleon  demanded  nothing  for  himself  per- 
sonally, Alexander  rejoined,  "Assure  him  that  he  shall  have 
a  provision  suitable  to  the  rank  he  has  occupied ;  that  should 
he  wish  to  retire  to  my  dominions,  he  shall  be  well  received, 
though  he  carried  desolation  into  the  midst  of  them  ;  tliat  I 
shall  ever  remember  the  friendship  that  united  us."  An  ar- 
mistice of  forty-eight  "hours  being  then  agreed  to,  the  commis- 
sioners took  leave  of  the  sovereigns,  and  reached  Fontaine- 
bleau  an  hour  after  midnight.  Napoleon,  on  the  5th,  reviewed 
his  troops,  and  found  the  enthusiasm  they  manifested  two 
days  before,  exchanged  for  a  degree  of  coldness  which  sensi- 
bly affected  him.  The  commissioners  made  their  report; 
Napoleon  heard  them  calmly,  though  not  without  emotion, 
and  despatched  them  on  a  second  embassy  to  Paris.  On 
arriving  in  that  city,  Ney  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  provi- 
sional s-overnment,  so  that  Macdonald  tliis  time  returned 
alone,  and  presented  to  Napoleon  a  copy  of  the  treaty  agreed 
to  by  the  allies.  The  emperor  signed  it,  without  making 
any  remark.  He  then  desired  the  sabre,  given  to  him  in 
Egypt,  by  Mourad  Bey,  to  be  brought  out,  and  presented  it 
to  the  marshal  as  a  token  of  gratitude  for  these  his  last  and 
valuable  services.  The  treaty  was  ratified  on  the  11th:  by 
its  provisions  an  annual  income  of  2,000,000  francs,  with  the 
sovereignty  of  the  isle  of  Elba,  was  secured  to  him  for  life  ; 
400  volunteers  were  to  accompany  him  thither  ;  the  Polish 
troops  to  return  home  retaining  their  pensions,  titles,  and  de- 
corations he  had  bestowed  upon  them  ;  the  duchies  of  Parma, 
Placenlia,  and  Guastalla  were  settled  on  Maria  Louisa, 
reversible  to  her  son  ;  all  the  members  of  the  imperial  family 
were  to  retain  their  titles  during  life,  and  an  ample  pension 
was  secured  to  each.  These  conditions  having  been  guaran- 
tied by  the  allies.  Napoleon  signed,  on  the  same  day,  the 
act  of  formal  abdication,  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  of  the 
thrones  of  France  and  Italy.  In  this  latter  kingdom  an  army 
of  30,000  men  was  still  under  the  orders  of  Eugene  Beauhar- 
nais,  who,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  the  events  in  Paris, 
signed,  (April  10th,)  with  Marshal  Bellegarde,  the  Austrian 
commander,  a  convention,  which  allowed  the  French  troops  to 
retire  unmolested  into  France.  General  Grenier  conducted 
them  across  the  Alps  ;  the  viceroy  awaited  in  Italy  the  deci- 
sion of  the  allies,  hoping,  perhaps,  that  the  son-in-law  of  Ba- 


396  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cJIAP 

vari:i  nii^lit  obtain  nn  indcpemlent  sovoreio^nty.  Rut  the 
French  troops  were  not  tliree  days'  niarcli  from  Milan  when 
that  city  hrolio  out  into  open  rebellion  ;  l*rina,  the  Freni^h 
minister  of  finance,  was  assassinated;  and  Eugene  tliought 
himself  fortunate  in  being  able  to  reach,  almost  unattended, 
the  court  of  his  father-in-law,  at  Municli.* 

Tlu^  emi)rcss  and  Napoleon's  brothers,  who  on  their  de- 
parture Irom  Paris  had  established  a  regency  at  Blois,  re- 
HKivcd  on  the  10th  of  April  to  Orleans.  Thence  Maria  Louisa 
proceeded  to  Germany:  Joseph  and  Jerome  also  quitted 
France.  Napoleon  left  the  country  over  which  he  had  so 
long  presided,  on  the  20th  of  April,  accompanied  by  Hcrlrand 
and  Drouct,  by  four  commissoncrs,  and  an  escort  of  150  fo- 
reign soldiers.  In  a  farewell  harangue  to  his  guards,  he  exhort- 
ed them  to  be  faithful  to  their  new  sovereign  ;  and  asserted 
that,  with  their  assistance,  he  could  have  protracted  a  civil  war 
for  three  years  ;  but  that,  consulting  not  his  own,  but  his  peo- 
ple's happiness,  he  had  forborne  to  do  so.  On  his  route  from 
Fontainebleau  to  Avijrnon,the  attachment  of  his  late  subjects, 
expressed  in  enthusiastic  cheers,  seemed  ratlier  to  have  de- 
rived increase  than  diminution  from  his  altered  fortune.  But 
from  the  day  of  his  arrival  at  Avignon,  (April  25th,)  till  he 
reached  the  frontier,  the  coarsest  invectives,  wherever  he  was 
recognised,  assailed  him.  Alarmed  by  the  increasing  rudeness 
of  the  populace,  and  a  surmise  that  the  new  government  had 
ordered  his  assassination,  he,  from  Orgon  to  La  ('alade, 
travelled  upon  a  post-horse,  disguised  as  a  courier;  and  from 
La  Calade  to  Frejns,  personatetl  an  Austrian  colonel,  and  sat 
in  General  Koller's  caleche.  At  Fnjus,  findinsr  himself  jiro- 
ttM!ted  l)y  an  Austrian  escort,  he  ventured  to  reoccu|)y  his  own 
carriage.  On  the  28th,  he  embarked  in  the  harbour  of  St. 
Raphor,  nn  board  an  Knirlish  brig,  and,  on  the  3d  of  May, 
arrived  ofT  the  coast  of  Fill)a. 

In  the  mean  time  an  unnecessary  effusion  of  blood  took  place 
in  the  south  of  France,  where  the  English  and  French  com- 
manders, ignorant  of  the  surrender  of  Paris  and  the  events 

•  He  was  not  lonp;  after  siimmoiird  to  Paris  liy  the  illness  ami  death  of 
his  mother,  the  ex-empress  Josephine.  On  this  orcasion,  he  was  prescnied 
to  Louis  XVIII.  nn  X'inroiint  Hrauharnais.  The  king  received  him  prn- 
ciciusly,  addresKed  him  l>y  ttie  tilh*  of  prince,  and  oU'ered  him  a  residence 
in  France-,  with  hia  rank  of  prince  and  marKhai.  'i'hese  favours  were 
respectfully  declined.  Josephine  had  heen  vi.sited  at  Malmaison  l)y  the 
allied  HovcreiKiis,  during;  their  occupation  of  Paris,  in  lRi4,and  died  there 
lowards  the  ciiise  of  that  year.  Her  twn  was  creat«5«l  Duke  of  I.ruclten- 
b«rg,  and  died  in  1 824. 


UI.l  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  397 

which  followed  it,  fought  a  sanguinary  and  long-contested 
battle.  Soult,  after  his  defeat  at  Orthes,  fell  back  towards 
Tarbes,  and,  being  thence  dislodged,  was  obliged  to  retreat  to 
Toulouse.  In  the  contest  vvhicli  ensued,  and  which  was  of 
twelve  hours'  continuance,  the  utmost  skill  and  bravery  were 
displayed,  and  numbers  fell  on  both  sides.  The  English  ul- 
timately succeeded  in  compelling  the  enemy  to  retreat,  first 
into  the  city  and  thence  to  Castelnaudary.  At  Toulouse,  as 
at  Bourdeaux,  the  conquerors  were  received  with  loud  plaudits, 
and  with  cries  of  "  Vive  Wellington  !  Vivent  les  Bourbons  !" 
On  the  following  day,  both  armies  received  intelligence  of  the 
surrender  of  Paris;  Soult  and  Suchet  for  some  time  hesitated 
to  believe  the  account  of  the  emperor's  overthrow  ;  but  when 
convinced  of  its  certainty,  they  entered  into  a  convention 
similar  to  that  already  concluded  at  Paris. 

The  last  trophies  of  the  war  were  won  by  Lord  Williart 
Bentinck,  who  captured  Genoa  by  a  combined  operation  of 
the  Anglo-Sicilian  land  troops  under  his  command,  and  of  the 
sea-forces  under  SirJosiah  Rowley.  The  two  forts  of  Riche- 
lieu and  Teela  were  carried  by  storm,  while  the  gun  and 
mortar-ships  silenced  the  enemy's  batteries,  and,  having  forced 
him  to  desert  them,  took  possession  of,  and  turned  them 
against  the  place.  The  French  commander  retreated  into  the 
town,  and,  having  vainly  endeavoured  to  gain  time  by  negotia- 
tion, was  compelled  to  capitulate.  The  allied  troops  entered 
it  on  the  21st  of  April,  and  found  there  293  pieces  of  cannon; 
the  British  squadron  sailing  at  the  same  time  into  the  harbour 
where  they  captured  two  seventy-fours  and  four  brigs  of 
war.  These  advantages  were  gained,  with  the  comparatively 
trifling  loss  to  the  allies,  of  220  killed,  wounded,  or  missing. 
Genoa,  by  a  decree  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  was  annexed 
to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  and  thus  that  ancient  and  far- 
famed  republic  ceased  to  exist. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  provisional  government,  was  a 
decree,  addressed  to  the  civil  and  military  authorities,  ordain- 
ing that  no  obstacle  should  be  raised  to  the  Pope's  return  to 
his  dominions,  and  that  he  should  be  everywhere  received 
with  the  honours  due  to  his  exalted  rank.  The  adhesion  of 
Murat  to  the  continental  alliance,  in  virtue  of  wliich  he  had 
marched  an  army  to  Rome,  and  still  occupied,  in  defiance  of 
the  Viceioy  Eugene,  the  western  part  of  the  ecclesiastical 
state,  had  caused,  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  a  marked 
change  in  the  affairs  of  Italy.  Napoleon,  who  chose  rather 
to  see  those  provinces  under  t!ie  mild  sway  of  Pius  VII.,  thau 

36 


398  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cUAP. 

•n  the  hands  of  the  ambitious  soldier  who  liad  deserted  his 
cause,  tried  to  enter  into  fresh  negotiations  witli  the  Pope, 
and  sent  (January  18)  to  propose  to  hini  a  treaty,  l)y  which 
Rome,  and  the  territory  as  far  as  Perus^ia,  should  lie  restored 
to  the  Holy  See.  Pius  replied  widi  ditrnity,  that  the  restitu- 
tion of  his  states,  being  an  act  of  justice,  could  not  be  made 
the  object  of  a  particular  treaty  ;  that,  moreover,  any  arran<re- 
nients  concluded  out  of  Rome,  would  be  looked  u\H)n  as  the 
efTcct  of  violent  proceedings :  all  that  he  demanded  was  to 
return  to  his  see  ;  no  obstacle  shoidd  then  prevent  him  from 
promoting  general  tranuuillity  by  all  the  means  in  his  i)()wer. 
"  It  is  possible,"  he  added,  emphatically,  "  that  in  our  own 
person  we  may  not  bo  found  worthy  to  revisit  Rome,  b\it 
our  successors  shall  assuredly  recover  the  territories  which 
belong  to  them."  Four  days  later.  Napoleon,  who  was  on 
the  point  of  leaving  Paris  to  oppose  the  armies  of  the  coali- 
tion, wliich  were  even  then  at  no  verv  considerable  distance 
from  Foutainel)leau,  sent  for  Colonel  liagorsse,  and  ordi^rcd 
him  to  set  out  on  the  morrow,  and  conduct  his  Holiness,  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible,  to  Rome.  On  receiving  intimation 
of  the  emperor's  will,  Pius  expressed  his  earnest  desire  to  be 
accompanied  by  at  least  one  of  the  members  of  the  sacred 
college,  but  was  respectfully  informed  by  Colonel  fiagorsse, 
that  the  request  was  incompatible  with  his  instructions.  At 
an  early  hour,  therefore,  on  the  following  morning,  having 
assembled  around  him  all  the  cardinals  then  at  Fontainebleau, 
the  Pope  took  leave  of  them  with  an  air  of  calm  resignation, 
stating  that,  as  he  was  lluMi  al)out  to  quit  them,  to  go  he  knew 
not  whither,  nor  whether  he  should  ever  again  have  the  con- 
solation of  seeinij  them,  it  was  his  desire  to  make  known  to 
them  his  intentions  and  will.  He  expressly  enjoined  lliein 
(a  form  of  speech  very  unusual  with  him)  to  refuse  their 
assent,  individually  and  collectively,  to  every  species  of  treaty 
or  stipulation ;  addinir,  that  he  had  left  with  the  Cardinal 
Dean  a  paper,  written  entirely  with  his  own  hand,  contain- 
ing instructions  for  their  conduct,  under  any  emergencies  that 
were  likely  to  occur.  Precautions  had  already  been  taken 
for  the  election  of  his  successor,  in  case  of  his  demisi;.  'J'lie 
cardinals  were  deeply  alTected,  and  all  promised  fidelity 
and  obedience.  Intelligence  of  the  Popci's  imm(  diate  dejiarl- 
urc  having  quickly  spread  through  the  town,  hundreds  of 
the  inhabitants  scaled  the  walls  of  the  palace-court,  and  were 
wailine  in  the  snow  to  receive  his  last  faniwell  and  blessing. 
His   carriage    took    the    direction  of   Orleans  ;    the    road    to 


Ill  ]  GENFRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  399 

Lyons  being  occupied  by  the  allies,  and  he  reached  Savona 
early  in  February,  where  he  received  the  first  intimation  of  tho 
decree  which  restored  to  him  the  two  departments  of  Rome 
and  Trasimene.  By  the  respectful  attentions  of  the  Viceroy 
Eugene,  he  was  enabled  (March  25th)  to  pursue  his  journey 
to  Parma,  and  thence  to  Cesena,  his  native  city.  Having 
sent  forward  a  delegate  to  take  possession  in  his  name  of  the 
city  of  Rome,  he  resolved  to  await  the  issue  of  events  and 
the  return  of  the  cardinals,  who  were  now  hastening  to  Italy 
from  various  towns  in  the  south  of  France,  to  which  they  had 
been  sent,  under  the  custody  of  gendarmes,  the  day  after  his 
departure  from  Fontainebleau.  During  his  residence  in  the 
city  of  Cesena,  Joachim  Murat  requested  an  audience,  and 
was  immediately  admitted.  After  the  first  compliments,  he 
aflfected  ignorance  as  to  the  intended  term  of  the  Pope's  jour- 
ney; and,  on  being  informed,  asked  his  Holiness  how  he 
could  think  of  returning  to  Rome  against  the  will  of  the  Ro- 
mans, Producinsf  at  once  a  memorial  addressed  to  the  allied 
sovereigns  by  some  of  the  nobles  of  that  city,  praying  that 
they  might  in  future  be  governed  by  a  secular  prince,  he  said, 
"that  he  had  sent  a  copy  to  Vienna,  but  had  reserved  the 
original,  that  liis  Holiness  might  see  the  signatures."  Pius 
took  the  memorial  from  his  hand,  and,  without  opening,  threw 
it  into  a  stove  that  stood  near,  where  it  was  instantly  con- 
sumed ;  he  then  added,  "Is  there  any  thing  now  to  prevent 
us  from  re-entering  Rome  ?"  After  which,  he  mildly  dis- 
missed the  arrogant  soldier,  who,  in  1809,  had  sent  troops 
from  Naples  to  assist  in  the  violent  seizure  of  his  person, 
and  who,  if,  as  it  was  asserted,  he  had  solicited  the  signatures, 
was  deeply  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  which  he  denounced. 
Difficulties  soon  arose  as  to  the  marches  of  Ancona,  which 
Murat,  supported,  as  he  alleged,  by  Austria,  insisted  on 
retaining :  to  settle  this  matter  by  the  intervention  of  the 
allies.  Cardinal  Consalvi  was  sent  to  Paris  by  his  Holiness. 
The  sovereigns,  he  learned,  on  his  arrival  there,  had  pro- 
ceeded to  London,  whither  he  followed  them,  and  obtained 
an  audience  of  each,  as  well  as  of  the  prince-regent,  by 
whom  he  was  received  with  distinction.  In  the  mean  while, 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff"  made  his  entry  into  the  capital  of  his 
states,  (May  24th,)  having  in  his  carriage  the  Cardinal  Dean, 
whom  he  had  left  at  Fontainebleau,  and  Cardinal  Pacca,  who 
had  been  arrested  with  him  at  Monte  Cavallo.  Charles  IV., 
of  Spain,  with  his  queen  and  the  Infanto  Don  Francisco  ; 
tlie  ex-King  of  Sardinia,  the  Queen  of  Etruria,  and  numerous 


400  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Other  (lislinfTui.sh'd  personages,  foriiieil  part  of  tlio  cortege. 
The  inciilent  at  Ceseiia  hail  transpired,  anil  was  then  known 
in  full  detail  at  IJnine,  where  all,  iiicliidiiiii  those  who  had 
siijnid  the  memorial,  were  now  unanimous  in  receiving  their 
sovereign  with  unfeigned  demonstrations  of  joy  and  attaeli- 
ment.  An  address  of  ronii;ratulalion  was  presented  by 
(General  liord  Win.  lientinek,  in  the  name  of  the  Priiiee- 
regent  of  Kngland,  aeeompanied  with  a  blank  exchecjiier- 
bill,  signed  by  that  sovereign,  which  he  requested  his  Iloli. 
ness  to  accept  and  fdl  up,  to  any  amount  he  might  stand  in 
need  of.  The  I'ope  was  so  overcome  with  siirj)rise  and 
gratitude,  as  to  be  for  sonic  minutes  unable  to  speak  ;  at 
lenirlh,  he  expressed  his  thanks  in  the  most  lively  terms,  and 
requested  Lord  W.  IJenlinck  to  be  the  bearer  of  diem  to  iiis 
royal  higfiricss.*  By  a  bull  dated  the  7di  of  August,  the 
eclel)rateil  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  at  the  unanimovs  request 
of  the  Catholic  wnrl<l,i  was  solemnly  restored.  Cardinal 
Pacea,  whohad  imi)ibe(l  early  prejudices  against  the  institute, 
from  the  writings  of  Pascal,  of  which  he  had  since  learned 
the  fallacy,  was  among  the  first  to  advise  the  Pope  to  this 
measure  ;  and  he  was  seconded  by  die  pressing  solicitations 
of  numerous  archbishops,  bishops,  and  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction. Various  religious  houses  were  reopened  in  Rome, 
and  such  of  their  possessions  as  had  not  been  alienated  were 
returned  to  them. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  restoration  seemed  consolidated  in 
France:  in  virtue  of  a  new  constitution,  ad<ipled  by  the  senate, 
on  the  .5th  of  A|)ril,  Louis  Stanislaus  Xavier  was,  by  that 
name,  called  to  fdl  die  vacant  throne.  Indisposition  prevented 
him  from  selling  out  immedialely  for  l''rance ;  he  therefore 
appointed  his  brotiier,  the  Count  d'Artctis,  to  be  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdimi  till  his  arrival ;  and  Uiat  prince 
entered  Paris  on  the  12th,  amidst  the  enthusiastic  cheers  of 
the  inhabiuints.  Three  days  later,  die  Emperor  Francis 
made  his  entry  with  great  military  pomp :  Alexander  and 
Frederic  William  met  him  at  the  barrier,  and  Uie  three 
Kovereitrns  traversed  the  city  in  company.  Louis  XVIII. 
was  al)le,  on  the  2(Uli  of  April,  to  rei)air  to  London,  where 
he  was  received  by  the  riigeiit  with  regal  honours.  The  two 
Bovereigns  interchanged,  on  this  occasion,  the  orders  of  the 

•  A  full-longth  jinrlrait  of  fJcorRc  IV.,  in  Tinwrpnrc'*  brst  Btvin,  still 
«(li>rnR  one  of  thr  K;illfrios  of  the  Vuliran.  It  was  ordcriil  vliortly  after 
ihix  iricidrnt  by  Piox  Vll.,  as  a  token  of  his  gratitude. 

f  Word*  of  thtJ  bull. 


LILJ  general    history    of    EUROPE.  401 

Holy  Gliost  and  of  tlie  Garter;  this  being  the  first  lime  the 
former  decoration  was  ever  conferred  on  a  Protestant  prince. 
The  king's  arrival  at  Calais  was  announced  by  the  discharge 
of  artillery,  and  followed  by  shouts  and  reiterated  acclama- 
tions. On  the  2d  of  May,  he  arrived  at  St.  Omer,  where  he 
received  the  members  of  the  provisional  government,  with 
deputations  from  various  bodies  of  the  state,  and  issued  a 
proclamation,  approving  the  basis  of  the  proposed  constitu- 
tion ;  but  as  it  had  been  unavoidably  drawn  up  in  haste,  he 
convoked  the  members  of  the  senate  and  the  legislative  body 
to  frame  a  charter,  which  should  concede  a  representative 
government,  consisting  of  peers  and  deputies ;  guaranty  the 
inviolability  of  national  and  individual  liberty,  the  mainte- 
nance of  military  and  civil  honours,  liberty  of  conscience  and 
of  the  press. 

On  the  3d  of  May,  Louis  entered  Paris,  preceded  by  the 
marshals,  the  generals  of  the  army  and  officers  of  the  court, 
attended  by  the  national  and  royal  guards,  and  detachments 
of  regular  troops.  Countless  multitudes  thronged  from  the 
city  to  meet  the  royal  procession,  and  its  entry  into  the 
capital  was  hailed  by  such  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of 
joyful  gratulation,  as  were  calculated,  could  they  silence  the 
recollection  of  irrecoverable  losses,  to  compensate  for  past 
neglect  and  exile. 

The  decline  of  Napoleon's  power  also  enabled  Ferdinand 
of  Spain  to  emerge  from  the  obscurity  in  which  he  had  been 
so  long  detained  in  the  chateau  of  Valencey.  On  the  24th 
of  March  he  arrived  at  Gerona,  from  whence  he  proceeded  to 
Saragossa  and  thence  to  Valencia,  where  he  issued  a  decree 
abolishing  the  Cortes,  and  annulling  the  constitution  which 
they  had  published.  The  royalists  of  the  old  stamp,  who 
wished  the  crown  to  be  invested  as  formerly  with  absolute 
power,  were  supported  by  the  king  ;  and  many  of  those  who 
had  most  distinguished  themselves  during  the  reign  of  the 
Cortes,  by  writings  or  speeches  in  favour  of  liberty,  were 
placed  under  arrest.  Ferdinand  entered  Madrid  on  the  14th 
of  May,  and  was  received  with  marked  demonstrations  of 
respect  and  loyalty ;  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  with 
some  alterations  as  to  the  form  and  method  of  its  proceedings, 
and  all  other  ecclesiastical  and  civil  establishments,  resumed 
their  former  position ;  Ferdinand  also  recalled  the  Jesuits  to 
Spain,  and  restored  to  them  their  college  of  St.  Isidore. 

On  the  23d,  the  allied  powers  signed  a  convention,  which 
Hipulated  that  their  armies  should  evacuate  France  in  fourteen 

36* 


402  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciIAP. 

davs  ;  that  tlio  fleets  should  remain  in  their  present  stations  ; 
but  that  all  bloekatles  .shoiihl  he  raised,  and  all  jjrisoners  mu- 
tually restored.  A  delinitive  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
Kinij  of  Enirland  and  his  allies  (in  the  one  part,  and  Louis 
XVIll.  on  the  other,  was  eoneludcd  on  the  30lh  of  May.  Its 
chief  stipulations  were,  that  France  should  retain  her  limits 
as  they  were  in  January,  1791,  with  some  small  addition  of 
territory  ;  that  the  colonies  wrested  from  her  by  l^nirland 
sinee  17l)'2,  should  be  restored,  except  Tobajro  and  St.  Ijiieia, 
which,  with  the  Isle  of  France  and  its  dependencies,  were 
kept  by  Enjrland,  and  the  port  of  St.  Domingo  ceded  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Basle,  which  was  to  revert  to  Spain  ; 
that  Guadaloupe  should  be  restored  by  Sweden  to  France; 
that  the  States  of  Germany  should  be  independent  and  united 
by  a  confederative  bond  ;  that  the  Swiss  republic  should  be 
restored;  that  Italy,  beyond  the  limits  to  revert  to  Austria, 
should  be  composed  of  sovereign  states;  that  Malta  and  its 
dejiendencies  should  remain  in  the  possession  of  I'^nirland  ; 
(hat  Holland  should  l)e  sui)ject  to  the  house  of  Orange, 
and  its  sovereignty  not  be  held  in  any  case  by  a  prince  wear- 
ing, or  destined  to  wear,  a  foreign  crown  ;  that  no  individual, 
in  the  countries  restored  or  ceded  by  the  treaty,  should  be 
prosecuted  or  molested  for  liis  political  opinions.  By  this 
treaty  the  allies  and  the  French  monarch  reciprocally  re- 
nounced all  claims  to  sums  advanced  by  either  party  to  the 
other,  since  1792.  All  tlie  pow(;rs  engaged  in  the  late  war 
were  to  send  plenipotentiaries  to  Vienna,  to  conclude  in  con- 
gress all  necessarv  arransjements. 

In  this  general  treaty  Norway  was  not  included;  and  Eng- 
land, in  conformity  with  a  promise  made  by  her  to  Sweden, 
prepared  to  force  the  Norwenfians  to  submit  to  the  Swedish 
yoke.  This  meditated  translV'r,  for  which  their  consent  had 
not  been  asked,  was  exceeilingly  (lisj)leasing  to  the  Norwe- 
gians, who,  encouraged  by  their  governor,  Christian,  the 
hereditary  Prince  of  Denmark,  took  up  arms  to  assert  their 
national  indej)endencc.  The  Crown-prince  of  Sweden  en- 
tered Norway  in  the  beginning  of  August,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  veleians,  to  enforce  submission  ;  after  some  skirmish- 
ing, the  Norw(;giaiis,  being  nearly  surrounded,  agreed  to  a 
convention,  by  which  the  Prince  of  Denmark  resigned  his 
authority,  and  the  King  of  Swr'den  accepted  a  constitution  to 
be  framed  bv  the  Norweirian  iliet.  'I'hat  assembly  met  on 
the  2l)lli  of  October,  and  the;  union  of  Norway  with  Sweden 
was   ratified   by  a  large   majority.     A  free  constitution   was 


III.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  403 

also  conceded  to  the  Dutch  ;  and  tlie  ten  Bclgic  Provinces 
formerly  subject  to  Austria,  were  united  to  Holland  ;  the 
whole  to  form  one  kingdom,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Princu  of  Orange  and  his  descendants.  The  city  of  Ham- 
burg, after  its  long  and  severe  sufferings  under  the  tyranny 
of  Davoust,  was  restored  to  its  former  privileges  and  inde- 
pendence. Joachim  Murat,  having  seasonably  abandoned 
the  fortunes  of  his  brother-in-law,  and  signed  a  convention 
with  the  Anglo-Sicilians  in  February,  was  allowed  by  the  al- 
lies to  reign  in  Naples,  and  continued  to  form  schemes  of 
aggrandizement,  proving  a  troublesome  neighbour  to  the  Holy 
See,  The  King  of  Sardinia  recovered  his  Italian  territories, 
and  made  his  entry  into  Turin  in  May. 

On  the  3d  of  May,  Mr.  Wilberforce,  the  humane  advocate 
of  the  Africans,  again  represented  their  case  to  the  legislature. 
His  exertions,  seconded  by  the  voice  of  both  Houses,  caused 
representations  to  be  made  to  the  continental  powers  to  induce 
them  to  assist  in  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  Lord  Wel- 
lington, for  the  victories  achieved  by  him  against  France, 
was  created  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Marquis  Douro  ;  and 
£400,000,  in  addition  to  former  grants,  were  voted  to  him. 
He  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Peers,  and  received  its 
thanks  on  the  28th  of  June.  A  deputation  from  the  Com- 
mons congratulated  him  upon  his  late  arrival  in  England  ; 
and  when  he  waited  upon  the  House  to  return  thanks  for  the 
honours  it  had  awarded  him,  he  was  loudly  greeted  by  the 
members,  who  rose  upon  his  entry.  Public  sympathy  was, 
during  this  year,  again  excited  by  the  case  of  the  Princess  of 
Wales.  The  allied  sovereigns  proposed  to  visit  the  Englist 
metropolis,  and  splendid  preparations  were  made  for  their 
reception.  The  queen  notified  to  the  public,  that  she  intend- 
ed holding  two  drawing-rooms  during  their  stay  in  England. 
From  these  assemblies,  which  it  was  anticipated  would  be 
the  most  brilliant  that  had  been  witnessed  in  the  British  do- 
minions, the  prince-regent  desired  that  his  consort  should  be 
excluded.  The  princess,  "  to  avoid,"  as  she  stated,  "  adding 
to  the  difficulty  and  uneasiness  of  the  queen's  situation," 
consented  to  absent  herself  from  the  drawing-rooms  ;  she, 
however,  addressed  an  expostulatory  letter  to  the  prince,  and 
laid  her  case  before  Parliament,  through  the  medium  of  a 
letter  to  the  speaker.  The  discussions  on  this  subject  termi- 
nated by  the  passing  of  a  grant  for  the  increase  of  her  annual 
income  to  £50,000  per  annum  ;  which  sum  was,  however, 
ov  her  own  desire,  reduced  to  £35,000.     The  Princess  Char- 


404  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [cHAP. 

lotle  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  afllictions  of  her  roval  mo- 
ther ;  she  refused  to  accept  the  alliance  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  alleging;  her  dislike  to  leave  Enjrland,  where  she 
thnui,fht  her  presence  necessary  to  soothe  the  HutlVriiigs  of 
the  I'rincess  of  Wales,  The  prince-rcijcnt,  oin-iuled  hy  her 
determination,  and  ascrihing  it  to  the  influence  of  her  attend- 
ants, dismissed  them,  and  appointed  others  in  their  stfad. 
While  he  and  the  IJisliop  of  Salishury  were  employed  in 
chArging  the  latter  closely  to  ohserve  her  conduct,  she  made 
her  way  into  the  street  hy  a  private  staircase,  hurried  into  a 
hackney-coach,  and  drove  to  Coiinanght  House,  the  resi- 
dence of  her  mother.  She  was,  however,  prevailed  upon  to 
return  on  the  following  day,  and  was  removed  to  her  father's 
mansion,  and,  not  long  after,  to  Cranhourne  Lodge. 

A  fraud  practised  upon  the  stock-exchange  by  Lord  Coch- 
rane and  several  associates,  occupied,  for  a  short  time,  public 
attention.  By  the  circulation  of  a  n-port  that  Hoiiaparte  was 
dead,  they  caused  a  rise  in  the  price  of  stocks,  of  which  the 
reporters  profited.  They  were  tried  by  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench,  found  giiilty,  and  sentenced  to  a  line  and  imprisonment. 
Lord  Cochrane,  who  represented  the  city  of  Westminster, 
was  expelled  his  seat  by  a  majority  of  the  House  of  ('om- 
mons,  but  re-elected  by  his  constituents.  These  events,  as 
well  as  every  otlicr  object  of  interest,  was  soon  forgotten  in  the 
rejoicings  caused  by  the  arrival  of  the  Emperor  Ah.'xandei 
and  the  King  of  Prussia,  with  their  respective  suites,  in  the 
metropolis  of  Enirland.  The  court,  the  universities,  the  cor- 
poration of  London,  and  the  po|nilace,  all  vied  with  each  other 
in  showing  them  attention  ;  and  the  city,  during  their  stay, 
presented  a  scene  of  unexampled  splendour  and  festivity. 
They  remained  till  the  27th  of  June,  and  on  that  day  embark- 
ed at  Dover  for  the  Coruinent. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Peel,  a  bill  was  passed  this  ses- 
sion of  Parliament,  emijowerinir  any  two  justices,  in  any 
county  of  Iielantl  wliich  should  be  ilisturl)ed,  to  call  an  ex- 
traordinary session  of  the  county,  to  report  its  stale  to  the 
lord-lieutenant,  who  might  issue  a  proclamation,  ordering  the 
residents  of  the  disturbed  county,  undiT  penalty  of  seven 
years'  transportation,  to  remain  in  their  houses  from  sunset 
»o  sunrise.  He  was  further  <'mpowered  to  convoke  a  special 
session  of  the  peace  in  reported  counties,  for  the  trial  of  of- 
fenders against  this  law  ;  and,  if  necessary,  tf)  dispense;  with 
the  trial  by  jury.  These  rigorms  measures  were  the  conse- 
quence of  outrages  committed  in  some  p  iris  of  Ireland.  Iiy 


111.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  405 

persons   calling  themselves  Carders    and   Caravats  ;  for  the 
purpose,  as  was  supposed,  of  lowering  the  price  of  land. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  was  installed  on  the  1st  of  No- 
vember.  The  Emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  Kings 
of  Prussia,  Denmark,  Bavaria,  and  Wirtemburg,  and  ambas- 
sadors from  all  the  states  of  Europe  were  assembled  there.* 
The  annexation  of  a  part  of  Saxony  to  Prussia,  with  a  pro- 
viso that  the  remainder  should  retain  the  title  of  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  and  the  erection  of  Hanover  into  a  kingdom,  were 
among  the  first  subjects  discussed  by  this  assembly.  The 
Swiss  cantons  signed,  on  the  8th  of  September,  a  federal 
compact,  which  stipulated  that  no  class  of  citizens  should 
enjoy  exclusive  privileges  ;  that  each  canton,  in  case  of  danger, 
should  be  assisted  by  the  others  ;  and  that  no  alliance  between 
particular  cantons,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  common  interest, 
should  be  formed.  The  armed  force  of  the  confederates  was 
to  be  30,000  men;  the  contribution  for  its  support,  £21,000. 

The  war  between  England  and  America  was  carried  on  and 
happily  brought  to  a  conclusion  this  year.  Fresh  troops  wei-e 
sent  over,  but  the  Americans  under  Brown  crossed  the  Niagara 
in  July,  and  a  detachment  under  Scott  defeated  General  liinU 
and  his  veterans  at  Chippewa,  and  soon  after  at  Lundy's  Lane, 
and  though  compelled  to  fall  back  to  Fort  Erie,  defied  all  effi^its 
to  dislodge  them.  Prevost  now  moved  upon  Plattsburg,  which 
he  purposed  to  attack  both  by  land  and  water.  The  action  upon 
the  lake  proved  disastrous  to  the  English  :  their  vessels,  which 
were  four  in  number,  were  forced,  after  a  severe  conflict,  to 
strike  to  the  enemy,  and  their  gun-boats  escaped,  only  because 
the  American  vessels  were,  at  the  close  of  the  action,  too  nuuh 
injured  to  capture  them.  The  British  land-forces,  while  the 
fleets  were  engaged,  succeeded  in  passing  the  Saranac  ;  but 
when  Sir  George  heard  that  the  American  squadron  was  vic- 
torious, he  ordered  his  troops  to  retreat.  The  defeat  of  Platts- 
burg created  disappointment  and  mortification  in  England, 
proportioned  to  the  expectations  of  victory  which  had  been 
raised  by  the  departure  of  the  reinforcements.  Another  ex- 
pedition was  sent  out  in  August,  against  the  middle  states  of 

•  In  this  celebrated  Congress,  the  chief  diplomatists  were— 

For  Austria Prince  Metternich, 

England Lord  Castlereagh, 

France Prince  Talleyrand, 

Russia Count  Nesselrode, 

Prussia Prince  Hardenburg, 

the  Pope Cardinal  Consalvi. 


100  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

America.  The  British  Athniral  Cochrane  entered  the  Pa- 
taxiint  on  the  27lh,  to  co-operate  with  liear-adiniral  Cock- 
bnrn,  in  an  attack  on  the  enemy's  (U)tilla,  coninianded  l)y 
Commodore  Harnc  y  ;  intending,  if  it  proved  snccestiful,  to 
proceed  against  Washington.  Tiie  land-troops,  under  Ge- 
neral Koss,  were  diseniharked  on  the  IDth  at  Benedict.  On 
the  22d,  the  expedition  reached  I'ig  I'oint,  w  liere  the  national 
flotilla,  consisting  of  seventeen  ships,  was  stationed,  'i'he 
Americans  ahandoned  their  vessels  ;  sixteen  of  which,  before 
the  English  could  capture  them,  blew  up.  The  British  com- 
manders now  proceeded  against  the  capital  of  the  United 
States.  About  five  miles  from  the  city,  they  found  the  enemy, 
strongly  posted  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  eastern  branch  of 
the  Potomac.  From  this  position  the  Americans  were,  after 
a  severe  contest,  dislodged.  They  moved  upon  Washington  ; 
but  their  generals,  judiriiig  the  defence  of  the  city  impracti- 
cable, ordered  them  to  (Tcorgetown.  'J'he  English  troops 
quickly  advanced  to  the  capital,  and  destroyed  all  the  public 
biiiliiiMg-:,  with  the  records,  library,  and  national  monuments, 
and  after  this  disgraceful  act  re-embaikcd.  The  fleet  wuw 
plundered  Alexandria,  but  one  of  their  parties  under  Sir 
Peter  Parker  was  defeated  and  wounded  at  Bellair,  and  Ross 
himself  killed  in  an  attempt  on  Baltimore,  which  entirely 
failed.  The  South  became  the  theatre  ofwar.  In  November 
Jackson  drove  the  British  from  the  Spanish  town  of  Pensa- 
cola,  and  learning  that  Admiral  Cochrane  inlemlcd  a  descent 
on  New  Orleans,  he  proceeded  to  that  city.  The  British 
landed  on  the  22d  of  December,  and  took  post  below  the 
city.  Failing  in  an  atteinjit  to  dislodge  them,  Jackson  en- 
camped. Sir  Edward  Packenham  resolved  to  storm  his  camp. 
BalHed  twice,  he  led  up  all  his  force  to  a  general  attack  on  the 
8th  of  .January,  but  when  he  fell,  his  troops,  thinned  by  the 
loss  of  2,r)00  mill,  retreate<l  to  their  ships.  Previous  to 
this,  and  on  the  2tLh  of  Decemb'er,  1811,  the  commissioners, 
who  during  the  whole  year  had  been  negotiating  at  Ghent, 
broutfht  their  discussions  to  a  close.  In  the  treaty  then  con- 
cluded, the  chief  olijects  for  which  the  war  had  originated, 
the  impressment  of  American  seamen  and  the  limits  of  block- 
ade, were  not  menlioned.  The  principal  stipulations  were, 
that  commissioners  shoidd  i)e  a|)|)oiiUed  to  lix  a  boundary- 
line  between  Canada  and  the  I'nilcd  Slates  ;  and  that  all  the 
po.ssessions,  rights,  and  privileges  which  the  Indians  had  held 
before  the  war,  should  be  restored  to  them.  Both  the  contract- 
ing parties  agreed  to  contribute  their  eH'orta  towards  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave-trade. 


LIII.j  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  407 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

FROM   THE    TREATY  OF  GHENT,    IN  1814,  TO   THE  TREATIES  OF 
VIENNA   AND    PARIS,    IN    1815. 

Subsequent  measures,  on  the  part  of  Louis  XVIII.,  tended 
to  counteract  the  impression  which  the  charter  had  at  first 
produced  in  favour  of  the  restoration ;  the  establishment  of 
restrictions  upon  the  press,  and  the  circulation  of  a  report  that 
the  king  woukl  invalidate  the  purchase  of  national  property, 
alarmed  the  nation  in  general ;  an  order  for  the  reduction  to 
half-pay  of  officers  not  in  actual  service ;  the  recall  of  the  Swiss 
guards  to  the  capital,  and  the  removal  of  the  imperial  guard, 
incensed  the  army  ;  an  order  for  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  the  memory  of  the  emigrants  who  had  fallen  at  Quiberon, 
and  for  the  removal  of  some  public  functionaries  to  make  room 
for  known  ultra-royalists,  confirmed  the  nation  in  a  belief,  that 
the  abus^,  as  well  as  the  principles  of  the  ancient  monarchy, 
would  be  shortly  restored. 

The  formation  of  plans  for  the  restoration  of  Bonaparte  was 
the  result  of  the  national  dissatisfaction.  A  conspiracy  for 
that  purpose  was  quickly  organized,  and  the  violet  became  the 
secret  symbol  of  recognition.  A  rumour  that  the  allied  sove- 
reigns, still  in  congress  at  Vienna,  purposed  to  remove  Bona- 
parte from  Elba  to  a  more  secluded  residence,  precipitated  the 
development  of  the  plans  formed  in  his  favour.  To  induce 
him  to  attempt  the  resumption  of  sovereignty,  required  but 
little  persuasion  ;  an  assurance  that  the  French  army  and  na- 
tion sighed  after  his  return,  was,  to  his  daring  mind,  a  suffi- 
cient stimulus  to  undertake  the  hazardous  enterprise.  After 
an  exile  of  eleven  months,  during  which,  his  time  had  been 
chiefly  given  to  the  improvement  of  the  isle  of  Elba,  and  to 
mineralogical  and  agricultural  studies,  he  embarked  with  his 
army,  consisting  of  900  men,  for  the  coast  of  France.  His 
fleet,  which  was  composed  of  the  Inconstant,  of  26  guns, 
and  six  small  vessels,  put  to  sea  on  the  night  of  the  26th  of 
February  ;  Sir  Neil  Campbell,  the  British  commissioner  to 
Elba,  being  then  in  Italy,  and  no  ships  visible  from  the  island. 
On  the  morning  of  the  27th,  the  adventurers,  having  been  be- 
calmed, had  advanced  but  six  leagues.  The  captain  and  crew, 
fearing  detection,  advised,  but  could  not  persuade  the  emperor 
to  put  back  to  Elba.      His  detevmination,  though  hazardous, 


408  GENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

was  not  iinfortun;ito:  his  fleet  escaped  the  observation  of  some 
Freiu'li  eniisers  wliieli  were  in  sight :  it  met  and  spoke  the 
yj('])}iyi'  without  exeiting  tiie  suspieion  of  her  eaptain,  and 
anchored  on  the  1st  of  March,  at  three  o'clock,  in  the  hay  of 
St.  .Iiian.  "  Voihi  le  Coiigrcs  dissoiis,"  exuhingly  exchiimed 
Napoh'oii,  as  he  set  his  foot  on  the  French  sluire.  His  litde 
troop  bivouacked  upon  the  coast,  in  a  vineyard  surrounded  by 
olive  trees,  and  lliere  remained  till  eleven  o'clock  on  the  night 
of  the  1st;  they  then  moved  to  Cannes.  On  the  (Uii  they 
reached  Gap,  whence  Napoleon  issued  two  proclamations,  cal- 
culated to  rouse  the  army  and  the  people  to  sup[)ort  his  enter- 
prise, lie  had  hitherto  advanced  without  opposition,  but  wag 
here  met  by  0,000  men  coming  from  (Trenoble  to  arrest  his 
progress,  who  seemingly  only  waited  orders  to  fire  upon  him. 
Advancing  fearlessly  towards  lliem,  he  exclaimed,  "  JSoldiers, 
you  have  been  told  that  I  fear  death;  if  there  lie  one  among 
you  who  would  kill  his  emperor,  let  him  plunge  liis  bayonet 
into  this  bosom."  "  Vive  V Einprrnir''''  was  tiie  instantaneous 
reply  of  the  detachment,  as  it  rallied  round  the  imj)erial  stand- 
ard. Colonel  Labcdoyere,  with  his  regiment,  joiiiud  the  in- 
vading army  as  it  approached  Grenoble.  Colonel  Marchand, 
the  commander  of  the  city,  not  swayed  by  the  prevalent 
example,  prepared  to  resist  Napoleon's  entry,  liut  to  liillo 
purpose  ;  the  garrison  and  inhabitants  re-echoed  the  flias  of 
the  imperial  troops,  and,  j)ulling  down  the  cilv  g.ites,  allowed 
the  emperor  a  ready  entrance.  'I'iie  imperial  army,  swelled 
by  the  Grenoble  garrison,  marched  to  Lyons,  Napoleon  pre- 
ceding them  in  an  open  carriage,  escorted  only  liy  a  few  hus- 
sars, and  sometimes  quite  unguarded,  'i'hc  peasantry,  as  he 
passed,  surrounded  and  cheered  him,  and  in  the  towns  upon 
his  route,  congratulatory  addresses  were  presented. 

In  the  mean  time,  mrasiires  were  taken  by  the  French 
authorities  to  arrest  the  invader's  jirogress  ;  but  as  slowly  as 
if  no  pressing  necessity  required  their  execution.  Inttdligence 
of  Napoleon's  return  was  not  known  at  the  'I'uileries  till  the 
5th,  nor  by  the  Parisians  till  the  7th.  'I'he  Chamlters  were 
then  convened,  and  a  royal  ordinance  pronounced  Napoleon 
and  his  adherents  traitors,  and  authorized  his  appreluinsion 
and  trial  before  a  council  of  war,  which,  on  proof  of  his  iden- 
tity, was  to  award  him  the  i)unishin(iit  of  death.  Addresses 
from  the  inhal»itanl.s  and  municipality  of  Paris,  and  from  the 
Chambers,  assured  Louis  of  their  adVction  to  his  government. 
Numerous  volunteers  enlisted  in  tlie  roval  cause,  and  the  court 
Was  lulled  into  k  belief  of  the   impotence  of  the   invader'f 


tlll.n  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  409 

enterprise,  till  its  triiimpliant  termination  was  nearly  on  the 
eve  of  accomplishment.  Monsieur,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and 
Count  Danias,  were,  however,  despatched  to  Lyons,  and  the 
Duke  d'Angouleme  proceeded  to  INismes.  The  defence  of  the 
city  was  intrusted  to  Marshal  Macdonald.  While  this  gene- 
ral inspected  tlie  fortitications  and  barricaded  the  bridges  of  the 
Rhone,  Monsieur  harangued  the  troops  on  the  virtues  of  Louis 
XVIIL  and  the  tyranny  of  Napoleon,  but  without  attaching 
them  to  the  royal  standard  ;  for,  though  his  personal  guard 
replied  "  Long  live  the  king,"  the  troops  of  the  line  remained 
repulsively  silent.  On  the  10th,  Napoleon's  advanced  guard 
reached  the  suburbs  of  La  Guillotiere,  and  Macdonald  pre- 
pared to  dispute  its  progress;  but  his  troops,  meeting,  in  their 
passage  over  one  of  the  bridges,  with  a  reconnoitring  party 
of  the  Grenoble  soldiers,  embraced  and  joined  them  with 
reiterated  cries,  as  greeting  to  the  emperor  as  they  were 
appalling  to  the  royal  princes.  The  former  triumphantly 
entered,  while  the  latter  fled  from  Lyons.  One  only  of  his 
attendants  accompanied  Monsieur.  The  other  soldiers  of  the 
royal  guard  of  honour  entreated  the  emperor's  permission  to 
become  his  personal  escort ;  but  he  indignantly  rejected  their 
proflered  service,  assigning,  as  the  cause  of  his  refusal,  their 
cowardly  abandonment  of  their  late  master.  To  the  dragoon 
who  remained  faithful,  he  ordered  that  a  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honour  should  be  presented.  From  Lyons,  Napoleon 
issued  various  decrees ;  he  left  it  on  the  13th,  and  on  the  17th 
reached  Auxerre. 

His  triumphant  march  was,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
government  agents,  unknown  at  the  Tuileries.  Marshal  Ney, 
however,  was  despatched  to  Lons-le-Saulnier,  to  direct  an 
attack  by  the  army  stationed  there,  against  the  rear  of  the 
enemy ;  and  preparations  were  made  to  arrest  his  progress 
between  Fontainebleau  and  Paris.  Ney  pledged  himself  to 
bring  Napoleon  to  Paris  "  dead  or  alive,"  adding  that  he  ought 
to  be  brought  "in  an  iron  cage."  Possibly  the  marshal's 
expressions  were  sincere,  but  his  loyalty  was  short-lived. 
Upon  his  arrival  at  Lons-le-Saulnier,  he  harangued  his  staff*  in 
favour  of  the  Bourbon  cause;  but,  finding,  by  the  gloomy 
silence  with  which  his  warm  eulogy  of  the  existing  govern- 
ment was  received,  that  he  spoke  to  disaffected  auditors,  he 
retired,  seeming-lv  labouring-  under  a  severe  internal  conflict. 
The  assurance  of  some  emissaries  of  Napoleon,  who  arrived 
there  during  the  night,  that  the  emperor's  enterprise  had  been 
Mndertaken  with  the  concurrence  of  Austria  and  the  connivan*^e 

.37 


410  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP 

of  Kii2:l;.ii(l,  tliat  tlio  oinpross  and  lier  son  had  set  out  for  Paris, 
uiui  llial  Mural  was  ailvauciiiir  to  asisisl  Napoleon  on  the  sido 
of  Italy,  decided  iho  French  marshal's  wavcrnig  purpose. 
On  the  13th,  he  atldrcsscd  a  proelamation  to  his  army,  an* 
nouncino'  tiie  cause  of  the  Bourbons  forever  lost,  and  advising 
them  to  rally  round  the  standard  of  the  nation's  ehoiee,  that 
of  Napoleon.  He  joined  the  emperor  on  the  17th  at  Auxerre, 
advanced  with  him  to  Fontaiiiehleau,  and  thence  to  Paris. 
The  national  guard,  under  the  Duke  de  Herry  and  Marshal 
Macdonald,  was  placed  at  Melun  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
imperial  forces.  The  last  hopes  of  Louis  rested  on  its  loyalty ; 
after  some  hours  spent  hy  this  chosen  hand  in  watchful  expec- 
tation of  the  advance  of  the  hostile  troops,  an  open  carriage, 
conveying  the  emperor,  Bertrand,  and  Drouet,  and  escorted 
by  a  few  hussars  and  drajroons,  drove  rapidly  up  to  their 
advanced  posts.  "  J'ive  V Enipereur !  five  iV(ij)ol<0)i  le 
grand .'"  exclaimed  the  royal  army,  and  Napoleon  passed 
throuiih  their  opening  ranks,  and  drove  to  Paris  without 
molestation.  Louis  left  the  capital  on  the  night  of  the  lUlli, 
escorted  by  the  household  troops :  the  citizens  wept  for  his 
departure.  Napoleon  entered  it  on  the  night  of  the  2()th, 
with  an  escort  of  twenty  men,  and  was  received  by  the  same 
citizens  with  joyful  enthusiasm. 

The  king  retired  to  Lisle,  where  he  was  joined  by  many 
distinguished  royalists  and  emigrants.  The  Duke  and  Duchess 
d'Augoulcnie  made  strenuous  exertions  in  favour  of  the  roval 
cause  in  the  western  and  southern  departments,  but  the  efforts 
of  the  duchess  were  counleraded  by  the  arrival  of  General 
Clausel,  at  Bourdeaux ;  and  the  duke,  after  having  held  pos- 
session for  some  days  of  Montpellier  and  Nismes,  was  sur- 
rounded ijy  the  troojis  of  C»en('r;d  ttilly,  and  forced  to  capitulate 
The  duke,  by  Napoleon's  order,  was  conducted  safely  to  the 
plac^e  of  his  eml)arkation.  The  Duke  of  Bourl)()n,  after  having 
roused  the  royalistii  of  La  Vendee,  judging  that  their  exertions 
coidd  not  efTeetually  support  the  royal  cause,  accepted  a  safe 
conduct,  for  himself  and  forty  of  his  f(jllowers,  to  Nantes,  and 
embarked  for  England. 

The  Congress  at  Vienna  had  drawn  its  deliberations  to  a 
close,  when  the  news  arrived  of  Napoleon's  enterprise.  It 
reassembled  on  the  13th  of  March,  and  published  a  declara- 
tion, purporting  that  Bonaparte,  by  invading  France,  in  viola- 
tion of  his  compact  with  the  allied  powers,  had  forfeited  the 
protection  of  the  law,  and  shown  that  no  truce  couh'  hp 
made  wiih  him.     They  pledged  themselves  to  mzke  common 


LIII.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  411 

cause  in  enforcing  the  observance  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  and 
in  preventing  every  attempt  whicli  niiglit  be  made  to  replunge 
the   world    into  the   disorders    and    miseries  of    revolutions. 
Preparations  for  war  were  made  on  so  extensive  a  scale  as 
to  ensure  the  co-operation  of  1,100,000  men.     Napoleon,  on 
his  side,  addressed  a  letter  (dated  Aprd  4th)  to  the  sovereigns 
of  Europe,  announcing  his  re-establishment  upon  the  throne 
of  France,  by  the  affection  of  the  French  nation.  "  France," 
he  said,  "  would  henceforth  know  no  other  rivalship  than  the 
advantages  of  peace,  no  other  strife   than  a  sacred  contest 
for  the  happiness  of  mankind."     This  letter  remained   un- 
answered.     Napoleon,  therefore,   thougiit  only   of  justifying 
his  conduct  to  the  French  people:  of  uniting  all  parties  in  his 
favour  ;  and  of  kindling  the  enthusiasm  of  the  soldiery.     He 
published  a  manifesto,   representing  the  treaty  of  Fontaine- 
bleau    as  violated,  not  by   him,  but  by  the  sovereigns,  since 
they  had  refused  passports  for  Elba  to  Maria  Louisa  and  her 
son.     In  the  selection  of  his  ministers,  he  tried   to  unite  the 
constitutional  and  republican  parties:   Cambaceres  was  made 
arch-chancellor  ;  the  Dukes  of  Gaieta,  Decres,  and  Otranto, 
Count  MoUieu  and  Carnot,  ministers;  the  Prince  of  Eckmiihl 
(Davoust)  had   the   war   department ;  the    Dukes  of  Bassano 
and  Vicenza,  secretaries  ;    he  exerted  himself  to  recruit  his 
army  and  to  collect  a  formidable  artillery  ;  to  rouse  the  mili- 
tary ardour  and  national  pride  of  the  soldiery  ;  and  in  order 
to  attach  the  people  to  his  interests,  he  published  an  additional 
act  to  the  constitution  of  the  empire,  in  which  he  promised  to 
combine   the  highest  degree  of  liberty,  with  the  vigour  ne- 
cessary to  secure  the  national  independence.     This   act  ex- 
cluded the  Bourbons  from  the  throne  of  France,  even  should 
the  imperial  family  become  extinct.     It  was  published  on  the 
23d  of  Aprd,  but  the  meeting  which  was  to  sanction  it  was, 
from  various  causes,  deferred  tUl  the  1st  of  June.     On  that 
day,  a  vast  multitude,  consisting  of  the  deputies,  t:itizens, 
merchants,  agriculturists,  magistrates,  and  warriors  of  France, 
assembled   in   what  was   called  the   Champ  de  Mai.      The 
arrangements  were  of  a  most  solemn  and  imposing  nature. 
The    arch-chancellor,    having   calculated    the    votes   for   and 
against   the    additional    act,   proclaimed    it   accepted   by   the 
French    nation :    Napoleon   gave    it   his    signature,    and    ha- 
rangued the  assembled  multitude   upon  his  attachment  and 
gratitude    to  his    people,    his   solicitude    for   the   welfare  of 
France,  upon  the  unjust  intentions  of  the  allied  sovereigns, 
and  the  necessity  of  union,  energy,  and  perseverance  on  the 


41S  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EimOPE.  [cHAF. 

part  of  tlic  Ffcncli.  Loud  plaudits  followed  the  conclusion 
of  his  address.  \Vh<'H  these  subsided,  he  swore  to  ohserve, 
and  cause  to  he  oi)served,  the  consiiluirDus  of  the  empire.  A 
solemn  TV  Dcitm  announced  the  olfjects  of  the  meeting  ac- 
coin|)lislied.  'J'he  imperial  eagles  were  then  presented  hy 
the  ministers  of  the  interior,  of  war,  and  of  the  marine,  to 
Napoleon,  and  by  Napoleon  to  the  soldiery,  with  a  (;hart>;e  to 
rally  round  and  defend  thcni.  "  We  swear  it,"  exclaimed 
the  troops  ;  and  the  asseml)ly  dispersed. 

On  the  2d  of  June,  the  emperor  named  the  peers,  and  on 
the  7th  installed  the  legislature :  when  the  members  of  both 
Chambers  had  taken  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  constitution 
and  of  fulelily  to  their  sovereign,  he  addressed  them  from  the 
throne.  The  replies  of  the  Chambers  to  his  speech,  which 
were  four  days  in  preparation,  breathed  a  spirit  of  indepen- 
dence at  once  novel  and  appalling  to  Napoleon  ;  he  was  not 
unmindful  that  the  retention  of  his  crown  depended  upon  the 
event  of  battle,  and  his  exertions  were  proportionate  to  the 
greatness  of  the  object  which  called  them  forth.  Fifty 
thousand  men  were  cipiipped  early  in  .lune,  and  marched  for 
the  frontier,  whither  the  emperor,  at  the  close  of  his  speech 
to  the  d(;piiti(;s,  announced  that  he  p\irposed  following  th(>m. 
But  his  forces  did  not  amount  to  one-lhird  of  the  number 
which  formerly  he  had  at  command,  and  the  general  aspect 
of  his  alTiirs  was  gloomy  and  unpromising.  During  his 
residence  in  Elba,  an  active  corrcsponilence  had  been  carried 
on  between  that  island  and  Naples,  where  King  .Ioa<'liim, 
though  professing  fidelity  to  his  alliance  with  Austria,  had 
been  levying  troops  and  makintr  other  warlike;  preparations. 
With  a  view  to  conliru)  his  usurped  dignity,  he  hail  made!  re- 
|)eatcd  olTers  to  the  Holy  See  of  presenting  the  tribute  as  was 
formerly  the  custom  of  the  IcLntimali!  sovereiirns  of  Naples, 
in  acknowledgment  that  the  kingdoni  was  held  i)y  them  in 
fief;  i)Ut  his  proposals  had  been  steadily  rejected.  Intelli- 
gence of  Napoleon's  rapid  and  successful  advance  upon  Paris 
induced  him  to  throw  oil'  the  mask,  and  ftpenlv  to  avow  that 
lie  considered  the  cause  of  his  brother-in-law  inseparable  from 
his  own.  On  the  19ih  of  March,  he  demanded  a  free  pas- 
saire  f(}r  his  troops  throut'^h  the  Itoman  stales  ;  disregarding 
the  refusal  of  the  papal  govcrnmeut,  he  advanced  to  AiUMuia, 
and,  proceeding  through  the  marches,  attacked  the  imperial 
forces  under  (Jeneral  Ilianchi.  and  compelled  them  to  retreat. 
On  the  approach  of  the  .Neapolitans,  the  INtpe  withdrew  to 
Fl(  rence  and  afterwards  to  Genoa ;  and,  meeting  \liere  M.  de 


LIII.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  413 

Pressigny,  the  French  ambassador,  whom  he  admitted  to  an 
audience,  he  said  to  him,  in  presence  of  several  persons  at- 
taclied  to  tlie  embassy,  "  Signor  ambasclatore,  non  dubbi- 
tafe  di  niente:  qiiesto  e  un  temporale  che  durerci  tre  mesi."'* 
Miirat,  however,  was  still  advancing ;  he  had  made  himself 
master  of  Ferrara  and  Florence,  and  forced  the  Grand-duke 
of  Tuscany  to  quit  his  capital.  The  aim  of  King  Joachim 
was  to  revolutionize  Italy,  and  unite  it  into  one  monarchy, 
under  his  own  sceptre.  But  his  efforts  to  rouse  the  Italians 
were  unsuccessful;  the  Austrians  having  collected  their  forces, 
he  was  driven  back  in  his  turn  by  Generals  Bianchi  and  Fri- 
mont,  and  his  army  cut  olT,  in  a  series  of  engagements  near 
Tolentino.  Naples  was  invested  by  land,  while  an  English 
fleet  entered  the  port  and  compelled  the  Neapolitans  to  sign  a 
convention,  (May  20th,)  of  which  the  chief  article  was  the 
deposition  of  Murat.  The  city  Avas  occupied  by  the  allies  till 
the  17th  of  June,  when  Ferdinand  IV.,  returning  from  Sicily, 
regained  peaceable  possession.  The  ex-king  retired  into 
France.!  All  Napoleon's  hopes  of  co-operation  from  abroad 
were  thus  frustrated  ;  and  in  the  interior  of  his  empire,  loyalty 
to  his  person  was  not  general :  the  Vendeans,  too,  were  again 
in  arms  for  the  support  of  the  ancient  dynasty.  The  allies 
proposed  to  invade  France  in  three  divisions,  named  from 
their  respective  situations  previously  to  their  entering  the 
French  territory,  the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  commanded 
by  Prince  Schwartzenburg;  the  army  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
by  Marshal  Blucher  :  and  the  army  of  the  Netherlands,  under 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  The  Russian  armies,  under  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly  and  Wittgenstein,  were  to  form  the  reserve. 
Upon  the  defeat  of  Murat,  the  Austro-Italian  army  advanced 
towards  the  south  of  France  :  that  under  Blucher  arrived  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Namur,  in  May  ;  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington's head-quarters  were  at  Brussels.  The  force  under 
his  command  was  94,000  men,  38,000  of  whom  were 
British:  the  remainder  consisted  of  Hanoverians,  Bnmswick- 
ers,  Belgians,  &c.  Napoleon  left  Paris  (June  12)  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Laon.  At  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  well- 
appointed  army,  he  entered  Belgium,  with  the  hope  of  sur- 
prising the  Prussians  in  their  cantonments,  and  cutting  off  the 
communication    between    Blucher   and    Wellington.      After 

*  "Mr.   A  nbassador,  fear   not;    this   is   a  storm  that  will  last   three 
months." 

|The  Sicilians  had  obtained  a  free  constitution  in  1812,  through   the  in 
lervention  of  Lord  William  Bentinck. 

37* 


41i  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  []cHAP 

fon-iniT  tlio  passage  of  tlie  Sainl)re,  (June  Ifxli,)  he  marched  to 
intorciipt  the  troops  garrisoned  at  Charleroi,  slioidd  they 
attempt  to  retreat  by  that  route.  About  noon  Bonaparte 
entered  the  town.  'J'he  Prussians  stationed  there  retreated  to 
Fleurus,  wliere  the  main  Prussian  army  was  conrrntrating. 
In  this  retreat  they  W(>ri'  liarassed  by  the  enemy,  and  siiveral 
of  th(Mr  number  were  taken  prisoners.  Lord  Wellington  was 
apprized,  early  in  the  evening  of  tlie  l.'jlh,  of  that  day's 
conlliet ;  but  judging  it  to  have  been  but  an  alTair  of  outposts, 
he  delayed  ordering  the  advance  of  his  troops  till  the  receipt 
of  further  intelligence.  At  midnight,  he  learned  that  Char- 
leroi was  taken,  and  that  the  French  had  marched  upon 
Fleurus.  In  a  few  hours  after  the  arrival  of  this  intelligence 
at  Brussels,  the  English  troops  were  in  full  march  for  Quatre 
Bras,  a  village  so  called  from  its  being  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  roads  from  Charleroi  to  Brussels,  and  from  Aivelle 
to  Nannir.  The  Prussians  were  now  posted  on  the  heights 
between  Bry  and  SomI)ref,  and  occupied  the  villagers  of  St. 
Aniand  and  Ligni.  While  Napoleon  marched  with  the 
French  right  wing  and  centre  upon  Blucher,  he  ordered  Ney 
to  dislodge  the  English  from  Qualre  Bras,  and,  this  eifccted, 
to  co-operate  with  him  against  the  Prussians,  Ney  deferred 
making  a  vigorous  attack  upon  tiiiatre  Bras  till  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  by  which  time  the  British  and  Belgian  troops, 
in  full  force,  had  reached  that  villasre.  'I'he  confederates 
gallaiuly  maintained  their  position,  and  many  of  their  most 
distinguished  officers  fell  in  its  defence,  among  whom  were 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick  and  Sir  Thomas  Picton. 

While  the  British  were  thus  attacked  l)y  Ney  at  liuatre 
Bras,  Crouchy's  division  acted  against  the  Prussians  in  the 
villages  of  Ligni  and  St.  Amand.  The  whole  of  Blucher's 
forces  were  not  assembled,  and  the  French,  being  greatly 
superior  in  cavalry  and  artillery,  succeeded  in  establishing 
themselves  in  the  village  of  St.  Amand.  In  an  effort  to  retain 
possession  of  a  hollow  ditch  near  Ligni,  Blucher's  horse  was 
killed,  and  in  its  fall  so  enUmglcd  its  rider  as  to  prevent  his 
rising;  the  enemy's  cuirassiers  and  the  Prussian  general's 
own  troops  passed  over,  without  observing  him,  and  some 
minutes  elapsed  before  he  was  extricated.  The  battle  of 
Ligni  (June  16th)  only  terminated  with  the  fall  of  night.  The 
French  retained  the  field  ;  the  Prussians  retreated  in  good  order, 
but  with  the  loss  of  l.'j.OOO  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
of  sixteen  j)icces  of  cannon,  to  the  neiirhljourliood  of  Wavre. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  moved  in  a  direction  parallel  with 


tlll.^  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  41ft 

(heir  liiie  of  retreat,  and  fell  back  by  the  road  of  Genappe, 
upon  tlie  forest  of  Soiffnies.  Napoleon  now  made  two  di- 
visions of  his  forces,  with  one  of  which  he  marched  in  pur- 
suit of  Wellington.  Bad  roads  and  heavy  rain  prevented  him 
from  much  harassing  the  retreating  army.  The  French  lan- 
cers, who  pressed  upon  the  British  cavalry,  were  attacked,  at 
the  pass  of  Genappe,  by  Lord  Uxbridge,  and  repulsed.  The 
English  retired  thence,  unmolested,  on  the  17th,  to  the  en- 
trance of  the  forest  of  Soignies,  three  miles  in  advance  of 
Waterloo,  where  their  commander  established  his  head-quar- 
ters, and  sent  to  apprize  Blucher  that  he  purposed  to  accept 
batde  on  the  following  day.  The  morning  of  the  18th  pre- 
sented to  the  French  the  English  army,  posted  with  their 
centre  on  the  village  of  Mount  St.  John,  supported  on  the 
right  by  the  farm  of  Hougoumont,  and  on  the  left  by  La 
Haie  Sainte :  by  a  road  which  runs  from  Fer  la  Haie  to  Ohain, 
and  by  the  woody  passes  of  St.  Lambert,  Lord  Wellington 
communicated  with  the  Prussian  army  at  Wavre. 

Bonaparte,  having  sent  orders  to  Grouchy  to  push  the  Prus- 
sians vigorously,  and  to  draw  near  the  grand  French  army 
and  support  its  operations,  prepared  to  attack  the  Anglo-Bel- 
gian troops.  He  placed  his  first  corps  opposite  the  centre  of 
their  position,  with  its  left  on  the  Brussels  road ;  his  second 
corps  opposite  the  woods  that  surround  Hougoumont ;  he 
then  took  a  station  for  observation  on  a  small  hill,  in  front  of 
the  farm  of  La  Belle  Alliance, — the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
under  a  tree,  near  the  top  of  Mount  St.  John. 

About  noon.  Napoleon  ordered  the  signal  for  battle  to  be 
given.  On  the  right,  left,  and  centre,  it  was  maintained  till 
five  o'clock,  with  undiminished  obstinacy,  but  with  doubtful 
success,  when  news  arrived  that  the  Prussians,  under  Blucher, 
whose  advance  had  been  impeded  by  an  attack  from  Marshal 
Grouchy,  were  advancing  in  rear  of  the  French  army.  Na- 
poleon then  called  into  action  four  regiments  of  the  imperial 
guard,  which  he  had  hitherto  kept  in  reserve  on  the  heights 
of  La  Belle  Allimice.  The  charge  made  by  this  chosen  band 
was  of  so  impetuous  a  nature,  as  to  incline  the  victory  to 
their  side,  but  even  they  were,  eventually,  repulsed.  When 
the  main  bod/  of  the  Prussians  arrived,  Wellington  ordered 
his  whole  lini  to  move  forward  :  he  led  the  centre  in  person, 
and  formed  the  flank  regiments  into  hollow  squares,  impene- 
trable to  the  enemy's  cavalry,  and  to  this  judicious  arrange- 
ment may  be  mainly  attributed  the  success  of  the  day.  The 
French  lines  were  soon  penetrated ;  their  right  was  broken 


41ft  OEHERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

in  three  places  by  the  Prussians,  who  rushed  forward  to 
complete  their  ovorthrow.  A  i^eneral  panic  now  seized  the 
French  soldiers,  and  the  exchiniatioii,  "  All  is  lost,"  echoed 
through  their  ranks.  Yet  the  battalion  of  guards,  commanded 
by  (Janihronne,  refused  to  surrender.  "  I^a  jfarde  menrl  et  ne  se 
rend  pas,"  was  the  reply  of  their  t^allant  leader  to  the  sumnjons 
of  his  opponents.  Even  this  chosen  corps  was  finally  sulxlued, 
and  Wellington  and  IMucher  remained  masters  of  the  field. 

'I'he  French  retreated  in  disorder  by  the  Charleroi  road, 
closely  pursued  by  the  Prussians,  who  came  up  with  them  at 
Genappe,  where  they  had  made  a  stand,  but  were  soon  routed. 
Genappe  was  taken,  and  with  it  Napoleon's  carriage,  |iat, 
sword,  casket,  and  travelling  library.  The  Prussians,  gallop- 
ing through  the  streets,  cut  down  without  mercy  their  now 
unresisting  enemies.  The  retreat  of  the  French,  thenceforth, 
resembled  in  its  tragic  scenes  the  memorable  flights  from 
Moscow  and  from  Leipzig.  The  seemingly  dauntless  war- 
riors who  had  so  recently  assembled  to  contend  with  the  con- 
federated legions  of  Europe,  were  now  nerveless  fu<ritives, 
shrinking  at  the  very  rumour  of  their  pursuers'  approach  : 
though  these  constituted  but  an  inconsiderable  portion  of  the 
countless  multitudes  whom  Napoleon  had  ventured  to  oppose. 
So  firmly,  indeed,  had  he  relied  upon  success,  that  he  had 
appointed  no  rallying-place  for  his  troops,  in  case  of  retreat. 
They  now,  therefore,  separated  into  straggling  parties,  almost 
all  of  which  gradually  disptjrsing,  left  their  emperor,  com- 
paratively speaking,  withoit  an  army.  Grouchy,  to  whose 
non-arrival  at  Waterloo  Bonaparte  attributed  the  (l(;feat  of 
the  French,  was  preparing  to  march  thither  on  the  19th,  when 
an  aid-de-camp  brought  him  news  of  the  disaster  of  the  pre- 
ceding day.  On  the  morning  of  the  20th,  his  rear-guard  was 
assailed  by  the  enemy,  but  he  repelled  the  charge,  and  his 
troops,  without  further  molestation,  retreated  to  Namur. 

The  loss  of  the  British  and  Hanoverians  in  the  batde 
of  Waterloo  is  estimated  at  10,<»78  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing:*  among  whom  were  l.^OO  olHcers:  that  of  the 
Prussians,  0,001):  that  of  the  French  incalculable.  Ney  stated, 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  that  Soult,  who  had  been  appointed 
by  Napoleon  to  rally  the  French  troops,  had  not  been  able  to 
collect  more  than  10,000,  iuchnling  Grouchy's  corps. 

In  England,  tlie  victory  achieved  at  Waterloo  excited  nmch 
exultation.     Thanks  and  rewards,  commensurate  with  their 

•Ail  tlic  Diiko  of  Weliimjlon's  niiln»-ilo-rainp  wore  oitlirr  killed  or  wound 
•  I,  cicejit  Major  Percy,  who  carried  to  London  the  ncw«  of  iho  victory. 


tll.3  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  417 

services,  were  voted  by  the  British  Parliament  to  the  English 
trooj)i5,  who  had  been  engaged  in  this  action.  Thanks  were 
also  voted  to  the  allies  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  and  to  the 
Prussians  in  particular,  for  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  war. 

Napoleon  reached  Paris  on  the  evening  of  the  20th  of 
June,  while  the  Parisians  were  yet  rejoicing  for  the  victory 
of  Liu^ni,  and  the  general  success  attendant  upon  the  imperial 
armies ;  for  Suchet  had  taken  Montmelion,  and  driven  the 
Piedniontese  from  the  passes  of  the  Alps  and  Mount  Cenis; 
Dessaix,  on  the  side  of  Jura,  had  repelled  the  enemy's  ad- 
vanced posts,  taken  Carrogne  and  all  the  defiles ;  and  the 
Vendean  chieftains,  after  various  successes  and  reverses,  had 
sustained  so  signal  a  defeat,  as  obliged  them  to  sue  for  peace. 
Napoleon,  on  his  arrival,  convoked  a  council  at  the  Tuileries 
to  devise  measures  for  rescuing  France  from  its  present  peril- 
ous situation.  He  was  recommended  by  Count  Regenault 
and  his  brother  Lucien  to  assume  the  office  of  dictator,  and 
dissolve  the  Chambers;  but  this  advice  was  disapproved  of  by 
Fouclie,  and  declined  by  the  emperor. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Chambers  assembled.  The  deputies, 
at  the  instigation  of  La  Fayette,  declared  the  independence 
of  the  nation  threatened,  and  the  sitting  of  the  Chamber  per- 
manent. In  compliance  with  a  second  invitation  of  the  depu- 
ties, Napoleon's  ministers,  Carnot,  Caulaincourt,  Fouche,  and 
Oavoust,  repaired  to  the  Chamber,  with  Lucien,  whom  tJie 
emperor  had  vested  with  the  power  of  extraordinary  commis- 
sioner, and  charged  with  the  delivery  of  an  imperial  message. 
A  member  observed,  in  reply,  that  there  was  but  one  man 
between  the  country  and  peace,  and  that  one  man  was  the 
emperor.  An  animated  debate  ensued ;  the  result  of  which 
was,  that  Napoleon,  finding  lie  no  longer  possessed  the  confi- 
dence of  the  nation,  declared  that  his  political  life  was  at  an 
end,  and  that  he  had  come  to  a  resolution  of  "  offering  him- 
self up  a  sacrifice  to  the  enemies  of  France,  and  of  abdicating 
in  favour  of  his  son." 

On  the  23d,  the  deputies  appointed  a  provisional  govern- 
ment of  five  persons,  declared  them  responsible  to  the  nation, 
and  proclaimed  Napoleon  II.  Emperor  of  France.  In  a  few 
days  after,  however,  a  proclamation,  signed  by  the  five,  an- 
nounced that  the  decrees  and  judgments  of  courts  and  tribu- 
nals, &c.,  should  be  provisionally  intituled  In  the  name  of  the 
people.  The  new  government  chose  for  president  the  Duke 
of  Otranto,  and  appointed  deputies  to  treat  with  the  allied 
powers,  who  left  Paris  for  that  purpose,  on  the  evening  of 


418  GENERAL    HISTORY    Of    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

the  24tli.  Davoiist,  niiiiiyler  of  war,  was  ordered  to  prepare 
for  the  defence  of  Paris,  and  great  pains  were  taken  to  reor- 
ganize the  arniv.  Tlie  iMiglish  and  I'nissians  were,  how- 
ever, rapiilly  marchinn;  upon  the  capital  ;  and  the  Aiistrians 
and  Russians,  though  not  sharers  in  the  victory  of  Waterloo, 
were  advancing  towards  the  same  destination.  'J'he  English 
and  Prussians  moved  in  a  parallel  line  ;  l)ut  the  conduct  of 
'the  armies  was  very  dissimilar ;  that  of  the  Prussians  indi- 
cated a  desire  of  revengeful  retaliation  upon  tlic  former  invaders 
and  devastators  of  Prussia:  that  of  the  Knirlish,  a  wish  to 
fuhii  the  ilulies  of  friendly  alliance.  'I'he  Duke  of  Wellincr- 
ton,  who  had  spent  the  whole  of  the  lUth  in  solacing  his 
wounded  soldiers,  moved  on  the  20th  to  Hinche,  and  there 
issued  orders  to  his  army,  to  prevent  their  extorting  contri- 
butions from  the  French,  (who,  he  reminded  them,  were  their 
allies,)  or  seizing  any  thing  without  payment  during  their  stay 
in  France.  Louis  XVil.  left  CJhent  on  tlie  22d,  and,  on  the 
27th,  entered  Caml)ray,  which  the  English  had  taken  by 
escalade,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  inhabitants,  who 
drew  him  in  triumph  to  the  maiisioii-liouse. 

In  tlie  mean  time.  Napoleon,  who  had  lieeii  so  recently  the 
object  of  similar  acclamations,  after  having  lingered  for  some 
days  at  the  palace  Elysee,  and  made  a  fruitless  request  to  be 
permitted  to  head  the  French  army  in  the  capacity  of  general, 
was  invited  by  the  provisional  government,  first  to  retire  to 
Malmaisnn,  and,  shortly  after,  to  eml)ark  for  the  United  States 
of  America.  On  the  25th,  he  applied  for  two  frigates  and  a 
brig  to  convey  him  and  his  suite  to  America;  on  their  being 
allowed  him,  he  left  Malmaison  on  the  29ih  for  Itochefort. 

The  commissioners  di'puted  to  treat  with  the  aihcd  powers, 
reached  tln!  Prussian  head-quarters  on  the  2.'Jth  ;  they  de- 
manded a  suspension  of  arms,  which  IJlucher  refused  to 
grant.  'I'wo  I'russian  officers  accompanied  them  back  to 
Paris,  but  \vA  them  by  so  circuitous  a  route,  as  prevented  their 
reaching  the  capital  before  the  .5lh  of  July.  The  allied  sove- 
reigns arrived,  on  the  2iMh  of  June,  under  the  walls  of  Paris. 
To  prevent  their  fiirlher  progress,  the  citizens,  o-uards,  sol- 
diers, ill  a  word,  all  Paris  seemed  in  arms.  Soult  and  (Jiou- 
chy,  with  their  armies,  were  within  the  city;  Vandamme 
arrived  on  the  HOth.  The  forliUcations  begun  by  Napoleon 
liad  been  completed.  That  the  I'rench  were  actuated  to  resist 
the  entry  of  the  allies  into  Paris,  as  much  by  aversicui  to  the 
restoration  of  the  Hourbons,  as  by  anxiety  to  prevent  the  dis- 
grace which  would  result  fri)m  a  second  capture  of  their  city. 


LIII.^  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  419 

was  obvious.     An  address  from  the  army  to  the  people  depre- 
cated the  return  of  this  dynasty,  which,  they  said,  had  been 
rejected  by  the  great  majority  of  the  French  nation  ;  no  po- 
pular cry  dissented  from  the  address,  and  in  neither  of  ttie 
Chambers  was  the  restoration  even  proposed.     Two  procla- 
mations issued  by  the  king,  (June  25th  and  28th,)  in  which 
he  promised  oblivion  of  the  past,  yet  vowed  vengeance  against 
the  instigators  and  supporters  of  the  plot  which  had  reseated 
Napoleon  on  the  throne  of  France,  had  excited  the  alarm  and 
indignation  of  the  French  people,  and  rendered  the  prospect 
of  his  return  one  of  interminable  proscription.     Paris  was 
now  invested  on  all  sides.     A  desperate  conflict  took  place  at 
Versailles,  and  terminated  in  favour  of  the  allies,  who  esta- 
blished themselves  on  the  heights  of  Meudon  and  in  the  valley 
of  Issy.     At  three  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  3d,  the 
French  attacked  the  Prussians,  but  they  were  repulsed   and 
driven  back  to  the  city  gate ;  and  the  provisional  government, 
judging  that  their  further  resistance  could  only  delay,  but  not 
prevent  the  surrender  of  the  city,  demanded  a  suspension  of 
arms,  preparatory  to  a  capitulation  :  commissioners  from  both 
parties   met  in  the  palace  of  St.  Cloud  to   arrange  the  terms. 
They  concluded  a  convention,  the  chief  stipulations  of  which 
were,  that  there  should  be  a  suspension  of  arms  under  the 
walls  of  Paris  ;  that  the  French  army  should  retire  behind 
the  Loire  :  that  the  suburbs  and  barriers  of  the  capital  should  be, 
within  three  days,  given  up  to  the  allied  troops,  and  that  the  duty 
of  the  city  should  be  still  performed  by  tne  national  guard.    By 
the  inhabitants  of  Paris,  the  news  of  tha  city's  having  surren- 
dered, as  it  saved  them  from  pillage,  was  joyfully  received : 
by  the  army  with  leelings  of  anger  and    despair,   and  com- 
plaints  of  treachery.     In  defiance  of  the  orders  given  them, 
they  rushed  on  the  allied  columns,  and  many  skirmishes  dur- 
ing the  4th  indicated  their  dissatisfaction.     They  were,  how- 
ever,   by   the    persuasion   of  their   commanders,  induced    to 
submit  to  the  terms  of  the  convention,  and   to  retire  behind 
the   Loire.     The  Chambers  still  continued  to  sit  and  to  de- 
liberate upon  the  constitution.     They  issued  a  proclamation 
addressed  to  the  French  people,  in  which  v/eie  specified  the 
principles  which  ought  to  characterize  the  future  governmeni 
of  France  ;  but  what  this  government  would  be,  or  who  was 
to  be  at   its  head,  was  still  a  mystery.     The  allies  had  pro- 
mised the  French  nation  to  allow  them  a  free  choice  of  govern- 
ment;   yet  Louis  XVIIL  was  advancing  to  the  capital,  and  in 
many  places  the  invading  army  had  proclaimed  him  sovereign 


420  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  QcUAP 

On  the  Gill,  the  goner.nl  suspense  was  terminated,  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington's  apprizing  the  Duke  of  Olranto  (Fou- 
ehe)  that  the  alli(>s  IkuI  (Iclerniincd  upon  the  restoration  of 
Louis.  In  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  tlie  capital  was  surren- 
dered to  the  Hritish  army.  Tiie  following  morning,  the 
niciultfrs  of  the  provisi<MKil  government,  finding  that  foreign 
troops  occupied  the  Tuilerics,  and  that  tiieir  delil)erations 
could  be  no  longer  free,  resigned  their  post.  The  peers,  fol- 
lowing their  example,  separated  without  hesitatit)n.  The 
deputies,  on  tl)e  contrary,  athrmed  that  the  bayonet  alone 
slioidd  compel  them  to  alnindon  the  olhce  assigned  them  by 
the  nation  ;  and  they  continued  to  debate  till  six  o'clock  on  the 
articles  of  the  constitulion ;  but  on  the  following  morning, 
when  they  repaired  to  the  hall  of  the  legislative  body,  tiiey 
found  its  gates  closed  and  guarded  by  soldier?,  who  refused 
tliein  admission  :  after  having  j)rotested  against  this  proceed- 
ing, they,  too,  separated.  On  the  same  day  that  the  national 
representation  was  thus  dissolved,  Louis  XVIIL  re-entered 
Paris.  No  murmurs  announced  to  him  that  his  return  had 
been  deprecated  by  his  subjects  ;  the  barriers  were  thrown 
open  to  him  ;  seemingly  general  acclamations  greeted  his 
entry,  and  the  municipal  bodies  addressed  him  in  terms  as 
flattering,  as  if  the  nation's  happiness  had  hung  upon  his  resto- 
ration. 

In  the  mean  time,  he  who  had  been  so  lately  hailed  the 
chosc^n  sovereign  of  P'rance,  prepared  to  leave  forever  the 
scene  of  his  long  ;«ii(l  brilliant  career.  Napoleon  reached 
Ro(;hefort,  where  he  j)urj)OS('d  to  emi)ark  for  America,  on  the 
3d  of  July.  He  <lelayed  making  any  attetnpt  to  sail  for  some 
4iys,  and  tliiis  allow<'d  time  to  the  Hritish  cruisers  to  block- 
It;  the  port,  and  render  his  escaj)e  impracticable.  After  an 
"terval  of  irresolution,  during  which  he  alternately  purposed 
escaping  in  a  small  French  vessel,  and  in  two  half-decked 
boats  he  had  purchased  at  Roidielle,  he  projiosed,  through 
two  of  I. is  suite,  to  surrender  to  Captain  Maidand,  of  the  Eng- 
lish ship  liclU r()])linn,  on  condition  that  his  person  and  pro- 
perty should  be  held  sacred,  and  that  he  should  be  permitted 
to  retire  to  some  spot  of  his  own  selection.  'J'he  caj)tain  re- 
plied, that  he  was  not  authorized  to  enter  into  terms  with  the 
ex-emperor,  but  that  he  would  unilertake  to  convey  him  to 
Eniiland,  to  l)e  ther*;  received  and  treated  as  the  prince-regent 
miirht  deem  expedient.  On  the  I.'ith,  lionaparle  and  his  suite 
eml-.iirked  in  the  liilh  niphon .  News  of  this  ev.'Ul  was  quickly 
f(>r\».ird<d    to    England.      In    tlie  frigate  which   bore  it,  sailed 


till.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  421 

also  General  Gourgaud,  with  a  letter  from  Bonaparte  to  the 
prince-regent,  announcing  that  he  had  terminated  his  polilinal 
career,  and  had  thrown  himself  on  the  hospitality  of  the 
British  people. 

The  English  government,  in  conjunction,  with  its  allies, 
fixed  upon  the  island  of  St.  Helena  for   the  future  residence 
of  the  ex-emperor.     The  Northumberland,  commanded   by 
Rear-admiral  Sir  George  Cockburne,  was  the  vessel  destined 
to  convey  him  thither  ;  and  orders  were  issued  by  die  prince- 
regent  to  the  admiral  and  to  the  Governor  of  St.  Helena,  to 
allow  their  prisoner  every  indulgence  compatible  with  his  safe 
detention.     A  hope,  as  strongly  as  it  was  vainly  cherished, 
that  he  would  be  permitted  to  reside  in  England,  had  almost 
reconciled  Napoleon  to   his  reverse  of  fortune.     His  anger, 
when  apprized  of  the  decision  of  the  allied  powers,  was  com- 
mensurate with  the  strength  of  the  expectation  which  it  sup- 
planted.    He   expostulated   at  much  length,   and  entered   a 
written  protest  against  the  "  cruelty  and  injustice"  of  which 
he  was   the  victim,  and  for  some  time  refused  to  go  on  board 
the  Northumberland.     He,  however,  at  length  complied,  and 
embarked  on  the  5th  of  August.     Few  of  his  friends  being 
permitted  to  accompany  him,  he  selected  Count  and  Countess 
Bertrand  and  their  family,  Count  and   Countess  Montholon, 
Count  Las  Casas,  General  Gourgaud,  Lieutenant-general  the 
Duke  of  Rovigo,  Lieutenant-general  Lallemaud,  &c.     Main- 
gauld,  Bonaparte's  surgeon,  refusing  to  make  the  voyage,  his 
place  was  voluntarily  supplied  by  O'Meara,   surgeon   of  the 
Bellerophon.     The  Northumberland  reached  its  destination 
on  the  17th  of  October. 

Joachim  Murat,  ex-King  of  Naples,  had  resided  at  Toulon 
from  the  period  of  his  resignation  of  sovereignty,  till  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  The  defeat  and  abdication  of  Napoleon 
seeming  to  render  his  departure  from  France  a  necessary  pre- 
caution, he  retired  to  the  island  of  Corsica.  But  a  restless- 
ness or  thirst  of  power  similar  to  that  which  led  Napoleon 
from  Elba,  impelled  Joachim  to  descend  upon  Naples,  (Octo- 
ber 8,)  in  the  hope  of  recovering  that  kingdom.  Addressing 
himself  to  the  Neapolitan  peasantry,  he  announced  himself 
their  sovereign,  and  claimed  their  allegiance  ;  but  being  soon 
convhiced  of  the  hopelessness  of  his  cause,  he  took  refiige 
in  the  mountains,  where  he  and  his  partisans*  were  surrounded 
and  made  prisoners ;  Murat  was  tried  by  a  military  commis- 
sion, and  shot  on  the  15th  of  October.  Such  was  the  tragi- 
•  Some  adventurers  who-+rad  accompanied  him  from  Corsica. 

38 


422  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

cal  end  of  liim  wlio  liad  been  surnanied  "  the  bravest  of  the 
brave." 

The  traiKiiiillity  of  Italy  bf.in^  rc-cstablishod,  the  Pope,  for 
the  fourth  tune,  rctunuKl  to  his  capital :  Cardinal  (.'onsalvi, 
wtioni  he  sent  to  V'ieniia,  supported  the  interests  of  tiie  Holy 
See  with  so  much  prudence  and  al)ilily,  that  the  inarches 
of  Ancona,  with  Canicrino  and  tlieir  dependencies  ;  Hene- 
vento  and  Poiil«'  Corvo,  with  the  three  legations  of  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  Romagna,  were  restored ;  the  right  of  prece- 
dence before  all  the  ambassadors  of  temporal  princes,  even 
those  separated  from  its  communion,  was  confirmed  to  its 
nuncios,  and  the  Pope,  after  so  many  tribulations,  had  the 
consolation  to  see  liis  states  in  a  more  secure  and  flourishing 
position  tlian  they  had  ever  been,  since  the  days  of  Charle- 
magne. 

The  beginning  of  Louis  XVIII. 's  second  restoration  is 
memorable  for  the  ])u)>licalion  of  a  series  of  proscriptivc  ordi- 
nances. One,  dati'd  July  13th,  dissolved  tiie  Chamlier  of 
Deputies  and  called  a  new  one,  to  sit  on  the  14th  of  August, 
with  an  increase  of  133  inembcrs.  That  of  the  24lh  of  Jtdy, 
pronounced  that  the  peers  who  had  accepted  seats,  or  who 
had  retained  them  in  the  Ciiamber  of  Peers  during  the  late 
interregnum,  had  forfeited  their  right  to  the  peerage  of  France. 
Anotlu!-,  of  the  same  date,  prescribed  that  tlie  generals  and 
officers  who,  before  tlie21st()f  March,  had  betrayed  Louis, 
or  taken  up  arms  against  the  French  government,  or  obtained 
power  by  violence,  should  be  arrested  and  carried  before  the 
councils  of  war  in  their  respective  divisions.  Hy  this  ordi- 
nance, several  individuals  were  required  to  retire  from  Paris 
within  three  days  after  its  publication,  and  to  remain  in  such 
places  as  the  minister  of  p(dice  might  assign  for  tlieir  resi- 
dence, till  the  alternative  of  their  removal  from  France,  or 
their  trial  before  the  trilninals,  should  l)c  decided  by  the  Cham- 
bers. A  commission  of  censorship  was  appointed  to  take 
cognisance  of  all  periodical  writings.  Louis  furlhc^r  ordered 
that  the  army,  which  had  passed  over  to  Napoleon,  should  be 
disbanded,  and  that  a  new  military  force  should  be  organized; 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  was  given  to  Macdo- 
nald,  in  place  of  Davoust.  The  Duke  of  Richelieu  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  the  Duke  of  Feltre, 
(ficneral  Clarke,)  of  war.      Fouche  and  'I'allcyrand  resigned. 

The  first  victim  of  the  proscriplittn  ordinances  was  ('olonel 
Labcdoyere.  He  was  tried  before  a  military  tribunal,  pro- 
nounced guilty  of  treason  and  rebellion,  and  sentenced  to  bo 


Llll.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  423 

degraded  from  liis  military  rank,  and  to  lose  his  life.  The 
sentence  was  confirmed  by  the  council  of  revision ;  and  the 
entreaties  of  Madame  Labedoyere,  who  implored  the  exertion 
of  tlie  royal  clemency  in  his  behalf,  proving  fruiUess,  he  was 
executed  on  the  plain  of  Grenelle.  He  heard  his  sentence 
read  with  calmness,  and  suffered  with  fortitude. 

The  trial  of  Marshal  Ney  was  of  three  days'  continuance, 
and  terminated  in  his  condemnation  to  receive  the  fire  of 
sixty  muskets,  of  which  twelve  took  effect,  and  he  died  with- 
out a  struggle.  General  Count  Lavalette,  director  of  the 
posts  at  the  period  of  Bonaparte's  return  to  France,  was  the 
next  person  of  note  arraigned ;  and  he,  too,  was  condemned 
to  execution,  but  was  saved  by  the  ingenuity  of  his  wife. 
Madame  Lavalette,  having  in  vain  solicited  the  king's  pardon 
for  her  husband,  repaired  to  his  prison,  weeping,  as  she  went, 
over  the  seeming  hopelessness  of  his  fate,  and  there  habited 
herself  in  his  clothes,  giving  him  hers.  Thus  disguised,  he 
passed  out,  not  without  some  suspicion  of  connivance  on 
the  part  of  his  keepers,  and  she  personated  him  till  his  recap- 
ture became  impossible.  His  escape  from  Paris  was  effected 
by  three  Euglisbmen  ;  Sir  Robert  Wilson,  Mr.  Bruce,  and 
Capt.  Hutchinson,  who  were  arrested  and  sentenced  to  three 
months'  imprisonment. 

The  revival  of  all  the  English  war-taxes  was  a  necessary 
consequence  of  the  return  of  Napoleon,  and  the  fixed  deter- 
mination of  the  allies  to  oppose  his  enterprise.  The  com- 
mittee, to  which  the  corn  laws  had  been  submitted  during 
the  last  session,  had  recommended  that  corn,  meal,  and 
flour  siiould  be  freely  exported  at  all  times ;  but  imported 
and  taken  out  of  the  warehouses  for  home  consumption,  only 
wlien  the  average  price  of  wheat  was  80s,  per  quarter.  The 
bill  which  sanctioned  the  adoption  of  these  measures,  excited 
mucli  puidic  dissatisfaction,  and  various  riotous  acts,  during 
its  discussion,  were  the  result  of  its  unpopularity  ;  it,  how- 
ever, passed  both  Houses,  and  received  the  royal  assent. 

A  revolution  was  effected  this  year  (1815)  in  Ceylon,  which 
rendered  the  whole  of  that  important  island  dependent  on  die 
British  crown.  The  tyranny  and  cruelties  exercised  by  the 
King  of  Candy,  had  rendered  him  so  obnoxious  to  his  sub- 
jects, that  at  length  Lieutenant-general  Brownrigg  resolved 
to  assist  them,  early  ia  the  year,  in  throwing  off  the  yoke  ; 
the  British  troopi-  advr.nced  into  the  interior,  where  they  were 
joined  by  all  the  adegars  or  nobles  ;  and  finding  Candy,  the 
capital,  deserted,  entered  it  on  the  llUi  of  February.     The 


424  GENERAL    HISTORY    OK    EUROPE.  [cHAF. 

king,  witli  a  small  mimherof  his  atllicrents,  had  taken  to  flight; 
but,  a  few  days  after,  was  surrounded  and  made  prisoner  by 
his  sul)jecls,  who  Icstiliud  the  utmost  diitostiilioii  of  the  tyrant. 
A  sok'iun  conferenc-e  was  lu:ld  hciwien  the  iJritish  governor 
and  the  Candian  chiefs;  antl  the  king,  being  judged  unworthy 
of  the  crown,  was  deposed,  and  a  treaty  conciuiled,  by  wliich 
the  wliole  ishmd  submitted  to  the  Uritish  government.  The 
king  was  ke|)t  a  sliite-prisoner  in  his  own  j)al;ic'e  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  The  religion  of  the  inhabitants  was  pre- 
served to  iheni  l)y  the  treaty,  as  well  as  the  authority  enjoyed 
by  their  chiefs. 

Various  arrangements,  too  voluminous  to  be  more  than 
cursorily  noted  here,  were  the  result  of  Napoleon's  downfall. 
By  a  general  treaty,  signed  on  the  iith  of  June,  in  congress, 
at  Vienna,  the  additional  title  of  King  of  Poland  was  given 
to  the  Emperor  Alexander;  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  excejjt  a 
few  of  its  j)rovinces,  was  united  to  Russia  ;  and,  to  reconcile 
the  Poles  to  this  union,  representative  constitutions  were  pro- 
mised to  the  Polish  subjects  of  Russia  and  Austria;  Cracow 
was  declared  a  free,  indcpiMulent,  and  neutral  city,  under  the 
protection  of  Austria,  ]{ussia,  and  Prussia,  and  a  complete 
amnesty  was  granted  to  all  individuals  for  participation  in 
past  political,  civil,  or  military  events  in  Poland;  lartre  ces- 
sions of  territory  were  made  to  Prussia  by  Austria,  Saxony, 
and  llaiuivcr;  the  'I'yrol  and  the  northern  part  of  Italy  were 
given  to  Austria;  the  territory  of  (Jeneva  and  the  principality 
of  Neufchattl  wore  united  to  Switzerland;  the  King  of  (Jreat 
Prilnin  was  conlirmed  as  King  ol  Hanover,  and  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  Kinir  of  die  Netherlands;  to  the  Arch-Duke  Fer- 
dinand of  Austria  was  restored  the  uraud-duchy  of  'J'usc:my 
and  its  dependencies;  the  ducliy  of  jyucca  was  given  to  the 
Infanta  of  Spain,  Maria  Louisa  (formerly  Duchess  of  Parma, 
anil  afterwards  Queen  of  Ktriiria)  and  her  d("<cendanls  in  the 
male  line  ;  and  French  Ciuinea  was  restored  by  J'ortugai  to 
I'Vance.  Various  other  provisions  were  made  by  this  treaty. 
Upon  the  seirond  restoration  of  liouis  A'VIII.,  a  new  treaty 
was  siffned  between  the  allies  and  France,  by  which  the 
limits  allotted  to  her  in  1H14,  w('re  lessened,  and  th(;  boinida- 
ries  of  the  kingdom  reduced  nearly  to  what  they  were  in 
1700.  She  was  to  retain  Avignon,  die  Comtc  V'enaissin, 
and  Mount  IJelliard.  IVance,  too,  was  compelled  to  restore 
to  the  original  proprietors,  thosi!  maslfirpieces  of  art,  of 
which  she  had  stripped  foreitrn  naiious  to  adorn  the  Louvre. 
She  also  engaged  to  pay  to   the   allied   jxiwers  an  indeumily 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  425 

of  700,000,000  francs,  and  to  allow  150,000  of  the  allied 
troops,  commanded  by  a  general  appointed  by  the  allied  sove- 
reigns, to  occupy  seventeen  of  her  frontier  towns  for  five 
years.  By  a  supplementary  article,  the  coalesced  parties 
bound  themselves  to  concert,  without  loss  of  time,  the  most 
effectual  means  for  the  universal  abolition  of  the  African  slave- 
trade.  The  treaty  was  signed  on  the  20th  of  November.  A 
military  convention,  subsequendy  concluded,  stipulated  that 
part  of  the  sura  to  be  paid  by  France,  should  be  expended 
in  erecting  fortresses  on  the  frontiers  of  the  states  adjoining 
that  kingdom,  and  that  the  remainder  of  the  sum  should  be 
divided  between  England,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.* 


CHAPTER  JAY. 

PROM  THE  TREATY  OF   PEACE,  IN    1815,    TO    THE    SWISS    REVOLU- 
TION, IN  1844. 

A  CONTINUATION  of  the  history  of  Europe  up  to  the  present 
year,  would  swell  this  work  to  a  size  far  exceeding  oui 
limits ;  it  will  be  better  executed  by  the  future  historian,  who, 
placed  at  a  greater  distance  from  men  and  their  actions,  can 
form  a  more  impartial  estimate  of  both  ;  but  a  rapid  sketch  of 
the  principal  events  which  have  occurred  since  the  peace  of 
1815,  will,  it  is  believed,  prove  a  useful  addition  to  the  pre- 
sent volume. 

1816. — The  brilliant  anticipations  held  out  to  the  nation, 
by  the  speech  from  the  throne  on  the  opening  of  the  British 
Parliament  this  year,  exhibited  a  striking  contrast  with  the 
domestic  condition  of  the  people.  Great  Britain  had  fought 
for  the  general  interests  of  Europe,  till  she  had  reached  the 
summit  of  national  glory;  but  she  retired  from  the  contest  load- 
ed with  an  enormous  debt ;  her  foreign  trade  diminished,  and 
her  agiicultural  interests  proportionably  depressed.     Discon- 


•  Increase  of  the  national  debt  to  the  beginning  of  the  year  1816. 

DEBT.  INTEREST. 

1793 £233,733,609 £8,176,336. 

1803 £601,411,080 £20,735,968 

1816 £1,112,417,432 £42,149,850 

Revenue,  IS  15 £75,324,084. 

Expenditure 126,489,946. 

38* 


420  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    ErROPE.  [ciI.VP. 

tent  generally  prevailed,  and  pul)lic.  nieelings  were  hold,  in 
wliich  parliaincMtarv  reform  l)c<>;aii  to  be  discussed.  On  the 
28i!i  of  the  following  January,  the  glass  of  the  j)rinc<:- 
regent's  carriage  was  broken  l)y  a  stone,  or  hall  from  an  air 
gun,  as  he  was  returning  from  o|ienin!r  the  session  of  Parlia 
ment.  Several  acts  of  outrage  and  tumult  occurretl  in  diirercni 
places,  and  particularly  in  the  northern  and  midland  counties, 
in  which  the  existenc(>  of  a  traitorous  cons])iracy  was  afiirined, 
in  ihe  report  of  the  committee  appointed  to  examine  into  this 
all'air.  The  Ifdheds  C irpiis  act  was  suspended,  after  consi- 
deral)le  opposition ;  antl  several  severe  laws,  relative  to 
tumultuous  meetings  and  secret  societies,  were  enacted. 
These  did  not  prevent  the  parly,  now  first  called  "  Radical 
Reformers,"  from  spreading  rapidly  among  the  lower  orders; 
at  Birmingham  they  chose  Sir  Charles  WoLseley  for  their 
delegate,  hut  he  was  soon  after  taken  into  custody.  In  spite 
of  a  royal  proclamation  against  numerous  meetings,  the 
reformers  assembled  at  St.  Peter's  field  in  Manchester,  Au- 
gust IGlh,  1819,  avowedly  for  tlie  legal  purpose  of  petitioning 
for  a  reform  in  Parliament.  Their  numbers  are  variously 
estimated,  from  40,000  to  60,000  ;  Mr.  Hunt,  a  favourite 
orator,  was  haranguing  the  multitude,  when  the  appearance  of 
the  Man(;hesler  yeomanry  interru])ted  the  proceedings. 
Much  confusion  ensued  ;  a  few  persons  were  killed,  and 
aI)oul  100  are  said  to  have  been  wounded  by  the  sabres  of  the 
military,  or  otherwise  hurt.  Mr.  Hunt  and  some  others  were 
arrested,  and  the  magistrates  received  the  thanks  of  the 
government  for  the  efficient  means  they  had  adopted  to  pre- 
serve the  public  trancpiillity. 

During  the  first  year  of  ireneral  peace,  the  British  navy  was 
called  upon  to  exert  its  valour,  in  a  cause  equally  dear  to 
humanity  and  reli<rion.  Tin;  ferocious  outrages  of  which 
the  piratical  states  of  Barbarj'  had  been  guilty,  had  long  l)ecn 
a  disgrace  to  the  southern  nations  of  Europe.  Great  Britain 
unilertook  to  efface  the  stain,  and  procure  the  abolition  of 
(Mirisiian  slavery.  'I'ripoli  and  Tunis  agreed  to  discrontinue 
it  in  their  states;  but  the  Dey  of  Algiers  not  oidy  refused  his 
assent  to  this  treaty,  but  imprisoned  the  English  consul; 
while  about  the  same  timi-  some  coral  fishers,  acting  under 
the  supposed  security  of  the  (Jritish  (lag,  were  cruelly  massa- 
cred at  Bona.  Lord  Exmouth  was,  therefore,  sent  out  with  a 
fleet,  to  chastise  these  un])rincipled  barbarians.  Beiiii:  joined 
at  (Jihrallar  l)y  a  Dutch  Heel,  the  united  armament  reached 
the  bay  of  Algiers,  August  27th,  1816.     >  flag  of  truce  was 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  427 

immediately  despatched,  with  the  demands  of  the  prince 
regent;  but  no  answer  being  returned,  a  tremendous  fire, 
wliich  continued  without  intermission  for  six  hours,  and, 
partially,  for  two  hours  longer,  was  opened  on  the  fort.  The 
batteries,  though  very  strong,  and  gallantly  defended,  were 
destroyed ;  nearly  all  the  Algerine  navy,  the  arsenal  and  mi- 
litary stores,  were  consumed  by  fire,  and  several  thousands  of 
their  men  killed  or  wounded.  On  the  day  following,  the  dey 
was  obliged  to  accept  the  terms  of  peace  imposed  by  the  con- 
q\ieror.  These  were,  the  perpetual  abolition  of  Christian 
slavery,  and  the  immediate  delivery  of  all  slaves  detained  in 
bondage,  with  the  sums  which  had  been  paid  for  their  ransom, 
since  the  beginning  of  the  year  :  pardon  was  also  to  be  asked 
by  the  dey  of  the  British  consul,  in  the  presence  of  his  offi- 
cers. The  captives  thus  rescued  were  conveyed  to  their  own 
countries,  and  the  sums  recovered  were  transmitted,  untouch- 
ed by  the  captors,  to  the  courts  of  Naples  and  Sardinia.  The 
conditions  of  this  treaty  were  not  observed  ;  the  dey,  not  long 
after,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  resentment  of  his  soldiers,  and  Al- 
giers recommenced  her  former  piracies. 

The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  had  been  obliged,  by  the 
vote  of  a  majority  against  its  continuance,  to  relinquish  the 
property -tax  in  the  session  of  181 G,  anti  he  soon  after  surprised 
the  House,  by  voluntarily  surrendering  the  war-tax  on  malt. 
The  marriage  of  the  Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales,  with  his 
serene  highness.  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  took  place 
on  the  2d  of  May.  Parliament  granted  them  £60,000  by  way 
of  outfit,  and  the  same  sum  was  settled  on  them  for  their  joint 
lives,  with  this  proviso,  that  if  her  royal  highness  should  die 
first,  i^50,000  should  be  continued  to  the  prince.  The  royal 
pair  had  enjoyed  their  domestic  felicity  but  eighteen  months 
in  the  agreeable  retreat  of  Claremont  Lodge,  and  an  heir  to 
the  British  crown  was  anxiously  looked  for,  when  the  prema- 
ture death  of  the  princess,  after  giving  birth  to  a  still-born  male 
child,  November  5th,  1817,  occasioned  general  disappointment 
and  regret.  The  Princess  Mary  had,  in  the  preceding  year, 
been  united  to  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  nephew  to  the  king. 
In  1818,  the  Duke  of  Clarence  married  the  Princess  Adelaide 
of  Saxe  Meiningen ;  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  the  Princess 
Augusta  of  Hesse-Cassel ;  and  the  Duke  of  Kent  was  soon 
after  united  to  the  Dowager-princess  Leiningen,  Victoria  of 
Saxe  Coburg,  sister  to  Prince  Leopold.  To  each  of  these 
royal  dukes,  as  also  to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  married  in 
1815,  Parliament  granted  for  life   an   additional  income  of 


428  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciTAP. 

^6,000  per  annum  ;  to  be  continued  as  a  jointure  to  each  of 
their  respective  duchesses. 

From  these  domestic  concerns,  we  rctuni  to  some  occur- 
rences of  a  more  sreneral  nature.  Soon  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
the  sovorriorns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  (h-rading  the 
progress  of  revohitionary  principles  in  tlicir  dominions,  entered 
into  a  treaty,  which  they  called  the  Hohj  ^lllianre.  Lord 
Casllereairl),  in  the  House  of  Commons,  admitted,  that  the 
prince-regent  having  been  urged,  by  a  joint  letter  of  the  diree 
sovereigns,  to  accede  to  it,  had,  in  reply,  expressed  his  ap- 
probation  of  the  nature  of  the  treaty,  and  had  given  an  assur- 
ance, that  the  British  government  was  disposed  to  act  upon  its 
principles.  These  were  soon  understood  to  be,  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  authority  of  the  allied  sovereigns  against  the 
revolutionary  movements,  which  they  apprehended  in  their 
own  states. 

In  Spain,  a  conspiracy,  having  for  its  object  the  establish- 
ment of  a  free  constitution,  was  speedily  suppressed,  and  its 
authors  executed  :  but  the  party  remaining  dissatisfied,  were 
not  long  before  they  organized  a  fresh  insurrection.  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  on  returning  to  his  dominions,  liad  resumed  his 
authority  as  ai)solute  king;  he  had  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
legality  of  many  of  the  acts  of  the  Cortes,  enacted  during  his 
captivity ;  in  particular,  of  the  foreign  loans  they  had  con- 
tracted ;  and  hence  the  einuity  to  his  government,  excited  by 
strangers,  whose  interest  it  was  to  overturn  it.  lie  aj)j)lied 
himself  to  remedy  the  disorders  of  his  kingdom,  to  encourage 
trade  and  manufactures;  but  found  himself  involved  in  a  war 
with  the  colonics  in  South  America,  which  for  many  years 
drained  Spain  of  men  and  money,  without  being  productive 
of  any  rcjsult  advantageous  to  the  mother-country.  Chili  pro- 
claiuKid  its  independence,  March  3d,  1818;  Mexico  followed 
the  example :  Columbia,  freed  by  the  victory  of  Bolivar, 
styled  the  Liherador,  at  Carabobo,  asserted  its  independence 
in  J  821,  and  Peru  dates  its  freedom  from  the  same  year. 
Spain  at  last  sib-ntly  relinquished  the  stru;igle,  and  aliandoned 
the  provinces  to  a  slate  of  anarchy,  in  which  they  long  re- 
mained. ICngland  acknowledtrcil  the  independence  of  the 
dillerent  repul)lics  in  1824,  appointed  consuls  to  reside  in  their 
ports,  and  assisted  them  with  loans,  the  interest  of  which  was 
never  rcjrularlv  paid,  and  soon  cea;-!rd  altogether,  to  the  ruin 
of  n\nid)erless  individuals  in  this  country. 

In  the  parliamentary  session  of  the  year  1817,  Mr.  CJrattnn 
again  brought  forward  his  motion  on  the  claims   of  the  Irish 


LIV.]  OBNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  429 

Catholics,  which  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  only  twenty- 
four.  A  treaty  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was  con- 
cluded with  Spain  the  following  year.  In  consideration  of  the 
sum  of  £400,000  received  from  Britain,  Spain  agreed  to  relin- 
quish that  nefarious  traffic  on  all  the  coasts  to  the  north  of  the 
equator.  By  subsequent  treaties  with  other  European  states, 
England  endeavoured  to  effect  the  total  abolition  of  this  trade 
among  Christian  nations,  and  finally  emancipated  the  negro 
population  in  her  own  colonies,  at  the  sacrifice  of  a  loan  of 
£20,000,000  sterling,  paid  to  the  proprietors.  The  Pope,  in 
the  year  1818,*  concluded  concordats  with  the  courts  of  Turin 
and  Naples,  and,  in  the  following  year,  with  Russia  for 
Poland  ;  and,  at  length,  after  many  obstacles,  which  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  case  presented,  with  Louis  XVIII.  for  France. 
In  the  preceding  year,  a  concordat  had  been  signed  at  Rome 
by  the  ministers  of  their  respective  courts,  the  Comte  de 
Blacas  and  Cardinal  Consalvi,  by  which  that  of  1801,  as  like- 
wise the  Lois  organiques,  which  had  been,  without  the 
knowledge  of  his  Holiness,  added  to  it,  were  abrogated,  as  far 
as  they  might  be  contrary  to  the  doctrine  and  laws  of  the  church. 
The  other  articles,  respecting  the  archiepiscopal  and  episcopal 
sees,  were  now  in  part  modified  ;  most  of  the  present  incum- 
bents were  retained,  but  the  limits  of  the  sees  were  newly 
defined,  and  the  number  of  them  raised  from  fifty  to  eighty. 
Some  partial  insurrections  arose,  and  were  at  different  times 
repressed,  by  the  government  of  Louis  XVIII.  That  which 
broke  out  at  Grenoble  in  1816,  and  is  called  the  "Didier  Con- 
spiracy," from  the  individual  who  ostensibly  headed  it,  was 
widely  extended;  but  being  discovered  by  the  premature 
movements  of  some  of  the  conspirators,  was  arrested  by  the 
vigour  of  Col.  Donnadieu,  commander  of  the  military  station- 
ed in  that  city,  and  the  chiefs,  with  many  others,  paid  the  for- 
feit of  their  lives.  The  object  of  the  intended  insurrection 
appears  to  have  been  little  understood  at  the  time,  and  is  still 
a  subject  of  doubt  and  suspicion. 

At  the  congress  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  the  autumn  of 
this  year,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Russia,  England, 

•  As  a  means  of  evading  the  claims  of  the  papal  government,  relative  to 
the  investiture  and  tribnte,  the  king,  by  the  advice  of  his  ministry,  changed 
his  title  of  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples,  for  that  of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the 
two  Sicilies,  publishing,  at  the  same  time,  a  formal  protest  against  any 
rights  possessed  within  the  territory  of  Naples  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
except  those  exercised  by  him  as  head  of  the  church  over  all  the  Catholic 
irorld. 


430  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciIAP. 

and  Prussia,  came  to  the  resolution  of  witlulrawiiiiT  tlieir  troops 
from  all  the  fortresses  tlirv  had  ocnipieil  in  tl»e  French  terri- 
tory, ami  sijjnitied  their  (leteriiiinalioii  in  a  idler  addressed  to 
the  Duke  de  Ricludieu,  minister  of  foreiffu  allairs  to  Lewis 
XVIII.  This  declaration  was  received  with  lively  joy  hy  the 
French  nation.  The  kinjj  not  only  paid  the  instalments  due 
to  the  allied  sovereigns  for  the  expenses  incurred  hy  them 
duriniT  the  war,  hut  also  placed  XM, 000, 000  in  the  hands  of 
the  prince-recent,  to  indemnify  those  among  his  suhjects, 
whose  property  in  France  had  heen  sequestrated  in  the  year 
1793.  The  very  short  time  which  had  heen  allowed  for  the 
presentation  of  claims,  prevented  many  of  the  creditors  from 
heing  ahle  to  suhstantiate  them  satisfactorily.  In  182G,  there 
remained  a  halance  of  £.500,000,  and  the  lords  of  the  treasury 
directed  another  examination  to  I)e  made  ;  hut  no  puhlicity 
having  heen  given  to  their  insiructions,  few  were  ahle  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  indulgence.  The  residue,  about  i330(), 000, 
was  paid  over  to  the  commissioners  of  woods  and  forests  ; 
through  the  interference  of  Parliament  it  was,  however,  repaid, 
but  tlie  money  appropriated  to  the  liquidation  of  the  debts  of 
another  class  of  claimants,  who  were  not  entitled  to  it;  ami, 
with  the  exception  of  six  or  seven  cases,  tlie  original  creditors, 
owing  merely  to  a  technical  ol)jection,  viz :  the  neglect  of 
former  presentation,  have  been  refused  their  due.  It  is  under- 
stood that  there  still  remains  a  surplus  of  from  £50,000  to 
£100,000;  but  the  commission  is  closed.  Among  other 
sufferers,  the  loss  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  who  possessed  a 
college  at  Douay,  was  very  ccmsiderahle,  as  it  formed  tlu;  only 
fund  for  the  education  and  maintenance  of  tlie  English  mis- 
sionaries. 

Queen  Charlotte  died  November  .5th,  1818,  in  the  75th  year 
of  lier  age.  The  custody  of  the  king's  person  was  then  in- 
trusted to  the  Duke  of  York,  and  .110,000  voted  to  him  hy 
Parliament  on  that  occasion.  In  the  following  month,  the  ex- 
Queen  of  Spain,  Maria  Louisa,  paid  the  debt  of  nature  at 
Rome;  and  so  poignant  was  the  allliction  of  (Jharles  IV.  at 
her  loss,  that  he  survived  her  only  fourteen  days  :  about  the 
same  time  died  Isabella  of  Portugal,  wife  to  Ferdinand  VII., 
leaving  no  issue.  The  king  soon  after  married  for  his  third 
wife  a  princess  of  the  house  of  Saxony.  Tlie  death  of  ('harles 
XIIL  of  Sweden,  in  1819,  made  room  for  the  accession  of  a 
new  dynasty,  in  the  person  of  the  Crowp-jjrincc  Hernadotte, 
who  ascended  the  throne  without  opposition,  under  the  title 
of  Charles  John  XIV. 


LiV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  431 

The  yoar  1820  is  remarkable  for  the  several  rpvolutionary 
aJteinpts  which  disturbed  the  soiuheru  kingdoms  of  Europe. 
(Sicily  first  set  the  example,  whence  the  spirit  of  insurrection 
soon  spread  to  Naples.     Ferdinand  I.  yielded  to  the  wishes 
of  his  subjects,  and  promised  them  a  free  constitution,  (in  July ;) 
but  Austria  having  quelled  a  similar  spirit   in  her  Italian  pos- 
sessions, and  concerted  measures  with  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
and  King  of  Prussia,  at  Troppau,  soon  determined  to  under- 
take olfensive  operations  against  the  Neapolitans.     The  Em- 
peror Francis  proposed  to  meet  the  King  of  Naples  at  Laybach, 
and  agree  upon  a  plan  for  governing  their  respective  states. 
Ferdinand  left  the  prince-royal  to  command  in  his  absence,  and 
attended  the  congress  at  the  time  appointed.       Entering  there 
into   the  views  of  his  imperial   majesty,   he  permitted  the 
entrance  of  the  Austrian  troops  into  his  dominions.    An  army 
of  77,000  men  was  concentrated  between  the  Adige  and  the 
Mincio,  and  demanded  permission  to  occupy  Rome.       This 
request  was  refused  ;  but,  without  entering  the  city,  the  army 
passed  through  the  Ecclesiastical  States  ;  attacked  the  Neapo- 
litan array,  commanded  by  General  Pepe,   in   the  valley  of 
Riete  ;  forced  it  to  a  speedy  retreat ;    and,   advancing  upon 
Naples,  re-established  Ferdinand  I.  in  his  former  authority. 
(1821.)    Benevento  and  Ponte  Corvo,  the  restitution  of  which 
the  Pope  had  in  vain  demanded  on  his  return  to  his  dominions, 
were  now  restored  to  him ;  and  his  Holiness,  at  the  instance 
of  Austria,  published  a  bull  against  the  Carbonari,  a  secret 
society  formed  in  1812,  from  which  all  these  revolutionary 
movements  emanated. 

Meantime,  another  column  of  the  Austrian  army  appeased 
an  insurrection  in  Piedmont.  Victor  Emanuel  of  Savoy,  un- 
willing to  yield  to  the  demands  of  his  subjects,  had  resigned 
his  crown  to  his  brother,  Charles-Felix,  whose  authority,  un- 
der tlie  protection  of  the  allied  powers  then  assembled  in  con- 
gress at  Laybach,  was  maintained;  the  Milanese  insurgents 
were  immured  in  the  state-prisons  of  Austria,  where  many 
of  them  remained  during  all  the  rest  of  the  reign  of  Francis 
II.,  and  peace  was  finally  restored  in  all  the  Peninsula.  The 
Emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  bound  themselves  by  a  fresh 
treaty,  to  oppose  every  change  of  government  effected  in  fo- 
reign countries  by  the  military  ;  but  the  court  of  the  Tuileries, 
dissatisfied  with  the  conferences  at  Laybach,  recalled  its  mi- 
nister, the  Counte  de  Blacas,  to  Paris. 

Spain,  in  the  mean  while,  was  engaged  in  a  similar  struggle 
wiih  as  little  success:  in  most  places   the  constitution  was 


432  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    rcUROPE.  [CHAP. 

proclaimed  without  bloodshed,  (January  1st,   1820;)  but  at 
Cadiz,  a  horrible  massacre  tciok  j)lac(',  by  tiie  mililary,  who, 
uuder  the  command  (but  it  is  believed  without  tiie  participa- 
tion) of  General  Freyre,  fired  upon  the  unarmed  inhabitants, 
when  assembled  to  the  nmnber  of  about  50,000,  to  witness 
the  ceremony  of  laying  down  the  first  stone  of  the  <-i>usli- 
tutional  column,  by    the  civil    authorities.     The   ii.quisi»'in 
was  abolished  ;  and  many  convents  of  reii^ous  suppressed. 
The  king   took   the  oath   required  by    the  constitution  ;   the 
royalist  General  Elio  was  executed;  still  the  parly  opposed 
to  the  new  order  of  things   continued  in  arms,  and  a  neigh- 
bouring power,  who  viewed  these  revolutiomuv  jiroceedings 
with  anxiety,  was  preparing  a  force  to  deliver  ["irdinand  from 
the  thraldom  in  which  he  was  supposed  to  be  held,  and  rein- 
state him  in  his  former  authority.     'I'he  Duke  of  Angouleme, 
as  yet  unknown  to  arms,  but  having  under  him  several  able 
generals,  entered  Spain,  at  the  head  of  70,000  men.     It  soon 
appeared,  that  the  constitution  was  not  popular  with  the  bulk 
of  the   nation;    no    batdes   were  fought   to  maintain  it;    the 
duke  traversed  the  whole  of  Spain  without  oj)i)osition :  Ma- 
drid, Seville,  &c.,  opened  their  gates  on  the  approacli   of  the 
French;   INIorillo  and  other  Spanish  ofUcers  were  imiuccd   to 
abandon  the  patriotic  cause;  these,  after  reducing  C'orunna, 
obliged  General  Ballasteros  to  submit ;  Riego  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  Mina  driven  into  exile.     The  Isle  of  lieon,  whi- 
ther the  king  and  the  de-puties  of  the  Cortes  had  retired,  alone 
offered  some  opposition  to  the  march  of  the  i'^rench  ;  and  the 
storming  of  the  fort  Trocadero,  an   outwork   of  ('adiz,   was 
the  only  military  exploit  that  marked  the  route  of  the  duke. 
Having  restored    the   king  to  liberty,  and   re-estaltlished    his 
absolute  power,  he  demanded  from   Ferdinand  an  amnesty  for 
past  political  offcn<'cs.     'i'lie  promise  was  made,  but  not  kipt. 
Riego  was  j)ut  to  death,  and  many,  as  well  on  account  of  this. 
as  of  the  last  insurrection,  imprisoned. 

Portugal  had  beeji  emulating  the  revolutionary  steps  of 
Naples  and  Spain,  but  met  with  less  opposition  on  the  part 
of  her  well-meaning,  mild  sovereign,  John  VI.  This  prince, 
having  lost  his  mother,  the  late  (iuecn  Maria  Francis  Isabella, 
in  Mrazil,  (May  10,  1810,)  had  relumed  with  his  family  to 
Portugal,  in  1821,  and  confirmed  the  usurpations  made  on  his 
authority  in  that  kingdr)m  during  his  absence.  The  idtra- 
royalisls  were,  however,  dissati-sfif d  with  the  chantrc  ;  and 
ihe  loss  of  Brazil,  in  the  following  year,  increased  their  dis- 
content.    This  country  had  been  rais^'d  to  the  dignity  of  a 


LIV-]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  433 

kingdom,  by  John  VI.  in  1815;  and,  determined  no  longer 
to  remain  a  province  dependent  on  Portugal,  the  Brazilians 
made  a  tender  of  their  crown  to  Pedro,  Prince  of  Brazil, 
whom  his  father  had  left  to  govern  them  as  viceroy.  With- 
out the  king's  permission,  he  accepted  the  offer,  and  as- 
sumed the  tide  of  Emperor  of  Brazil.  (1822.)  He  afterwards 
made  his  submission  to  his  father,  and,  through  the  mediation 
of  Sir  Charles  Stuart,  the  British  ambassador,  was  reinstated 
by  him  in  his  former  authority.  The  Portuguese  constitution 
was  but  a  servile  imitation  of  that  of  Spain  ;  and  after  tlie  abro- 
gation of  the  latter,  King  John  quietly  regained  his  authority. 

A  tragical  event  which  occurred  to  an  illustrious  individual 
in  France,  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1820,  excited  perhaps 
a  deeper  interest  than  these  revolutionary  changes,  which  af- 
fected the  lives  and  fortunes  of  thousands.  Louis  XVIII. 
had  married,  in  1818,  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Berry,  young- 
est son  of  Monsieur,  to  Caroline,  eldest  daughter  of  the 
hereditary  Prince  of  Naples.  On  the  10th  of  February,  the 
duke  was  conducting  his  young  duchess  from  the  Opera-hous9 
to  her  carriage,  when  he  was  pierced  to  the  heart  by  the  two- 
edged  poignard  of  an  assassin,  named  Louvel.  Being  con- 
veyed to  an  adjoining  saloon,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the 
medical  men  in  attendance,  he  survived  above  six  hours,  dur- 
ing which  he  received  the  last  rites  of  the  church,  forgave 
his  murderer,  and,  with  his  dying  breath,  entreated  the  king 
to  confirm  his  pardon,  a  request  it  was  not  thought  proper  to 
grant.  Louvel  afterwards  suffered  the  just  punishment  of  his 
crime.  The  duke  left  one  daughter.  Mademoiselle ;  and  his 
afflicted  widow,  on  the  29th  of  the  following  September,  gave 
birth  to  a  son,  named  Henry  Dieu-donne,  Duke  of  Bordeaux. 
Suspicions  having  on  this  occasion  assailed  the  character  of 
the  minister  M.  Decases,  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Duke  de  Richelieu,  and  some  efforts  were  made  to  repress 
the  democratical  party.  But  the  royalists  were  dissatisfied, 
and  thought  that  the  conduct  of  the  Stuarts  in  England  was 
too  closely  imitated  by  the  actual  Sovereign  of  France. 

This  same  year,  (1820,)  in  England,  January  23d,  died  the 
Duke  of  Kent,  fourth  son  of  George  III.,  and  father  to  her 
present  majesty,  who  was  born  the  24th  of  the  preceding 
May.  Scarcely  had  the  grave  closed  over  his  remains,  than 
the  demise  of  the  king  was  announced  ;  it  occurred  on  the 
29th  of  January,  almost  without  suffering;  his  majesty  hav- 
ing attained  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  and  the  six- 
tieth of  his  reign.  However  differently  the  political  character 

39 


434  GKNKRAI.    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cn AP. 

ct'  this  monarch  may  be  viewed  hy  opposite  parties,  all  must 
respect  liis  jirivale  and  domestic  virtues;  the  simj)licity  of  liis 
liahils,  and  tiiinncss  in  what  he  iielieved  to  he  his  duty.  The 
Catholics  will  remember  with  gratitude  that  he  liist  relaxed 
the  barbarous  penal  code  witli  which  they  were  oppressed, 
and  allowed  them  a  participation  in  some  few  of  the  rights 
enjoyed  by  other  British  subjects.* 

On  the  accession  of  Georsje  IV.,  the  Princess  of  Wales, 
now  become  queen,  returned  to  England.  Alter  the  augmen- 
tation of  her  income,  granted  by  Parliament,  in  1812,  she, 
with  the  prince-regent's  permission,  travelled  into  Greece  ; 
then  visited  Tripoli,  Tunis,  afterwards  resided  near  Como, 
and,  on  being  obliged  to  leave  her  villa  in  tiiat  beautiful  spot, 
resided  some  time  in  Milan.  The  conduct  of  the  princess, 
watched  by  spies  among  her  own  domestics,  was  made  the 
subject  of  grave  accusations  against  her,  on  her  return  to 
England,  whither  she  had  hastened  to  claim  her  rights  as 
queen-consort;  a  trial  in  the  House  of  Peers,  at  which  she 
was  usually  present,  ensued,  by  the  king's  command ;  the 
minister,  Lord  laverpool,  brought  in  a  bill  of  "pains  and 
penalties,"  which,  when  it  had  passed  the  Iturd  reading,  he 
withdrew,  the  majority  for  it  being  only  nine,  and  the  pub- 
lic voice  decidedly  adverse  to  its  taking  the  form  of  law.  In 
fact,  the  queen's  cause  was  made  a  parly-question;  addresses 
poured  in  to  her  from  all  quarters,  and  her  name  l)ecauie  a 
tool  in  the  hands  of  the  disalTected,  to  increase  the  unpopu- 
larity of  the  government.  But  though  the  obnoxious  bill  was 
withdrawn,  the  privileues  of  her  station  were  denied  her; 
and  in  the  following  year,  when  his  majesty's  coronation  was 
performed,  with  great  splendonr,  (July  19th,)  at  Westminster. 
Queen  Caroline  was  not  c)nly  denied  any  participation  in  the 
ceremony,  but  rej)ulsed  from  the  door  when  she  sought  to 
obtain  an  entrance  into  the  abbey.  A  short  illness,  pro!)ably 
induced  by  mental  anguish,  terminated  her  life,  on  the  7th  of 
the  followinji  month.  Slie  directed  that  her  remains  should 
be  conveyed  to  Brunswick,  and  tlie  following  words  inscril)ed 
on  her  tomb:  "Here  lies  Caroline,  the  injured  (Jueen  of 
Ensrland."  George  IV.  was  on  his  road  to  Ireland  when  the 
news  of  her  death  reached  him  ;  his  arrival  in  that  kingdom 

•  Ireland,  this  year,  lost  hor  talented  and  indefatigable  drfender,  the 
Ki(;t]t  HonouraMe  Henry  (iraltan,  whose  sfirvices  in  hehalf  of  the  (^'atho- 
licn  will  rause  his  name  to  i)e  ever  f;riitrfully  reeallfd  liy  all  Uritish  sub- 
'yec\n.  of  that  relit^inn.  He  died  in  England,  and  liis  reniainn  were  depo- 
«ile<\  ill  \N  estininster  Abbey. 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPK.  435 

was  hailed  with  the  most  lively  cnlluisiasm,  as  he  was  the 
first  sovereign  of  his  race  who  had  visited  the  sister  isle. 
The  liberality  of  those  whom  he  had  honoured  with  his 
friendship,  while  Prince  of  Wales,  made  the  Catholics  believe 
him  inclined  to  favour  their  claims  :  they  were  mistaken,  as 
subsequent  events  showed;  but  nothing  then  occurred  on  the 
part  of  the  king,  to  mar  their  hopes  and  damp  the  general 
festivity.  A  dreadful  famine  desolated  Ireland  soon  after,  and 
a  change  in  the  currency,  effected  by  a  bill  brought  in  by  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  (1821,)  occasioned  a  great  depression  in  prices 
and  consequent  distress  in  England.  The  difficulties  which 
embarrassed  the  commercial  world,  owing  to  the  numerous 
failures  that  took  place  in  the  years  1825  and  1826,  made 
Parliament  endeavour  to  establish  the  banking  system  on  a 
more  solid  foundation ;  and,  with  this  view,  it  passed  a  bill  for 
the  gradual  withdrawing  of  small  notes  from  circulation. 

A  plot  was  at  this  time  discovered,  in  which  Thisdewood 
and  several  other  notorious  characters  were  engaged,  having 
for  its  object  the  assassination  of  his  majesty's  ministers. 
The  informant,  one  Edwards,  is  supposed  to  have  urged  the 
conspirators  to  commit  some  treasonable  act,  which  might 
lead  to  their  apprehension,  as  the  peace  of  the  city  had 
of  late  been  often  endangered  by  numerous  meetings  in 
Spitalfields  :  be  that  as  it  may,  nine  of  them  were  seized  in 
an  upper  room  in  Cato  street,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  in 
which  Smith,  the  police-officer  who  first  entered,  was 
slain ;  five  of  the  number  were  afterwards  executed  for  high 
treason. 

The  king,  after  his  return  from  Ireland,  visited  his  Hano- 
verian dominions,  travelling  through  France  under  the  title 
of  Count  Munster.  To  Hanover  he  gave  a  more  popular 
form  of  government,  and  placed  his  Catholic  subjects  on  a 
level  with  their  Protestant  brethren.  In  the  following  year, 
(1832,)  his  majesty,  after  the  parliamentary  session,  went  to 
Scotland.*  The  festivities  which  took  place  in  Edinburgh 
during  his  visit,  were  interrupted  by  the  melancholy  news  of 
the  suicide  committed  by  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry  ;  ex- 
cessive fatigue,  during  the  preceding  session,  was  supposed 
to  have  occasioned  an  aberration  of  mind.     After  a  short  in- 

*  The  first  baronet  made  by  George  IV.  was   the  celebrated  Scotch 
poet,  Walter  Scott.    (1821.)     In   1824,  the  forfeited  titles  of  Marr,  Ken 
mure,  Perth,  and  Nairn  were  restored  by  the  king  to  their  respective  claim- 
ants, and,  four  years  later,  the  attainder  on  the  barony  of  Lovat  was  re- 
versed. 


♦  36  OENFRAL    IHSTORY    OF    ErROPE.  [cHAP. 

tcrval,  Mr.  Canning  was  named  secretary  for  foreign  afTairs, 
just  as  lie  was  on  llic  point  of  8ettin<r  out  for  tlio  <rovornnuMit 
of  India,  to  which  Lord  Amherst  was  appointed  in  his  stead. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  had  been  sent  to  supply  Lord  Lon- 
donderry's place  at  the  congress  of  Verona,  wlieie  tiie  affairs 
relative  to  tSpain  were  discussed  ;  and  in  the  same  yf'^r,  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  two  powers  met  at  Cilhent  and 
fixed  the  boundary  line  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States. 

Previous  to  the  last  occurrences  we  have  thus  cursorily 
related,  happened  an  event  which,  a  few  years  before,  would 
have  arrested  the  attention  of  all  l']uro|>e — the  death  of  Bona- 
parte. We  have  not  noticed  the  illustrious  exile  since  we 
left  him  on  board  a  British  man-of-war,  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Sir  George  Cockburne,  to  whom  the  government 
of  St.  Helena,  and  of  the  squadron,  was  confided,  till  the 
arrival  of  the  new  governor.  Sir  Hudson  Lowe.  With  Na- 
poleon were  conveyed  commissaries  from  the  allied  powers, 
Austria,  Russia,  and  France  ;  Cotmt  Montholon,  (iencral 
Bertram!  and  his  lady,  with  a  few  others,  composed  the  suite 
of  the  ex-emperor.  English  ships,  stationed  near  the  island, 
guarded  the  access  to  it,  though  it  is  a  kind  of  natural  prison, 
and,  as  viewed  from  the  sea,  looks  like  a  square  bastion  of 
solid  rock.  Napoleon  landed  on  the  18th  October,  18 1 5, 'under 
a  salute  from  the  batteries,  and  at  the  moment  of  debarkation, 
the  drimis  beat,  and  the  troops  presented  arms.  'I'ill  his 
house  at  Longwood  could  be  completed,  he  resided,  by  his 
own  request,  in  a  small  but  pleasant  villa,  belonging  to  Mr. 
Balromb,  called  the  Briars.  At  the  end  of  two  months,  he 
removed  to  the  dwelling  which  had  been  prepare  1  for  iiim,  in 
a  situation  neither  agreeable  nor  healthy.  Beyond  the  inclo- 
sure  of  IiOn<r\voo(l,  a  strict  watch  was  observed  over  him,  to 
prevent  ttie  possibility  of  escape;  at  first,  the  liberty  of  riding 
over  the  island,  which  is  nearly  thirty  miles  in  circumference, 
was  granted  to  him  ;  but  as  it  was  required  that  he  should  be 
accompanied  by  an  English  officer.  Napoleon  woulil  never 
Bubmit  to  this  condition,  and  retrenched  his  usual  ex(!rcise. 
Sentinels  were  posted  at  short  intervals ;  they  demanded  the 
pass  of  every  stranuer  who  was  permitted  to  land,  and,  on 
arriving  at  the  gate  of  the  avenue  which  leads  to  Ijongwood 
house,  it  was  presented  to  the  lieutenant  on  guard,  who  sum- 
moned the  officer  in  attendance  on  Napoleon,  to  sliow  him 
ihrou^fh  the  grounds.  "  (iardenitig,"  writes  a  trav(dler  from 
Ihe  information  he  collected  on  the  island,  "  is  the  occupatioa 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  437 

in  which  he  ajjpears  to  take  peculiar  uelight.  A  squflre  patch 
of  ground  of  about  an  acre  in  extent,  enclosed  with  a  mud  wall, 
is  the  principal  theatre  of  his  labours.  Through  this  plot  runs  a 
straight  gravel  walk;  atone  end  of  which  is  fixed  in  the  ground 
a  rustic  wooden  chair,  painted  green,  and  before  it  a  stone 
tal)le  ;  at  this  he  frequently  dines  alone  upon  the  plainest  food, 
withdrawing  afterwards  to  a  bower  at  the  other  extremity,  to 
take  his  coffee.  He  keeps  aloof  from  all  but  his  own  suite ; 
and  one-half  of  the  garrison  have  never  seen  him."*  Bona- 
parte complained  heavily  of  the  subsequent  reduction  in  his 
salary;  but  appeared  sensible  of  the  attention  of  the  prince- 
regent,  in  ordering  a  house  to  be  so  constructed  for  him  in 
England,  that  it  might  be  taken  in  pieces  for  the  voyage,  and 
put  together  again  on  its  arrival.  He,  however,  was  not 
benefited  by  the  intended  kindness :  it  was  finished  only  a 
short  time  after  his  death.  Of  Sir  George  Cockburne,  he 
spoke  in  honourable  terms ;  unfortunately,  the  same  good  intel- 
ligence never  subsisted  between  Napoleon  and  Sir  H.  Lowe. 
It  appears  from  Bourrienne's  Memoirs,  that  even  from  the  date 
of  his  elevation  to  the  imperial  throne,  the  emperor  had 
suffered  much  from  the  hereditary  malady  which  afterwards 
terminated  his  life.t  In  the  month  of  May,  1818,  a  sensible 
change  for  the  worse  took  place.  He  petitioned  this  year  for 
a  Catholic  clergyman  of  the  Pope,  through  Cardinal  Fesch, 
and  his  Holiness  immediately  concerted  measures  with  the 
English  government  for  acceding  to  his  request.  The  Abbe 
Bonavista  quitted  St.  Helena,  in  March,  1821,  leaving  there 
M.  I'Abbe  Vignali,  who  was  treated  with  deference  and  re- 
spect. This  ecclesiastic  had  remarked  the  progress  of  reli- 
gious sentiments  in  Napoleon,  and  had  obtained  the  intimate 
confidence  of  the  Holy  See.t  On  the  2d  of  April,  a  servant 
announced  that  a  comet  had  been  discovered  in  the  east. 
"A  comet,"  cried  Napoleon,  eagerly,  "  that  was  the  forerun- 
ner of  the  death  of  Cesar."  The  Gallic  Cesar  thought 
himself  warned,  but  he  prepared  to  meet  death  differently 
from  a  pagan  ;  sending  for  M.  Vignali  on  the  24th,  he  said 
to  him  ;  "  I  was  born  in  the  Catholic  religion  ;  I  wish  to  fulfil 

•  Notes  on  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  St.  Helena,  (1820,)  by  Edward 
Blonnt, 

■\  This  malady  is  also  supposed  to  have  occasioned  the  premature  death 
tf  Napoleon's  son,  who  was  created  Duke  of  Reichstadt,  by  the  Emperor 
of  Austria,  and  died  in  the  1 6th  year  of  his  age. 

t  This  account  is  taken  from  the  "  Histoire  du  Pape  Pie  7,"  by  M.  It 
Chevalier  Artaud. 

39* 


438  OENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    El'ROPE.  [cHAP. 

the  duties  it  imposes  on  me,  and  to  receive  the  succours  it 
inipartj=  "  He  received  them  in  elFect,  willi  respect  and 
recollertion  ;  on  the  2d  of  May,  his  fever  rcthjulded,  and  on 
the  5lh  he  expired  ;  testifying  his  respect  for,  and  gratitude 
to,  the  Sovereign  Ponlifl',  whose  n;nne  he  often  pronounced 
during  his  ilhiess.*^  His  remains,  iiabiled  in  the  ch»;ik  he  h;id 
worn  at  the  hatde  of  Marengo,  were,  by  his  generals,  placed 
on  liis  camp-l)cd,  an  hour  after  liis  decease  ;  all  the  troops  of 
the  girrisun  deliUil  in  order  before  the  corpse,  each  man 
touching  the  ground  with  one  knee.  The  naval  force,  witli 
the  permission  of  their  commander,  suhsequenUy  paid  the 
same  liomage,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  governor.  The 
body,  after  lieing  opened,  was  buried  in  the  sj)ot  chosen  by 
Napoleon,  beneath  a  willow  tree,  enclosed  in  diree  coffins ; 
tlie  gnive,  which  was  fourteen  feet  deep,  being  firmly  secured 
by  si)iid  brickwork,  closed  with  bars  of  iron.t 

Pope  Pius  VH.  closed  a  life  full  of  years  and  merits,  by  a 
holy  death,  Aiigiist  20th,  182IJ.  Cardinal  Consalvi  survived 
him  only  five  months  :  in  his  Avill  he  ordered  the  rich  pre- 
sents which,  as  minister,  he  had  received,  to  be  sold,  and  the 
produce  expended  in  finishing  the  facades  of  several  churches 
in  Home,  and  in  erecting  a  monument  to  die  late  Pope. 
Cardinal  ddla  Cenga  was  raised  to  the  pontifical  chair,  under 
th(!  title  of  Leo  XH.  He  reigned  till  1829,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Pius  VIII.,  who  dying  the  following  year,  made 
room  fi)r  the  election  of  tin;  present  PonlilT,  Gregory  A  \  I.  'Die 
short  pontificates  of  the  last-mentioned  Popes  have  been  re- 
markable onlv  for  their  |)ersoiial  virtues  and  strennons  elTorts  to 
revive  the  spirit  and  practice  of  religion  ;  and  for  the  progress 
which  die  Catholii"  faith  has  made  in  North  Americaand  in  infidel 
countries  ;  to  which  desirat)h;  object  the  excellent  InstUution 
for  the  propagation  of  l/ir  Foitli,  established  at  Lyons  in  die 

•  Two  of  (lip  KtnnzaK  if  Mnnzoni's  po«*m  on  ttiia  subject,  copied  frcn 
the  aliovo.  may  W  iiiUTcstini;  to  many  of  our  readers: 

"  Hella,  iinmortal,  tienrfica  Tu  dalle  stanche  ccneri 

Fede,  ai  Irionfi  avvczza,  Sprrdi  oc;ni  ria  parola  ; 

Srrivi  ancor  (juosto:   allegrali,  II  Dio  rlie  (ttlcrra  e  suncita 

Clie  pill  Ruprrlia  alu-zza  Che  (iffnunn  e  die  consola, 

AKlisoner  di  Golijota,  Sulla  desrrta  cullricc 

(iianimai  non  di  ctiino.  Accanto  a  liii  posci." 

I  The  Frenrh  ('hnrnhers  have  rerently  voted  1, 000, 000  f.  to  defray  the 
exjtenfM^s  of  conveying  .Napulcon's  rctnains  to  l*aris,  where  they  are  to  b» 
deponiled  uixler  a  mausol.'uiii,  surmounted  liy  the  arms  which  he  wore  at 
the  biUli;  uf  AuKlerlitz,  and  which  he  be((Ucathrd  to  his  son. 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  439 

year  1822,  and  now  spread  over  nearly  all  Catholic  Europe, 
has  very  greatly  contributed. 

The  Grecian  states  began  their  struggle  for  independence 
in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1821  ;  a  war  distinguished  by 
singular  bravery  on  their  part ;  disgraced  by  horrible  acts  of 
cruelty  on  both  sides.  At  the  same  time,  the  provinces  of 
Walachia  and  Moldavia  rose  in  arms,  under  the  standard  of 
Prince  Ypsilanti,  a  son  of  the  hospodar,  who  was  long  a  refugee 
in  Russia.  The  prince  was  afterwards  arrested  and  impri- 
soned by  Austrian  emissaries.  The  cruel  massacre  of  the 
unoffending  population  of  the  isle  of  Scio,  in  1821,  engaged 
in  the  Grecian  cause  the  sympathies  of  Europe  ;  among 
those  whom  a  chivalrous  veneration  for  classic  land  enlisted 
to  aid  it  in  person,  was  Lord  Byron,*  who,  however,  died  at 
Missolonghi,  in  1824,  before  he  was  able  to  realize  his  in- 
tentions, Mehemet  Ali,  formerly  Pacha  of  Albania,  and  then 
Viceroy  of  Egypt,  came  to  a  rupture  with  the  Porte  in  1820, 
and  his  son  Ibrahim  carried  the  war  into  Turkey,  in  1825, 
where  he  committed  dreadful  ravages.  The  French  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Greeks,  and  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  assist 
them,  under  the  command  of  General  Maison.  The  fort  of 
Modon  surrendered  to  General  Durieu  on  the  7th  of  October, 
1828,  and  Coron,  on  the  same  day,  when  nearly  reduced  to  a 
heap  of  ruins,  to  General  Sebastiani.  A  treaty  for  the  paci- 
fication of  Greece  was  signed  at  London,  July,  1827,  by  the 
representatives  of  England,  France,  and  Russia;  and  the 
combined  fleets  received  orders  to  force  the  Turkish  squadron 
to  retire  from  the  port  of  Navarino,  which  it  blockaded. 
Their  offers  of  peace  on  this  condition  having  been  rejected. 
Sir  Edward  Codrington  gave  the  signal  of  attack,  October 
6th.  The  French,  under  Admiral  Rigny,  received  the  first 
fire  ;  but,  before  five  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  enemy's  fleet 
was  anniliilated  :  a  few  abandoned  frigates  and  brigs  only  re- 
maining of  this  formidable  Turkish  armament.  Ibrahim  Pacha 
was  not  present  at  this  engagement,  but  was  laying  waste 
Messenia  as  he  traversed  it,  crucifying  the  priests  and  mur- 
dering the  population.  A  large  Russian  array  advanced  upon 
the  Turkish  territory,  and  soon  put  to  flight  the  undisciplined 
hordes  which  opposed  its  progress,  though,  in  some  places, 
the  loss  of  the  invaders  was  very  considerable.     Before  Bra'i- 

*  The  works  of  this  too  celebrated  poet  should  be  avoided  by  youth,  as 
the  empoisoned  source  of  intidehty  and  immorality.  The  remains  of  Lord 
Byron  were,  on  this  account,  refused  the  honour  of  burial  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 


440  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Ion  it  amounted  lo  5,000  men.  Their  advance  was  likewise 
impodrd  l)y  irrcat  iialiind  ol).st:K'lrs,  wliich  wore,  howovrr,  siib- 
diU'd  ;  the  l);inul)e  was  crossed;  the  hciL^hls  of  die  IJalkan 
were  no  protection  to  the  capital  ;  Varna,  Silistria,  and  Adri- 
anoplc  fell  into  llieir  hands  ;  and  the  Ottoman  empire  seemed 
threatened  with  final  destruction,  wlum  a  peace  was  signed  at 
the  latter  city,  l)ctween  Nicholas  and  Mahmoud,  in  1829. 
The  independence  of  Greece  was  acknowledged,  and  her 
boundaries  fixed  ;  Ibrahim  evacuated  Turkey,  and  returned  to 
Kjrypt;  tlie  provinces  of  Wahu-hia  and  Moldavia  were  placid 
under  the  protection  of  Russia,  whose  empire  was  enlarged  ; 
and  the  fortress  of  Silistria  remained  in  her  hands,  till  slie 
should  receive  the  payment,  l)y  instalmeiils,  of  a  large  sum 
from  Turkey.  The  grand  seignior  had,  previously  to  this 
epoch,  provided  for  his  own  security  b}'^  destroying  the  .Jani- 
zaries, who  would  probably  have  opposed  his  intended  im- 
provements. Mehemet  AJi  had,  in  like  manner,  massacred 
the  .Mamelukes  in  1811;  and,  having  freed  Egypt  from  the 
Turkish  yoke,  appears  to  have  rendered  the  exercise  of  the 
most  despotic  tyranny  gready  conducive  to  the  general  im- 
provement of  that  country.  He  also  conquered  Syria  by  the 
arms  of  his  son,  Ibrahim  ;  St.  John  d'Acre  fell  into  his 
power;  Natolia  was  invaded,  and  he  continued  to  extend  his 
dominions,  till  the  allied  powers  undertook  to  restore  peace 
between  the  sultan  and  his  rel)ellious  vassal.  Malimoud  died 
before  this  was  elFected,  in  18^9,  leaving  die  succession  to  his 
eldest  son,  Al)diil-Sedjin,  aged  seventeen  years,  under  a  re- 
gency. The  reign  of  the  late  sovereign  forms  a  remarkal)le 
era  in  the  Turkish  history,  on  account  of  the  mnnv  innova- 
tions he  introduced,  and  the  vast  diminution  of  his  empire. 
The  crown  of  Greece  having  been  refused  by  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Saxe  Coburii,  it  was,  with  the  consent  of  the  allied 
powers,  olFcred  to  Prince  Otho,  second  son  of  the  King  of 
Bavaria;  (18.33;)  a  regency  was  appointed  during  his  mi- 
nority, and  a  loan  guarantied  to  support  the  credit  of  his  go- 
vernment. 

Louis  XV'III.  expired  on  the  lOdi  of  September,  1821,  and 
transmitted  the  sceptre  of  France  to  his  l)rother,  (/harles  X., 
who  was  crowned  at  Rheims  with  the  usual  solemnity,  and 
took  tlu!  oalli  to  oliserve  the  charter  jrranted  by  th(>  late  king. 
He  acknowledged  the  indepcndeiict!  of  the  kingdom  of  Ilayti, 
on  condition  of  the  payiirnt  of  a  considerable  sum,  l)v  instal- 
ments, to  indemnify  those  among  his  subjects  who  had  lost 
tlieir  property  in  the   insurrection  at  Si    Domingo.     He  also 


LIV.] 


GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  441 


obtained  from  the  Chambers  pensions  for  the  sufferers  by  the 
French  Revolution,  which  were  paid  only  as  long  as  he 
reigned.  Wilh  more  liberality  than  prudence,  he  removed  the 
censorship  over  the  press,  established  by  his  late  brother  ; 
stereotyped  editions  of  the  worst  productions  of  Voltaire  and 
Jean  J.  Rousseau,  which  had  never  been  permitted  in  the  time 
of  Napoleon,  immediately  inundated  the  country,  and  pro- 
duced the  effect  that  might  have  been  anticipated  ;  the  news- 
papers, and  particularly  the  Constitutionnel,  of  which  15,000 
copies  were  daily  sold,  became  the  constant  vehicles  of  satire 
against  religion  and  the  government,  and  the  republican  party 
increased  each  year  in  strength.  In  1829,  the  establishments 
of  the  Jesuits  in  France  were  sacrificed,  by  the  pusillanimity 
of  the  French  court,  to  clamours  as  extravagant  and  absurd 
as  they  were  groundless  and  void  of  all  truth,  raised  by  the 
liberal  party,  with  the  view  of  furthering  political  purposes 
of  their  own.  These  establishments  were  twelve  in  number, 
and  devoted  exclusively  to  the  civil  and  religious  education 
of  the  youth  of  the  higher  classes.  By  a  singular  coincidence, 
the  returning  twelvemonth  beheld  the  monarch  driven  from  his 
tlirone  and  country  by  the  same  party. 

Alexander,  Emperor  of  Russia,  died  in  1825,  without  issue ; 
and  the  crown,  being  rejected  by  tlie  second  brotlier,  Constan- 
tine,  descended  to  Nicholas,  the  third,  who  was  married  to  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Prussia. 

The  English  soldier  had  to  combat  this  year  on  a  field 
where  victories  are  never  won  without  severe  suffering  from 
heat  and  fatigue.  The  campaign  in  India,  of  1819,  which  we 
have  not  noticed,  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  Pindarris,  a 
fierce  banditti,  who  had  ravaged  the  Madras  dependencies 
with  circumstances  of  unexampled  cruelty,  and  in  the  annexa- 
tion of  Poonah  to  the  British  empire.  The  war  undertaken 
in  1824  against  the  Burmese,  was  distinguislied  by  similar 
atrocities  on  the  part  of  these  barbarians.  Their  army  was 
destroyed  by  Sir  Archibald  Campbell ;  and  Rangoon,  with 
several  other  places,  being  taken,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
victors  by  the  treaty  that  restored  peace.  Oar  African  settle- 
ment on  the  Guinea  coast  was  this  year  (1825)  threatened  by 
the  Ashantees,  an  inland  tiibe,  who,  after  conquering  the  Fan- 
tees,  advanced  towards  Cape-coast.  The  governor,  Sir  Charles 
Macarthy,  having  unwarily  separated  his  army,  suffered  him- 
self to  be  drawn  into  an  ambuscade,  and  was  slain ;  but  his 
death  was  soon  after  avenged  by  Major  Chisholm. 

The  demise  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal,  in  1826,  gave  rise  to 


442  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [t'llAP. 

important  events  in  tliat  country.  By  will,  ho  empowered 
his  eldest  son  to  choose  between  the  kinirdoni  of  PorUiifal  and 
the  empire  of  IJrazil.  Don  I'cdro  preferred  the  hitter,  where 
he  then  was,  and  renounced  his  ri^^lit  to  I'ortugal  in  favour  of 
his  eldest  daughter.  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria,  intendinjr  that 
she  should  espouse  her  uncle,  Don  .Mi<ruel,  to  whom  he 
ofrcred  tlie  regency,  when  he  should  come  of  age.  With  this 
document  he  sent  to  Europe  a  constitution,  which,  it  was  said, 
he  had  himself  very  hastily  drawn  up,  for  Portugal.  Don 
Miguel,  who  had  been  at  Vienna  since  the  discovery  of  a  trea- 
sonable conspiracy,  in  which  he  was  imj)licated,  during  the 
life  of  his  father,  accepted  his  brodier's  proposal.  In  the 
mean  time,  his  sister  Isabella  assumed  the  rcL^ency,  and  en- 
deavoured to  pronuilgatc  the  new  constitution  ;  being  foreign 
to  the  habits  and  feelings  of  the  nation,  it  excited  consideral)le 
discontent.  To  maintain  her  authority,  she  demanded  some 
Enirlish  troops,  and  5,000  men  were  sent  over  by  Mr.  Can- 
ning for  that  purpose.  With  these  she  supported  the  existing 
state  of  things,  till  Don  Miguel,  having  attained  his  majority, 
returned  to  Portugal.  He  there  took  the  oath  to  the  constitu- 
tion, and  assumed  the  p()wers  of  regent;  l)Ut  liiidiiig  a  strong 
party  desirons  of  making  him  ahsnlute  king,  he  accepted  the 
title,  and  alirogated  the  constituticni.  'i'o  extenuate  this  act, 
his  partisans  assert,  that,  by  a  fundamental  law  of  the  mo- 
narchy, if  the  elder  brother  iidierit  another  kingdom,  the 
crown  of  Portugal  devolves  on  the  second.  Miguel  rulct! 
apparently  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  majority  of  his  sul»jeets, 
till  Don  I'cdro,  having  lost  the  empire  of  Brazil,  through  a 
revolution  in  that  country,  which  raised  his  son  to  the  throne, 
came  over  to  Europe,  to  con(]uer  Portuiral  for  his  daiiirhter. 
Tiiis  he  hail  just  ellrcted,  by  the  means  o|"  I'^nglish  and  French 
mercenaries,  when  he  died,  in  18:M.  Donna  Maria  was  then 
declared  of  age  ;  she  married  the  brollier  of  the  ex-empress, 
Augustus  of  Leuchtenberg ;  and  he  soon  dying,  in  1836, 
Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-('oburg,  by  whom  she  has  two  sons. 
'I'o  liquidate  the  debts  of  the  state,  much  of  the  church-pro- 
perly was  seized  and  sold  ;  in  consequence  of  which  measure, 
tlic  Pope's  legate  was  recalled,  and  the  relations  with  the  Holy 
See  suspentled.  Don  Pedro's  charter,  not  being  deemed 
siidicicntly  liberal  by  i\u'  asrendency  party,  the  queen  has 
been  oblig{;d  to  clnuige  her  miinstrv,  and  acijuiese  in  the 
alterations  demanded. 

Death,  in  the  mean  lime,  had  been  elTcctiuL''  great  chan<rc9 
in  Enghuid.     On  the  5th  of  Jaiuiary,  IH27,  died  the  Duke  of 


UV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  44J^ 

York  ;  and,  on  the  7th  February,  the  Earl  of  Liverpool  was, 
by  a  paralytic  attack,  incapacitated  from  conducting  the  govern- 
ment. Mr.  Canning  was  appointed  his  successor,  but  his 
declining  health  soon  gave  way.  The  last  effort  of  his 
eloquence  was  exerted  in  an  unsuccessful  support  of  the 
Catholic  claims  ;  he  died  at  Chiswick,  having  been  premier 
only  five  months.  Lord  Goderich  was  then  empowered  to 
form  a  cabinet;  he  soon  made  place  for  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, who,  with  Sir  R.  Peel,  and  some  members  of  the  Liver- 
pool administration,  composed  the  new  ministry.  It  was 
remarkable  for  several  important  measures.  The  Catholic 
disabilities  had  been  almost  annually  brought  before  Parliament, 
and  had,  in  1828,  on  the  motion  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  passed 
the  House  of  Commons  ;  but  had  been,  as  usual,  rejected  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  Lords.  Mr.  Canning  had  not  even 
been  able,  when  in  the  ministry,  to  carry  a  bill  to  permit  the 
few  Catholic  peers  of  England  to  take  their  seats  in  that 
House  ;  yet  the  question  progressed  ;  most  of  the  talent  ol 
the  Lower  House  was  exerted  in  its  favour ;  the  Protestant 
Irish  aristocracy  presented  a  petition,  numerously  signed,  in 
behalf  of  their  aggrieved  countrymen,  and  tlie  Catholic  asso 
ciation,  revived  under  a  new  name,  whenever  its  death-blow 
had  been  decreed,  with  the  indefatigable  O'ConncU  at  its  head, 
laboured  strenuously  to  attain  its  object.  To  the  exertions 
of  this  distinguished  individual  was  the  speedy  success  of  their 
endeavours  principally  due.  His  election  for  the  county  of 
Clare,  in  the  place  of  a  cabinet  minister,  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald, 
embarrassed  the  government ;  they  saw  the  necessity  of  con- 
ceding what  could  not  be  furdier  withheld  without  danger  to 
the  state.  The  abolition  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts, 
which  had  been  effected  by  a  bill  brought  in  by  Lord  John 
Russell,  the  preceding  year,  had  o^)ened  the  pale  of  the  con- 
stitution to  all  Christian  dissenters:  the  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion Bill  was,  after  much  difficulty  on  the  part  of  the  king, 
introduced  by  a  speech  from  the  throne,  carried  by  the  two 
leading  ministers  of  each  House,  and  received  the  royal  asseijt, 
April  13,  1829.  By  this  act,  Cadiolics,  on  their  taking  a 
prescribed  oath,  were  rendered  eligible  to  all  civil  offices, 
except  those  of  Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  keeper  of  the 
great  seal.  It,  however,  disfrancliised  the  40s,  freeholders 
of  that  kingdom,  and  prohibited  the  Catholic  bishops  from 
bearing  the  names  of  their  respective  sees.  An  ungenerous 
clause,  annexed  to  the  bill,  prevented  Mr.  O'Connel)   from 


4  i  i  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

lakiniT   his    seat   for  Clare;    but   lie   was  re-elected   without 
Dj)|)(isiii()ii. 

'I'hf  kiiiffdid  not  very  lon<^  survive  tliis  important  measure  ; 
his  incrcajsiiijr  indisposiiioii  was  lor  some  lime  concealed  from 
the  pul)lic  ;  but  at  lenjfUi  it  was  ascertained  tiiat  an  ossifuation 
of  the  heart  l)alfled  all  medical  skill,  and  limiUv  brouirhlon  his 
death,  which  occurred  on  the  iJGlh  of  June,  1830,  in  the  sixly- 
eiffhth  year  of  his  age  and  eleventh  of  his  reign.  During  the 
last  few  years,  George  IV.  led  so  secluded  a  life,  as  to  be  visible 
only  to  his  ministers,  family,  and  private  friends,  by  whom 
alone  he  seems  to  have  been  regretted.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  under  the  title  of  William  IV., 
who  having  recently,  when  lord  high  admiral,  Ijeen  opposed 
by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  not  expected  to  retain  him 
in  the  ministry ;  the  king,  however,  made  no  alteration  in  the 
cabinet  on  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

The    situation   of    the    French    monarchy    was    becoming 
every  day  more  critical.     His  Christian  majesty,  with  a  view 
to    counteract   the    revolutionary    tendency    of    the    deputies 
elected  in  1827,  had  commissic»ned   M.  le  Prince  Polignac  to 
form  a  new  ministry,  of  which  he  was  to  be  the  president. 
Two  hundred  and  twenty-one  of  the  deputies  presented  an 
energetical  address,  in  which  they  expressed  their  opposition 
to  tli(!  new  cabinet;   their  remonstrances  were  met  by  tiie  dis- 
solution  of   the    chaml)er.     Every   etfort  was    made   by  the 
Court  to  prevent  tin;  re-election  of  men  who  had  n-fuscd  to 
vote  the  budget  before  they  separated  ;   l)Ut,  in  spile  t)f  these 
elTorts,  diey  composed    the    majority  of  the    new   chamber. 
'J'he  nationiil    guard    having  demonstrated    an  opposition  to 
the  governmenl,  was  8U|)pressed.      The  French  navy,  in  ihe 
m(!an  while,  was  rendering  essential  service  to  humanity  in 
general,  by  completing  the  conquest  which  Lord  Exmouth 
liad  left   imperfect.     'I'iie    Dey  of    Algiers,    having  pid)licly 
affronted   tin;  IVench  consul,  and    refused    to  make  any    repa- 
ration, war   wiis    innnediately   declared    against    him.      The 
minister  of    war,  (icneral   Coinle   de    IJourmonU",  left    Faris 
atul  joined  the  tleet  at  'I'oulon,  consisting  ui'  500  sail,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral   Duperre.     On  the  13th  of  June,  it 
anchored  in  the  bay  of  Sidi  I'eratdi.      After  driving  the  emimy 
from  their  positions,  the  while  flag  was  hoisted  on  the  Turetta 
Chica,  and  Aljjiers  capitulated.     Tiie  lleet  emulated  the  bra- 
very of  the  land-forces,  and   powerfully  contributed  to  tlie  re- 
duction of  the  j)l:ice,  by  a   niai.<ruvre   wliich    was  considered 
Unpraclicalilc.      The  dey  obtained  ]»ermission  to  retire   with 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  445 

part  of  his  troops,  his  arms,  women,  and  private  property ; 
but  the  treasure  found  in  his  palace  called  the  Cassaba, 
amounting  to  50,000,000  francs,  was  secured  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  expedition.  The  fort  of  the  emperor  held  out 
to  the  last  extremity,  and  then  exploded.  The  opposition 
papers  in  France  had  omitted  no  eflort  to  mar  the  success  of 
the  expedition  ;  and  the  general,  on  his  return,  could  not  even 
carry  his  own  election :  affairs  in  that  country  were  drawing 
to  a  crisis.  Relying  on  the  fourteenth  article  of  the  charter, 
which  permitted  the  king  to  amend  or  modif)s  if  necessary, 
he  published  two  ordinances,  by  the  first  of  which  he  sus- 
pended the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  established  a  censorship 
over  the  public  journals  and  periodical  writings  ;  and,  by  the 
second,  altered  the  law  of  elections ;  these  ordinances  were 
countersigned  by  the  ministers  Polignac,  Peyronet,  Chante- 
lauze,  Guernon-Ranville,  Montbel,  and  Capel.  The  editors 
of  the  papers  protested  openly  against  the  ordinances  ;  their 
presses  and  types  were  ordered  to  be  seized,  (July  27th  ;)  but 
when  the  police  attempted  to  execute  the  mandate,  they  found 
nearly  20,000  men  prepared  to  defend  them.  No  precau- 
tions had  been  taken  to  insure  success  to  this  coup  d'etat ; 
Marshal  Marmont  was  named  commander  of  the  first  military 
division ;  he  was  left  without  orders,  his  men  without  a  sup- 
ply of  cartridges  or  rations. 

The  deputies  who  were  in  Paris,  to  the  number  of  about 
fifty,  then  assembled,  and  sent  a  deputation,  with  M.  Lufitte 
at  their  head,  to  Marshal  Marmont,  entreating  him  to  stop 
the  further  effusion  of  blood,  by  obtaining  the  conditions 
they  demanded ;  these  were,  the  revocation  of  the  ordinances 
of  the  26th  of  July,  the  dismissal  of  the  ministers,  and  the 
convocation  of  the  Chambers  for  the  3d  of  August.  The 
marshal  consented  to  request  for  them  an  audience  of  M.  de 
Polignac.  He  returned  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  told 
the  deputies  the  prince  had  replied  that  the  nature  of  the 
conditions  rendered  any  conference  useless.  "  Nous  avons 
done  la  guerre  civile?"  said  M.  de  Lafitte ;  the  marshal 
bowed,  and  the  deputies  retired.  The  combat  soon  became 
general,  and  after  three  days'  sanguinary  fighting^  in  different 
parts  of  Paris,  in  which  the  youths  of  the  Polytechnic  school 
particularly  distinguished  themselves,  the  royal  cause  was 
lost ;  the  tri~coloured  flag  floated  on  the  public  buildings  of 
the  capital,  and  the  fleurs-de-lis  were  everywhere  effaced. 
While  Paris  was  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  blood  flowed  on  all 
sides,  Charles  X.,  with  his  family,  at  St.  Cloud,  remained  in 

40 


440  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAl'. 

ignornnce  of  the  insurrection.  lie  had  been  informed  of  tlio 
disturbance  on  Monday  morninfj,  had  ordered  the  arrest  of 
the  rcvohitionary  leaders,  (,'asirnir  Perricr,  I)\ipin.  Lafitle, 
and  a  few  others,  and  he  beheved  tlie  nuasiire  liail  been  ac- 
complished, because  his  minister,  supposing,  as  he  afterwards 
said,  tliat  it  would  be  done  before  his  despatch  reached 
the  king,  informed  liim  thai  it  iras  effected.  The  report  of 
the  cannon  and  view  of  the  tri-coloured  flag,  perceived  by  the 
Duchesse  de  Gontault,  who  lodged  in  one  of  the  highest 
apartments  of  the  castle,  and  whose  terrors  were  awakened 
for  her  royal  charge,  the  yovmg  princess,  could  not  rouse  the 
king  to  a  sense  of  his  danger :  15,000  men  were  near  him  at 
St.  Cloud,  without  receiving  any  orders  to  march  >ipon  Paris, 
till,  at  length,  liie  arrival  of  tlie  ministers  revealetl  the  truih  ; 
they  held  a  council,  and  announced  to  his  majesty  that  all 
was  lost:  that  the  mob  were  advancing  towards  St.  Cloud, 
and  that  he  must  save  himself  by  immediate  flight.  In  less 
than  half  an  hour  the  royal  family  were  in  their  carriages  on 
the  road  to  Rambouillet. 

Meantime  the  Chamber  met,  and  invited  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans to  exercise  the  functions  of  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom.  He  consulted  the  king  how  he  should  act  on  this 
emergency;  his  majesty  empowered  the  duke  to  accept  the 
proffered  title,  with  the  regency  for  liis  grandson,  the  Duke 
of  Bordeaux,  in  favour  of  whom  he  renounced  his  right  to 
the  throne,  and  the  Duke  d'Angoulcme  did  tlie  same.  He 
even  proposed  to  leave  the  young  prince  with  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  on  whose  attachment  and  iidclity  he  fully  relied  ; 
but  the  commissioners  deputed  by  the  Chambers  to  escort  tiie 
king  into  exile,  and  who  were  present  at  Ramiiouillet,  refusing 
to  acknowledge  him  for  their  sovereign,  tlu;  project  dropped. 
An  oflVr  of  the  crown  was  made  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
when  he  met  the  Chambers,  and  he  accepted  it:  the  cere- 
mony of  his  accession,  by  Uiking  the  oath  of  adherence  to 
the  charter,'  took   place  on  the  9lh  of  August,  when  he   as- 

•  The  charier,  when  amended  by  the  Chamber,  decided  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  rchgiori  was  no  lunger  the  religion  of  the  state.  It  aitio  abolished 
the  horetliiary  peerage. 

Talleyrand,  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  sovereign,  is 
•aid  lo  have  remarked,  ihal  it  was  the  ihirlcenth  time  he  had  Hworn  to  ad- 
here lo  a  change  in  the  government,  arid  he  hoped  it  would  be  ihc  last. 
The  veteran  <liplornatist  was  a|i|iiiinte(l  to  the  Kn-^Iish  embaHHy,  an!  filled 
this  post  till  I8:i.'j.  He  d^t•<l  jit  the  age  of  eighty-four,  May  I7lh,  '  H'.iA, 
having  on  the  morning  of  that  day  cITeclcd  a  rcconciliuliun  witW  the 
•  /'hurck. 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  447 

Bumed  the  title  of  Louis  Philippe  I,,  King  of  the  French. 
The  national  guard  was  reorganized,  and  La  Fayette  called  to 
the  chief  command  of  it.*  'Die  ex-king  and  royal  family  of 
France,  accompanied  by  the  commissioners,  the  Duke  of  Ra- 
gusa,  with  a  numerous  stafT,  and  several  companies  of  gardes- 
du-corps,  left  Rambouillet  on  the  3d  of  August,  and  readied 
Cherbourg  on  the  10th,  being  everywhere  received  on  the 
route  with  respectful  silence,  without  any  manifestation  of 
triumj  h  or  regret.  The  many  private  virtues  and  acts  of 
public  beneficence  that  adorned  the  characters  of  the  royal 
fugitives,  and  the  state  from  which  they  were  fallen,  excited 
apparendy  no  commiseration ;  the  recent  popularity  of  the 
Duchess  of  Berry  seemed  equally  forgotten.  They  left 
Cherbourg  the  same  day  they  arrived  there,  and  set  sail  for 
England,  on  board  the  Great  Britain,  an  American  ship,  in 
company  with  two  others,  and  the  next  day  reached  the  har- 
bour of  Portsmouth.  The  court  of  St.  James's  had  recog- 
nised the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  Charles  X. 
could  not  land  till  permission  for  that  purpose  arrived.  The 
princesses  and  their  suite,  however,  disembarked  at  Cowes. 
When  the  necessary  leave  came,  the  king,  his  son  and  grand- 
son, through  the  generous  attention  of  the  proprietor,  met 
with  a  polite  reception  on  their  landing,  and  hospitable  enter- 
tainment at  Lulworth  CasUe.  In  this  noble  mansion  they 
resided,  till  Holyrood  House  had  been  provided  for  their 
reception  ;  they  arrived  in  Edinburgh,  October  21st.  There 
the  old  king  continued  to  indulge  in  his  favourite  sports  of 
shooting  and  coursing,  and,  by  his  liberality  to  the  poor, 
gained  the  good  will  of  all  around  him.  The  royal  family 
afterwards  removed  to  the  dominions  of  the  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria, residing  chiefly  at  Goritz,  near  Prague,  where,  after  a 
very  short  illness,  Charles  X.t  closed  his  checkered  life,  in 
the  same  sentiments  of  resignation  and  charity  that  he  had 
uniformly  displayed  during  his  misfortunes,  November  6th 
1837,  in  the  80th  year  of  his  age.     His  unfortunate  minister, 

•  This  celebrated  man  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  present,  no  less 
than  in  the  first  revolution  ;  being  united  with  those  who,  opposed  to  a 
republican  form  of  government,  wished  to  call  the  Orleans  dynasty  to  the 
throne.     He  died  in  1834. 

-f  Charles  X,  is  supposed  to  have  fallen  a  victim  to  the  cholera  morbus. 
This  dreadful  dsease  had,  during  the  several  preceding  years,  alternately 
spreid  over  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  it  partially  broke  out  again 
Ihis  year,  in  some  of  the  towns  of  Germany. 


448  ''OBNERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Poli^nac,  who  sippcars  lo  have  deceived  his  master,  because 
he  was  himself  hliiided  to  the  state  of  events,  was,  with 
tliree  of  his  late  collcatrues  wlio  had  eiiriiod  the  fatal  ordi- 
naiufs,  arrested  soon  after  the  exile  of  the  kin^^,  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death.  'I'hcir  sentence  was  commnted  to  perpetual 
iinprisoiunent ;  after  seven  years'  detention  in  the  prison  of 
Ham,  where  the  prince's  health  was  much  impaired,  they 
were  released  in  1837. 

The  souUicrn  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  which  had, 
contrary  to  the  will  of  the  inhabitants,  been  united  to  llulland 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  now  followed  the  exaini)le  of  the 
Parisians,  and  shook  oil'  the  Dutch  yoke,  'i'he  grievances 
they  had  to  complain  of,  were  neitiier  few  nor  trivial,  but 
they  were  mosdy  such  as  mijilit  have  been  anticipated  from 
the  ascendency  of  a  Calvinistical  church  over  a  Catholic  po- 
pulation, 'i'he  national  guard  seized  the  military  ])osts  in 
IJriisscls,  on  the  'Zikh  and  2t>lli  of  August,  1830  ;  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  after  vainly  endeavouring  to  restore  harmony,  intro- 
duced, on  the  24lh  of  the  following  month,  7,(KHt  Dutch 
troops  into  the  park:  a  furious  combat  ensued,  which  termi- 
nated in  favour  of  the  people.  At  the  same  time  disturl)ances 
occurred  in  several  other  towns,  particularly  Antwerp  and 
Liege.  The  Dutch  troops,  under  the  command  of  General 
Chasse,  retired  into  the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  which  town  they 
bombarded  ;  a  provisional  government  was  established  ;  the 
separation  of  Helgium  and  Holland  decreed;  and  this  arransre- 
ment  having  been  acceded  lo  by  France  and  England,  the 
crown  of  Helgium  was,  Uirougli  the  influence  of  the  latter 
power,  ollered  lo  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  ac- 
cepted by  him. 

The  King  of  Holland  having  rejected  the  terms  oflered  by 
the  allied  powers,  General  Gerard  set  out  from  Paris,  at  the 
head  of  -10, 000  French  troops,  to  reduce  the  citadel  of  Ant- 
werp. On  the  refusal  of  the  commander  to  deliver  it  up,  their 
arlillery  bombarded  it  during  twenty-four  days;  at  the  end  of 
which  term,  (Jeiieial  Chasse  and  the  garrison  surrendered  at 
discretion,  October  23d,  1832.  Peace  between  Holland  and 
llel<.Mum  was  not  signed  till  1837. 

Hrunswick,  about  the  same  time,  expelled  its  sovereign, 
Duke  Charles,  for  having  infrintriil  the  articles  of  the  consti- 
tution irriinted  by  his  uncle  ;iiid  tjiiardian,  George  IV'.  of  I'lng- 
land,  during  his  minority,  and,  in  many  ways,  trespassed  on 
the  rights  of  his  subie(rt3.  In  this  insurrectioti,  the  ducal 
palace  was  burned  down,  except  a  part  of  the  left  wing.    The 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  449 

duchy  was  afterwards  offered  to  Prince  William,  who  stiU 
retains  the  jroverjiment,  his  elder  brotlier  having  been  judged 
incapable  of  the  charge. 

Poland,  it  will  be  recollected,  was  placed  under  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
which  guarantied  to  it  a  constitutional  charter.  This  treaty 
also  promised  to  the  ancient  Polish  provinces  "a  representa- 
tion and  national  institutions,  regulated  according  to  the 
mode  of  political  existence,  which  each  of  the  governments 
to  which  they  belong,  should  judge  useful  and  fitting  to  grant 
them."  These  conditions  were  never  fulfilled  with  respect  to 
the  Polish  provinces  dependent  upon  Russia,  though  promised 
by  the  Emperor  Alexander  in  the  first  diet  held  at  Warsaw 
after  the  treaty:  and  the  appearance  of  constitutional  liberty 
granted  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  was  almost  immediately 
infringed  upon,  by  arbitrary  ordinances  and  acts,  which  soon 
revealed  the  intention  of  reducing  the  nation  to  a  state  of  ser- 
vile dependence.  To  this  end,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was 
abolished;  public  discussion  prohibited;  the  budget  never 
voted  ;  heavy  taxes  imposed ;  monopolies  created  to  exhaust  the 
wealth  of  the  countiy :  and  courts-martial,  which  inflicted  the 
most  degrading  and  cruel  punishments,  erected,  to  assume  the 
functions  of  civil  tribunals.  The  exasperated  feelings  of  the 
whole  nation  were  ready  to  break  out,  when  the  death  of 
Alexander,  and  the  oath  to  maintain  the  constitution,  taken 
by  Nicholas  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  inspired  a  hope 
that  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom  would  be  restored ;  but  an 
insurrection  which  burst  out  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  which  many 
distinguished  Poles  were  supposed  to  be  implicated,  served 
to  augment  tenfold  all  the  calamities  which  this  unhappy 
country  had  previously  endured.  The  prisons  of  Warsaw  were 
thronged ;  at  length,  after  the  delay  of  a  year  and  a  half,  and 
after  tortures  and  other  means  had  been  ineffectually  applied 
to  draw  from  the  prisoners  a  confession  of  guilt,  they  were 
legally  tried  by  the  senate,  and,  almost  unanimously,  pro- 
nounced innocent.  Upon  the  publication  of  this  sentence,  the 
judges  were  imprisoned  in  Warsaw  during  the  space  of  a  year, 
and  the  accused,  conducted  into  Russian  dungeons,  have  never 
since  been  heard  of.  The  sale  of  the  national  domains,  which 
was  ordered  after  the  coronation  of  Nicholas,  (November  29th, 
1829,)  enabled  the  government  to  place  the  Polish  array  on 
the  war  establishment,  with  the  intention,  as  it  was  reported, 
that  it  should  advance  against  France,  while  Russian  troops 
would   occupy  its  place :  the  youths  of  the  military  schools 

40* 


•450  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [tII\P. 

and  of  tlio  iinivrrsitv,  in  coiiiiinrtioii  with  a  lar^e  portion  of 
the  g;irrison  of  Warsaw,  gave  the  signal  of  a  grni-ral  rising. 
On  the  night  of  the  29lh  November,  1830,  the  insurrection 
became  general.  It  rccinired  but  one  day  to  deliver  the  capi- 
tal: in  a  few  more,  every  division  of  the  army  united  in  the 
same  cause;  the  nation  was  in  arms,  and  the  fortilied  towns 
surrendered.  The  Grand-duke  Constantine  (commander-in- 
chief  of  the  ariuv)  willulrew;  General  Clopicki  was  made 
dii'lator,  and  the  diet  declared  that  the  Russian  czar  had 
ceased  to  reign  in  Poland.  After  bravely  struggling  during  ten 
months  with  llie  superior  forces  which  Riissia  brought  :i<r;iinst 
tlu'ui,  and  gaining  the  victories  of  Uembewidkie  and  Wawr, 
overpowered  at  last  by  numbers,  at  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka, 
the  Poles  were  forced  to  retreat,  leaving  10,000  dead  upon 
the  field.  Warsaw  was  soon  invested;  l)atlles  were  fought 
under  its  walls  on  the  .^th,  6lli,  and  7lii  of  Sei)teml)er,  1831  ; 
and,  on  the  following  day,  it  fell  again  under  the  dominion  of 
Russia;  the  Polish  army  entered  the  Austrian  and  Prussian 
territories,  and  laid  down  their  arms.  'J'iicy  afterwards  re- 
tired chiefly  into  France  and  England,  where  they  still  remain 
in  exile.  Since  that  epoch,  Poland  no  longer  exists  as  a 
nation;*  her  language  is  suppressed;  many  noble  youths  have 
been  torn  from  their  parents  and  transported  into  Siberia,  and 
every  engine  is  put  in  action  to  extirpate  the  United  Greek 
Church,  and  completely  subjugate  the  Catholic  reliirion. 
Their  bishops  are  reduced  from  the  numl)er  of  eight  to  four; 
the  Bishop  of  Cracow,  being  deprived  of  his  see,  has  retired 
into  the  doiniuiniis  of  tlie  Emperor  of  Austria,  whf)se  troops 
occupy  that  independent  and  neutral  republic  ;  the  IJishop  of 
Podlachia  has,  during  the  present  year,  by  order  of  Nicholas, 
been  banished  to  Mochilcw;  whither  a  great  number  of  the 
clergy,  after  having  been  cruelly  treated,  were  sent  in  1833, 
for  refusing,  without  the  approbation  of  their  ecclesiastical 
superiors,  to  read  from  the  pulpits  the  ukases  respecting  re- 
ligion, which  had  been  sent  to  them  by  the  government  for 
that  purpose.  The  \iniversily  and  a  great  many  schools 
have  been  suppressed ;   the  order  of  the  Piarists,  with  their 

•  Onn  instance  may  Fuflire  to  bIiow  the  state  to  which  this  country  ia 
reducpij.  On  the  evening  of  the  17lh  of  May,  IS32,  when  the  inhal)ilanta 
of  Warsaw  hail  sent  thfir  chiMron  out  for  nvrfation  and  cxprcisc,  450  of 
them  wore  nchcd  by  Russian  rmiasariPN  anil  hurri*-<l  to  a  ihstant  fort.  Only 
150  rcarhnl  tin;  spot,  the  rcinainiic-r  havitii;  ilii'il  of  fatijuc  anil  ill  treat- 
ment during  the  Journey  ;  but  the  deficiency  was  suiiplicd  by  the  aeiEura 
of  olberi. 


UV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY   OF    EUROPE.  451 

colleges,  those  of  St.  Alphonsus,  under  the  title  of  Redemp- 
lionis  Christi,  totally  abolished.     Still  more   oppressed  are 
the    Catholic  inhabitants   of  the  ancient   provinces,  as   well 
those  dependent  on  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  as  those  which 
are  subject  to  his  Prussian  majesty.     The  imprisonment  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Posen  affords  a  notorious  proof  of  the  un- 
just policy  of  the  late  King  of  Prussia.     It  is  painful  to  con- 
trast the  prudence  and  moderation  which   characterized  the 
general  government  of  this   sovereign,  with   the  conduct  he 
observed  towards  his  Catholic  subjects,  whose  religion,  never- 
theless, he  was  pledged  to  maintain  in  those  provinces,  which 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  placed  under  his  sway.     We  have 
not  room  to  particularize  the  systematic  oppression  to  which 
he  subjected  them;  nor  to  describe  the  destitute  state  of  the 
Catholics  in  many  of  the   towns  of  Prussia   Proper.     The 
Prussian  code,  published  in   1803,  which  militates  against 
the  rights  of  the  Church,  was,  in  1825,  extended  to  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Rhine   and  Westphalia.     It  formed   the  chief 
ground  of  the  accusations  against  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
who,  for  obeying  the  brief  concerning  mixed  marriages  issued 
by  Pius  VIII.  at  the  request  of  the  king  and  the  bishops,  in 
1830,  has  been,  during  the  last  three  years,  confined  in  the 
fortress  of  Minden.     Frederic  William  III.  died  on  the  7th 
of  June,  1840,  and  was   succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Fre- 
derick William  IV. 

Lithuania  contained  4,740,000  of  the  United  Greek  Church. 
These  Nicholas  (by  a  law,  confirmed  July  5th,  1839)  has 
united  to  the  Russian  Church,  and  forced  to  receive  the  Greek 
ritual.  Their  temporizing  bishops,  three  in  number,  have 
complied  with  the  imperial  mandate,  having  been  first  induced, 
by  worldly  considerations,  to  abjure  the  authority  of  the 
Pope.  According  to  recent  accounts  from  Wilna  and  Kiow, 
upwards  of  200  priests,  who  would  not  renounce  the  religion 
of  their  forefathers,  have  been  sent  to  Russian  monasteries, 
where,  regarded  as  heretics,  and  sustained  on  bread  and  water, 
they  are  employed  in  the  menial  offices  of  the  house.  A 
number  of  Polish  ladies  have,  in  like  manner,  been  conveyed 
from  Kiow  and  domiciliated  with  Russian  nuns,  to  be  simi- 
larly treated  ;  and  schools  for  the  education  of  Catholic  young 
ladies  have  been  established  at  Wilna,  Kiow,  &c.,  under  the 
direction  of  Russian  governesses. 

The  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,  (September  29th, 
1833,)  involved  anew  that  unfortunate  country  in  a  civil  war, 
which  is  not  yet  terminated.     He  had  married  for  his  fourth 


462  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [ciUt 

wife,  Christina,  dauglitcr  to  Francis  I.  of  Naples  ;  and  having 
only  two  daughters,  dotennincd  to  abrogate  the  Salic  law, 
■which  had  been  in  force  since  the  succession  of  the  house  of 
IJoiirboii  to  the  Spanish  throne,  that  his  crown  nii^ht  descend 
to  the  elder  of  these  princesses,  named  Isabella.  Having 
drawn  up  an  instrument  for  this  purpose,  he  called  an  assem- 
bly of  the  Cortes,  and  procured  their  adhesion  to  it:  his  brother, 
Don  Carlos,  who  had  long  been  considered  the  presumptive 
heir  to  the  crown,  refused  to  concur  in  the  measure,  and, 
with  his  family,  retired  into  Portugal.  The  will  of  Ferdi- 
nand was  accepted  by  the  Madrid  authorities  and  chief  no- 
bility, and  Christina  took  upon  herself  the  regency  for  her 
daughter,  Isabella  II.  lint  the  Basque  provinces,  strongly 
attached  to  Don  Carlos  and  to  their  ancient  privileges,  which 
they  knew  it  was  not  the  intention  of  the  existing  government 
to  maintain,  flew  to  arms.  Don  Carlos,  who,  out  of  respect 
to  his  brother,  had,  during  his  life,  adopted  no  means  to 
strengthen  his  party,  was  then  a  fugitive  in  Portuiral :  with 
difiiculty  he,  with  his  wife  and  children,  escaped  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  ferocious  Kodil,  who  was  pursuing  him,  by 
taking  refuge  on  board  an  English  ship,  which  conveyed  them 
to  England :  whence  the  prince,  finding  that  Navarre  and 
Biscay  were  all  up  in  arms  for  his  cause,  privately  departed, 
and,  travelling  through  France  incognito,  joined  the  brave  de- 
fenders of  his  rights.  The  historic  page  will  record  the 
many  sanguinary  rencounters  that  have  taken  place  between 
the  hostile  ])arties  ;  the  campaigns  of  Zumalacarregui,  of  Ca- 
brera, Espartero,  and  many  others  ;  the  ineflleient  assistance 
rendered  to  one  party  by  English  and  French  auxiliaries,  by 
which  means  the  struggle  has  been  indefinitely  protracted ; 
the  embarrassment  of  the  Spanish  treasury,  and  the  subsei^uent 
seizure  of  church-property  to  recruit  its  resources  ;  the  de- 
struction of  religious  foundations  and  massacre  of  many  of 
tlieir  inmates;  frecjuent  change  of  ministry;  renewal  of  the 
charter;  and,  finally,  the  treaty  of  Bergara,  which,  without 
terminating  the  war,  has  made  the  Prince  Don  Carlos  a  state 
prisoner. 

The  Emperor  Francis  II.  closed  his  eventful  life,  (1835,) 
in  the  same  religious  sentiments  which  had  ever  supported 
liim  during  the  many  vicissitudes  he  had  experienced  ;  he  left 
liis  dominions  extended  and  tranciuil,  and  Prince  Metlernich 
still  at  the  helm.  His  eldest  son,  the  King  of  Hungary, 
married  to  Anne,  daughter  of  Victor-Emanuel  of  Sardinia, 
TOcccctded,  under  the  title  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria.     He 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  453 

was  successively  crowned  emperor  at  Vienna,  King  of  Bohe- 
mia at  Prague,  and  King  of  Lonibardy  at  Milan,  on  which 
latter  occasion  he  granted  a  pardon,  with  some  exceptions,  to 
all  the  poliucal  offenders,  who  were  still  detained  in  prison, 
and  he  has  this  year  (1840)  extended  it  to  all. 

We  revert  to  England,  which,  during  the  year  1831,  was 
not  free  from  internal  commotions  ;  the  declaration  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  against  reform  disappointed  the  hopes 
of  the  liberal  party  ;  the  discontent  of  the  lower  orders  mani- 
fested itself  by  nightly  incendiarisms  ;  and  so  great  became 
the  unpopularity  of  the  government,  that  the  king,  in  Novem- 
ber this  year,  was  obliged  to  relinquish  his  intention  of  din- 
ing at  the  Guildhall,  it  not  being  considered  safe  for  the  duke 
to  accompany  his  majesty.  The  ministry  resigned;  Earl 
Grey  was  then  made  premier ;  the  seals  with  a  peerage  were 
given  to  Mr.  Brougham  ;  and  Lord  Althorp,  as  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  was  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
During  this  ministry  the  reform  bill  was  passed  in  1832 ;  the 
slave  emancipation  bill  the  following  year ;  the  municipal  corpo- 
rations bill  for  England  and  Scodand  in  1835  ;  the  Irish  church 
reform  bill,  by  which  ten  bishoprics  were  curtailed,  and  the 
value  of  small  livings  augmented ;  the  East  India  charter  re- 
newed, with  several  alterations,  by  which  the  commerce  to 
China  was  thrown  open,  &c.  A  dissension  in  the  cabinet 
occasioned  the  resignation  of  Lord  Grey;  he  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Melbourne,  who,  with  a  very  short  interruption,  has 
continued  at  the  head  of  government  ever  since ;  the  chief 
acts  passed  during  this  period  have  been,  the  tithe  commu- 
tation bill  for  England,  and  another  for  Ireland  ;  the  poor  law 
bill  for  the  latter  country ;  the  new  registry  act  for  births  and 
marriages,  the  penny  postage  bill,  &c. 

William  IV.  died  June  20th,  1837,  in  the  seventy-second 
year  of  his  age,  and  seventh  of  his  reign,  regretted  by  his 
subjects,  whose  interest  he  seemed  always  to  have  at  heart, 
and  respected  for  his  integrity  and  moral  virtues.*  The 
Princess  Victoria  Alexandrina,  the  object  of  the  nation's  fond- 
est hopes,  was  proclaimed  queen,  and,  having  attained  her 
majority  the  preceding  month,  immediately  assumed  the  reins 
ol  government.  Her  coronation  was  performed  wi:h  great 
solemnity  on  the  28th  of  June,  1838;  and  on  the  10th  of 
February,  1840,  she  was  married  to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe 
Coburg,  in  the  Royal  Chapel,  at  St.  James's,  amidst  the  joy- 

•  The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  at  the  same  time,  became  King  of  Hario 
ver,  the  crown  of  that  kingdom  not  descending  t(  females. 


4.-)  I  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHaP 

fill  acclamations  and  heartf.lt  conctratulations  of  every  das* 
of  luT  niiijcstv's  sul.joots.  The  principal  events  of  her  rcitrii, 
not  alieaiiy  alluded  to,  arc  the  insurrection  in  Canada,  which 
was,  however,  soon  subdued  by  the  military  force,  assisted 
bv  'the  loyal  inhabitants  of  tliat  country;  the  equally  ill- 
concerted  risings  of  the  t'harlists  in  England  ;  the  victories 
achieved  by  the  Anglo-Indian  army,  under  Sir  John,  now 
Lord  Kean,  in  the  compiest  of  Cabul,  (4huznee,  and  Kelat,  ir. 
Aflghanistan  •,  the  war  in  China  and  the  intervention  between 
Turkey  and  Egypt.  The  first  of  these  broke  out  in  October, 
IfSaO,  at  the  Liike  of  the  Two  ]S[ountains,  and  the  Canadians 
in  many  parts  rallied  around  Papineau  and  other  eminent 
leaders.  A  collision  took  place  near  Longueuil,  and  the 
stiindard  of  revolt  was  raised.  Colonel  Gore,  was  repulsed 
at  St.  Denis,  but  Colonel  Wcthcrall,  more  fortunate,  do 
feated  the  insurgents  under  Brown,  at  St.  Charles.  On  this, 
the  leaders  fled  to  the  United  States,  and  the  insurrection 
was  soon  quelled. 

Soon  after,  however,  similar  troubles  occurred  in  Upper 
Canada,  in  which  the  insurgents  were  aided  by  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  An  attempt  to  take  Toronto  had  well  nigh 
succeeded,  l)Ut  the  insurgents  at  last  retired  to  an  island  in 
Niagara  liver,  and  fniaUy  dispersed. 

The  Chartist  riots  began  in  April,  1839,  at  Devises,  and 
were  followed  up  in  Noveni1)er,  at  Ncwjiort,  where  10,000 
miners,  headed  by  an  ex-magistrate,  for  some  time  defied  all 

authority. 

In  India  the  English  still  cariicd  on  their  conrjucsts,  daily 
addiiiii  to  their  enormous  possessions  in  the  East.  In  1839,  the 
Atfglian  war  commenced,  and  an  English  force  under  Sir  John 
Kcan  entered  Aflghanistan,  and  laid  siege  to  Ghuznec.  This 
strong  place  was  (li'fended  by  the  son  of  the  ex-King  of  Cabnl, 
and  a  force  of  3.r)00  men.  Imt  after  a  hard  light,  in  which  r)00 
Aflghans  and  200  English  fell,  it  was  taken,  Cabul  surren- 
dered on  the  .')th  of  August;  on  the.  13th  of  November,  Kelat, 
the  capital  of  Bclooehistan,  was  taken,  and  Mehrab  Khan,  the 
chief  of  the  Heloochees,  fell  defending  his  capital,  and  in 
December,  1840,  Xussecr  Khan  and  4,000  men  were  defeated 
at  Kotriah  by  Lieut.  Col.  Marshall. 

These  eouiitries  were  now  reduced,  and  the  war  seemed  at 
an  oiKJ,  but  in  January,  1842,  the  Aflghans  rose  in  arms.  Sir 
Williiiio  McNaghteii  an<l  (),000  Knglish  troops  were  sur- 
rounded  and  cut  U>  pieces,  only  on(!  ofli(%r  escaping  toamiounce 
|he  disaster.     Their  triumj)h  was,  however,  of  short  duration  : 


LIV.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  *  455 

in  September,  Akbar  Khan  and  his  Aflghans,  to  the  number 
of  18,000,  were  defeated  by  General  Pollock;  Cabul 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  peace  was 
restored. 

Still  carrying  out  her  plans  of  conquest  in  the  East,  England 
next  came  in  collision  with  China.  Opium  was  an  article 
prohibited  by  the  Chinese  tariff:  the  English  merchants  had 
long  smuggled  it  in.  In  March,  1839,  the  Chinese  Commis- 
sioner  Lin  required  the  surrender  of  the  opium,  and  the 
departure  of  two  firms  extensively  implicated  in  the  trade. 
After  some  discussion  20,283  chests,  valued  at  $10,000,000, 
were  surrendered.  In  November  a  collision  took  place  at 
Bocca  Tigris  between  two  English  ships,  which  attempted  to 
enter  Champee,  and  some  Chinese  junks,  in  which  the  natives 
lost  900  men.  War  was  declared  by  England  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  a  fleet  of  30  sail  proceeded  to  Macao.  Canton 
was  now  blockaded,  Chusan  taken  by  Burrell,  Amoy  by 
Pollinger,  and  then  a  suspension  took  place  and  proposals 
of  peace  were  made.  The  armistice  was.  however,  soon 
broken.  Ningpoo  was  ineffectually  attacked  by  the  Chinese, 
in  March,  1841,  and  after  losing  Chinkeangfoo,  in  July,  they 
concluded  a  treaty  in  August,  by  which  they  agreed  to  pay 
$21,000,000  for  the  opium  which  they  had  so  properly  de- 
stroyed, to  cede  Hong  Kong  to  Great  Biitain,  and  to  open 
the  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foochoofoo,  Ningpoo,  and. 
Shanghai. 

In  America,  no  important  event  occurred  in  the  English 
colonies  except  the  troubles  which  arose,  in  1839,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  which,  though  apparently 
dangerous,  were  soon  arrested  by  the  conciliatory  measures 
of  the  two  governments.  To  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the 
difhculty,  the  long  disputed  boundary  was  finally  settled  by 
the  treaty  of  Washington,  in  1844. 

In  Groat  Britain  itself  the  state  of  affairs  was  by  no  means 
quiet.  The  Chartists,  calling  for  a  written  constitution,  a  real 
representation  of  the  people,  and  a  due  application  of  ecclesi- 
astical property,  joined  by  numbers  of  discontented  miners 
and  artisans,  had  already  proceeded  to  riotous  measures,  but 
their  forces  never  proved  dangerous,  and  on  the  trial  of  their 
leaders  the  movement  was  stopped  for  a  time. 

Scotland  was  meanwhile  much  disaffected  on  religious 
grounds  :  a  large  party  seceded  fi'om  the  law-kirk,  and  set  up 
a  free  church  independent  of  government  influence. 

The   greatest   troubles  were,  however,  those  of  Ireland. 


450  GENERAL    JU8T0RY    OF    EUROPE,  [cFIAP. 

A=criliin2  many  of  the  miseries  which  had  visited  that  eountrv 
to  the  ligislative  union  of  1801,  ( )'('nnnell  earnestly  demanded 
a  repeal  of  the.  obnoxious  act.  To  eflect  this  a  system  of 
«<;italion,  similar  to  that  which  led  to  the  Enianci|>ation  Act, 
was  adopted.  Ili-peal  associations  were  formed  in  Ireland, 
and  also  in  England  and  the  United  States :  large  sums  of 
money  were  raised,  and  by  constant  ineetingM  and  appeals  the 
excitement  at  last  became  so  great  that  meetings  were  held 
in  the  open  air,  which,  from  their  immense  size,  were  Ciilled 
the  monster  meetings.  The  chief  of  these  were  held  at 
Miillachmast  and  Tara,  where  half  a  million  are  said  to  have 
assembled.  The  government  meanwhile  steadily  o|)posed  the 
movement,  and  when  a  new  meeting  was  called  at  Clontarf, 
in  184'i.  occnpied  the  ground  by  a  military  force.  In  Octol^er, 
O'Connell,  his  son,  and  several  others,  were  arrested,  and  after 
a  long  and  exciting  trial  convicted,  in  February,  1846,  and 
sentenced  to  imprisonment.  The  Irish  did  not,  however, 
despair  :  the  case  was  carried  up  to  the  House  of  Lords,  who 
reversed  the  judgment  of  the  court,  and  O'Connell  was  borne 
in  triumph  from  his  temporary  prison.  The  agitation  was 
not  however  icsumed  ;  division  ensued  among  ihc  popular 
leaders  in  Ireland,  and  many  now  called  for  an  attempt  to 
obtain  by  force,  what  agitation  had  failed  to  acquire.  Amid 
this  uneasy  state  of  afl'airs  O'Connell  died  at  Genoa,  in  May, 
1847,  while  seeking  in  the  south  some  relief  for  his  health, 
now  shattered  1)V  his  loni;  labours  for  his  country. 

France  had.  in  l!^30,  passed  through  a  revolution,  by  which 
Louis  Philijipe  was  raised  to  the  throne.  lie  carried  on  the 
Algerine  war  with  success,  and  after  many  sanguinary  con- 
flicts, Abdel  Kader.  the  chief  of  the  natives  who  opposed  the 
French,  fell  into  their  han<ls.  This  war,  which  lasted  through 
the  most  of  his  reign,  and  cost  France  many  lives  and  great 
Bums  of  money,  gave  rise  to  a  short  war  with  Morocco,  in 
l*j4<),  in  which  M"gadore  was  bombarded  by  a  French  fleet, 
under  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  and  a  Moorish  army  defeated  by 
Marshal  liugeaud. 

With  this  exception  his  reign  was  generally  peaceful,  and 
though  tiiany  attemfds  were  made  on  his  life,  and  strong 
parties  ojiposed  him,  he  conducted  the  affairs  of  France  with 
great  ability.  In  connection  with  England  he  interfered  in 
the  affairs  of  Belgium  and  Holland,  in  18;i2,  and  with  the 
otht>r  great  pf)wers,  in  18;i9,  in  the  war  between  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey  and  his  rebellious  pacha,  Mchemet  Ali,  of  Egypt. 
About  the  same  time  hostilities  began  with  Mexico,  but  after 


LIV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    KUIiOPE.  457 

the  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Sun  Juan  de  Uloa  and  the  city 
of  Vera  Cruz,  a  treaty  was  made,  in  March,  18o9. 

France,  herself,  meanwhile  enjoyed  a  comparative  tran- 
quillity. Though  the  revolution  of  1830  was  in  fact  the 
triuuifih  of  the  infidel  or  irreligious  party,  the  new  king 
maintained  order  and  conducted  the  administration  with  great 
vigour.  Gradually,  religion  recovered  tone,  and  even  the 
banished  religious,  Jesuits  and  others,  returned  to  France, 
although  no  colleges  were  opened.  A  great  excitement  was 
at  last  created  by  various  publications  directed  against  the 
Jesuits :  the  members  were  required  to  abandon  their 
houses,  but  they,  claiming  the  rights  of  French  citizens, 
refused  to  leave  their  homes  unless  expelled  by  force,  assert- 
ing their  readiness  to  appear  at  the  tribunals  of  their  country 
to  meet  any  direct  accusation,  but  denying  the  right  of  govern- 
ment to  proscribe  any  set  of  men  on  merely  vague  chai'ges 
and  surmises. 

This  bold  stand  produced  its  eftect,  and  no  action  was  taken  : 
the  I'eligious  proceeded  as  before,  and  even  their  enemies 
respected  their  conduct.  Louis  Philippe  sought  to  identify 
himself  with  the  anti-Bourbon  party,  and  in  1840  procured 
permission  to  remove  Napoleon's  body  to  Paris.  His  lonely 
grave  was  opened  in  October,  and  his  corpse,  deposited  in  new 
coffins,  was  conveyed  to  Paris  in  the  frigate  La  Belle  Poule. 
Soon  after  a  funeral  procession  of  500,000  escorted 
it  to  the  Invalides,  where  it  still  reposes. 

At  this  very  time,  an  able  scion  of  the  Napoleon  family 
lay  in  the  Castle  of  Ham,  after  a  rash  attempt  at  Boulogne  to 
raise  the  people  in  his  favour.  This  was  Louis  Napoleon, 
whose  subsequent  career  we  shall  have  occasion  to  detail. 

Spain,  even  after  the  treaty  of  Bergara,  was  fir  from  enjoy- 
ing calm.  Christina,  who  had  so  successfully  conducted  the 
war  against  Don  Carlos,  becoming  obnoxious,  resigned  the 
regency  in  October,  1840,  and  Espartero  became  Regent. 
Many  attempts  were  made  to  unseat  him,  but  all  failed,  and 
he  held  the  reins  of  government  with  a  firm  hand.  A  rebellion 
arose,  in  1841,  at  Pampeluna  and  Madrid,  in  which  the  Queen 
nearly  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents,  but  the  insurrec- 
tion was  soon  quelled.  Imitating  the  conduct  of  Christina, 
be,  too,  persecuted  the  Church,  which  had  now  been  stripped 
of  all  its  possessions.  The  ministers  of  religion  were  promised, 
but  not  paid,  a  salary,  and  most  of  the  bishops  were  driven 
into  exile.  After  a  vain  endeavour  to  obtain  justice.  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.  proclaimed  a  jubilee,  and  invited  all  the  chit 

41 


458  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUKOPE.  [cilAP 

dren  of  the  Church  to  unite  in  invoking  the  aid  of  heaven  foi 
the  (listiessed  cliurch  of  Spain.  Soon  after  this,  in  1843,  a 
new  L'lrort  was  ma^le  to  ovt-rthiow  Esparterc^  and  that  ahle 
man,  without  striking  a  blow,  fled  to  Cadiz  and  embarked  foi 
England.  The  Queen  was  soon  after  declared  of  age,  and  by 
her  marriage  with  her  cousin  gave  some  stability  to  afiiiirs. 
Prosperity  now  began  to  dawn  on  the  Peninsula,  and  nego- 
tiations with  Rome  gave  every  prospect  of  a  reconciliation. 

In  Germany  some  changes  had  taken  place.  Frederick 
William  III.,  of  Prussia,  died  in  June,  1840,  after  a  long  reign 
of  43  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  I.,  King 
of  Holland,  aI>out  the  same  time  resigned  in  favour  of  his  son, 
in  order  to  marry  a  Catholic  lady. 

Germany  was  at  this  time  in  an  unsettled  state.  The  party 
which  had  raised  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne  of  France  had 
many  sympathizers  in  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Italy,  who 
all  jianted  to  overturn  the  altar  and  the  throne.  For  a  time 
no  overt  acts  occurred  ;  the  various  powers,  by  a  strict  sys- 
tem of  vigilance,  maintained  their  authority,  but  all  perceived 
that  a  grtat  revolution  was  at  hand.  The  first  scene  opened 
in  Switzerland,  in  1844. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

FROM    THE    REVOLUTION    IN    SWITZERLAND,    IN    1844,    TO    THK 
CLOSE    OF    THE    YEAR    1852. 

RwiTZERLAsn  was  a  federal  republic,  in  which  each  canton 
was  absolutely  independent  as  to  local  matters.  Some  were 
Protestant,  some  Catholic;  the  latter  of  which  had  their  con- 
vent-^,  colleges,  religious  orders,  and  all  that  springs  from  the 
Catholic  fiith.  In  thi-  state  of  po|nilar  feeling  that  pnivailed 
these  cstahli^hments  became  obnoxious,  and  the  revolutionary 
party  cjdled  first  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits :  this  ths 
Catholic  cantons  refused.  Rallied,  but  not  defeated,  their 
antagonists  had  recourse  to  arms ;  a  body  of  troops,  called 
the  Free  Corps,  raised  in  the  Protestant  cantons,  attacked 
Lucerne,  in  March,  ]^ir>,  but  were  signally  defeated  by  the 
hanly  des(;endants  (u  the  first  lil)erators  of  Switzerland,  now 
combating  not  merely  for  civil,  but  for  religious  liberty. 

After  the  defeat  of  the  Free  (Jori)s,  the  canton  of  Pxrno 
intervened,  and  by  a  treaty  agreed  to  indemnify  Lucerne, 
bu"  at  the  noxt  scKsion  of  the  federal  diet  this  was  ordered  to 


LV.J  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  459 

be  pair],  not  from  the  treasury  of  Berne,  but  from  that  of  the 
general  guvernment,  Tliis,  and  the  approval  of  the  pillage 
of  the  convents  in  Argau,  showed  the  Catholic  cantons  that 
they  could  expect  nothing  from  their  enemies  but  open  force 
or  fraud.  They  now  formed  a  league  for  mutual  defence,  called 
the  Sonderbund,  but  the  council  of  state  dissolved  the  league, 
and  continued  the  mockery  of  fair  dealing  by  a  promise  of  pro- 
tection to  the  cantons  composing  it.  Even  this  promise,  futile 
as  it  was,  displeased  the  radicals,  and  a  revolution  in  Geneva 
took  place.  In  November  the  diet  passed  resolutions  against 
the  Sonderbund  or  league.  Hostilities  were  now  renewed. 

In  November,  1847,  Fribourg  was  taken  by  the  federal 
troops,  and  a  new  government  forced  on  the  canton,  and  the 
people  disarmed.  The  tyrants  now  marched  on  Lucerne,  after 
expelling  all  the  religious  from  Fribourg.  Two  engagements 
took  place,  in  which  Sonderbund  gained  a  slight  advantage, 
and  occupied  Tecino.  On  the  23d  the  invading  army  reached 
the  bridge  of  Gislikon,  the  key  of  Lucerne,  and  in  attempting 
to  carry  it  were  twice  repulsed  :  but  General  Gureer  and  the 
division  of  Zurich  at  last  carried  it.  The  neighbouring  heights 
still  held  out,  but  as  the  invaders  had  60,000  men,  and  the 
Lucernese  15,000,  the  latter,  after  a  series  of  sanguinary  con- 
flicts,  were  at  last  driven  from  Roth,  Dieriken,  and  Honau. 
Lucerne  now  sought  to  make  terms  :  these  were  refused,  and 
on  the  25th  it  surrendered,  and  a  new  government  was  forced 
upon  it  by  the  Protestant  cantons.  Schweitz  capitulated  the 
same  day,  and  the  rest  soon  followed,  and  the  rights  of  the 
cantons  were  sacrificed  to  the  will  of  the  majority.  The  diet 
now  ruled  supreme  ;  all  the  religious  houses  were  suppressed, 
and,  to  the  disgrace  of  Switzerland  and  England  who  abetted 
the  centralists,  even  the  monks  of  St,  Bernard  were  driven 
from  their  Alpine  convent. 

The  excitement  in  Germany  and  Italy  still  continued. 
Two  objects  seemed  to  be  universally  desired,  liberal  govern- 
ments, and  a  national  union,  so  that  Germany  and  Italy  should 
each  be  consolidated  into  a  single  government,  under  a  single 
head.  This  was  to  be  effected  in  Germany  by  the  restoration 
of  the  German  Empire ;  in  Italy,  by  the  union  of  the  several 
states  on  a  similar  plan.  During  the  ensuing  years  both  these 
ends  were  pursued,  though  in  ditlerent  ways.  A  German 
parliament,  to  restore  the  empire,  and  break  down  the 
barriers  between  the  states,  was  soon  granted.  The  lib- 
eral constitutions  were  obtained  by  a  series  of  revolutions 
more  or   less  bloody.      In    February,  1847,   the   Prussian 


4G0  OKNKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

monarch  granted  a  constitution  :  in  October  troiibles  arose  in 
Tuscany  and  Lucca;  J^ardinia  protested  against  Austrian 
inlcrt'crcnce,  and  Bavaria  demanded  freedom  of  the  press, 
whilst  almost  at  the  sjime  time  refomi  dinners  wore  held  in 
France,  to  complete  the  unnnished  work  of  1830.  Louis 
Philippe  resorted  to  stringent  measures  to  cheek  this  spirit, 
and  hetbrc  any  rupture  took  pl.ace,  the  Sicilians  opened  the 
chapter  of  revolutions  by  an  insurrection  at  Palermo,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1848,  during  which  a  battle  took  place  and  the  city 
was  bombarded  by  the  Nrajxilitan  troops.  Concessions  were 
prolTered  but  rejected,  and  though  a  constitution  was  issued, 
pcAce  was  not  restored.  Messina  then  revolted ;  The 
island  soon  afterwards  declared  itself  independent,  and  a  few 
months  after  the  Sicilians  elected  as  their  king  the  Duke  of 
Genoa.  Na[iles  itself  revolted  in  May,  and  was  reduced  only 
after  a  most  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  Lazzaroni,  in  which 
nearly  two  thousand  were  killed.  The  revolted  cities  in  Sicily 
were  bombarded,  and  with  Syracuse  and  Catania  were  all  at 
last  reduced  by  the  Neajiolitans. 

The  outbreak  in  Sicily  hastened  the  crisis  in  France.  A 
banquet,  appointed  for  the  22d  of  February,  was  prohibited 
by  the  government.  On  that  day  mobs  paraded  the  streets, 
constantly  collisions  took  pluce,  and  much  blood  was  shod. 

Barricades  were  now  thrown  up,  and  the  third  legion  of 
the  National  Guards,  and  even  one  legiment  of  the  line,  joined 
the  insurgents.  Louis  Philippe  trembled  for  his  throne; 
he  endeavoured  to  form  a  j)opular  n)inistry,  and  by  a  concilia- 
tory proclamation  avert  the  catastrophe,  but  all  failed.  On 
th^'  21th  he  left  the  city,  having  abdicated  in  favom-  of  his 
grandson,  the  Count  of  I'aris,  and  made  his  escape  with  the 
queen  to  England.  The  claims  of  the  young  Count  were  how- 
ever rejecteil,  and  a  republic  proclaimed.  Thus  in  a  fey; 
hours,  and  alfno><t  without  a  struggle,  fell  a  monarch,  who  was 
deemed  the  ablest  of  his  time,  one  who  had  for  nearly  twenty 
years  guided  the  most  turbulent  people  in  Europe. 

G<*neral  risings  now  took  [)lace  throughout  Gennany.  The 
Kingi'f  I'russia  left  IJ,  rlin,  and  restored  calm  only  by  a  pro- 
clamation advocating  German  union,  liberal  measures,  and  a 
freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press.  Ilolstein,  a  German 
duehy  belonging  to  Denmark,  next  rose  and  annexed  itself 
to  the  great  German  nation,  and  being  sustained  by  Prussia, 
involved  that  cfunitry  in  a  war  with  Denmark.  In  the  smaller 
German  states  the  peofde  demandetl  concessions,  which  were 
In  moi'.t  ca.sc3  granted,  while  in  others  the  ruling  prince  abdi 


LV.j  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  415 1 

cated.  Among  those  who  about  this  time  retired  was  Louis, 
King  of  Bavaria,  who  deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice. 
His  early  career  had  b^sen  distinguished  by  the  economical 
spirit  which  directed  his  policy.  A  patron  of  religion  and  art, 
he  devoted  his  surplus  revenues  to  these  objects,  and  Bavaria 
owes  to  him  her  celebrated  University  of  Munich,  founded  to 
enable  a  Catholic  to  acquire  science  without  prejudice  to  faith, 
and  to  be  grounded  in  his  faith  without  detriment  to  learning. 
By  his  encouragement  arose  the  Dusseldorf  school  of  paint- 
ing, which  has  dune  so  much  for  Christian  art.  Besides  these, 
he  erected'  several  magnificent  edifices  as  receptacles  for  col- 
lections of  painting,  and  the  Walhalia,  a  kind  of  national 
pantheon.  These  had  won  him  the  esteem  and  love  of  his 
people,  but  forsaking  the  paths  of  morality,  he  became  ob- 
noxious, and  in  those  times  of  trouble  was  forced  to  abdicate. 

Meanwhile  the  great  German  parliament  was  assembling 
to  restore  the  Empire.  It  met  on  the  18th  of  May,  and  a 
straggle  at  once  arose  between  the  Austrian  and  Prussian 
party,  both  of  which  aspired  to  the  imperial  title;  the  former 
resting  on  her  ancient  rights,  the  latter  relying  on  the  support 
of  the  popular  party.  After  a  long  contest  the  Parliament 
on  the  29th  of  June  elected  as  Lord-Lieutenant,  or  provisional 
paramount  head  of  the  Empire,  the  Archduke  John  of  Austria, 
by  a  vote  of  176  to  85,  and  the  German  Empire  was  thus 
nominally  restored. 

While  the  House  of  Austria  M'as  thus  aspiring  to  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  its  own  possessions  were  in  great  disorder. 
Lombnrdy  and  Venice  rose,  and,  expelling  the  Austrians, 
proclaimed  independence.  Austria  called  for  a  constitution, 
while  the  Sclaves  in  Bohemia,  in  Croatia  and  the  other  Hun- 
garian states,  demanded  civil  rights. 

The  Emperor  Ferdinand  made  concessions  in  Lombardy, 
which  were  announced  in  I\Lareh  but  on  the  ISth  Milan  re- 
volted, and  the  Austiians  fell  back  to  Mantua,  while  Charles 
Albert,  the  ambitious  King  of  Sardinia,  who  aspired  to  the 
Kingdom  of  all  Italy,  entered  the  city  as  the  ally  of  the 
Lombards.  The  retreating  Austrians  were  pursued  and  de- 
feated ;  all  Lombardy,  with  Venice,  Trieste,  and  Tyrol,  was 
now  in  open  revolt.  Parma  joined  them,  Modcna  revolted, 
and  even  the  States  of  the  Church  joined  the  Italian  paily. 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  respected  for  his  firmness,  had  steadily 
adhered  to  former  ideas,  and  repressed  all  insurrectionary 
movements  during  hia  reign,  and  was  consequently  impopular 
with  the  revolutionists.    On  his  death,  on  the  1st  June,  1846 

41* 


4fi2  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EIROPK.  [ciIAP. 

much  anxiety  was  felt,  and  a  general  revolution  was  feared, 
but  hy  the  lOth  of  the  same  month  t^e  Cardinals  had  elected 
a  successor,  in  the  person  of  Cardinal  Mastai  Feretti,  whc 
flssunied  the  title  of  I'ius  the  Ninth.  Unlike  his  predecessor, 
the  new  pontiff  favoured  the  progressive  party  and  the  cause 
of  Italian  nationality.  On  the  IGtli  of  July  he  proclaimed  a 
general  amnesty  for  all  political  ollcnces,  and  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  his  Cardinals  began  a  system  of  political  reforms. 
A  popular  government  was  formed,  in  which  more  was  volun- 
tarily conceded  by  the  Pope,  than  the  Germans  afterwards 
wr\uig  from  their  reluctant  princes.  His  popularity  now 
knew  no  bounds,  and  his  name  was  pronounced  with  honour, 
even  in  the  I'niled  States,  where  the  papal  power  is  by  no 
means  |io])ular.  Wluii  the  Lombards  rose,  all  his  sympathies 
were  with  the  Italians,  and  before  Charles  Albert  set  out  to 
join  the  insurgents,  I^ius  sent  him  a  sword  with  this  inscrip- 
tion, "To  the  mngnanimous  King  Charles  Albert,  the  sword 
which  shall  make  Italy  free,"  and  ordered  a  Roman  army  of 
observation  to  the  frontier.  All  Italy,  except  Naples,  was 
thus  really  united  against  Austria,  but  that  power  now 
prepared  to  subdue  the  revolt.  Saidinia  had  declared  war, 
and  the  King  had  advanced  to  Pavia  and  taken  Lodi.  In 
April,  however.  Marshal  IJadetsky  ami  his  Austrians  still 
holding  Mantua,  Verona  and  Peschiera,  b»"gan  a  series  of 
manoeuvres  between  Painia  and  Placenza,  but  the  Sardinians 
advanced  on  Verona,  invested  Peschiera,  and  forcing  the 
Au>trian  line  in  three  places,  advanced  to  \'alKggio  and 
crossiid  the  Adijje.  Peschiera  even  was  attacked.  Meanwhile 
Kadetsky.  having  elVected  a  junction  with  another  army  luider 
General  Nugent,  entered  Verona,  and  on  the  )l4\h  of  May 
attacked  \'iceiiza.  IJepulsed  here,  tht-y  engaged  the  Italians 
at  Goito,  but  were  driven  back  to  Mantua  after  a  three  days' 
hard  light.  Peschiera  now  surren(l(at<l,  antl  the  Lombards, 
saiigtiine  of  success,  annexed  their  country  to  the  Kingtlom  of 
Sardinia. 

Here,  however,  their  sucress  ends.  I'adetsky  invested 
Viecnza  on  the  10th  of  .lune,  and  afler  a  bombardment  of 
eighteen  hours  General  Durando  capitulated.  Padua  soon 
after  surniudered  to  the  Austrians,  who  next  attacked  Rivoli, 
but  were  at  fnst  checke<l,  and  Charles  Albtrt  transfeired  his 
headcjuaiters  to  Marmerola.  Hetween  the  22d  and  iiTth.  a 
series  of  engagements  took  f)lacc  at  Hivoli,  Volta  and  other 
points,  by  which  the  Il.'dians  were  driven  from  all  the  country 
be'.wcen  the  Adige  and  Mincio      Mantua  was  now  relieved, 


LV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  463 

Peschiera  retaken,  Milan  capitulated,  and  the  Italians  were 
soon  in  full  retreat  into  Piedmont,  leaving  the  Austrians  com- 
plete masters  of  Lonibardy,  Thus  ended  the  campaign  of 
1848,  in  which  the  Austrians  lost  2,700,  and  the  Sardinians 
about  4,000  men,  the  remainder  of  the  Italian  army  being 
almost  entirely  prostrated  by  disease. 

The  Sclaves  in  Bohemia  were  reduced,  but  as  the  Magyar 
Hungarians  refused  all  concession,  the  Croats  joined  the  Aus- 
trians; the  Magyars  revolted  and  killed  Lamberg,  the  Im- 
perial Commissioner,  at  Pest.  On  this  and  other  demonstrations 
of  hostility,  the  Emperor  dissolved  the  Hungarian  diet,  pro- 
claimed martial  law,  and  appointed  the  Croat  Jellachich  to  the 
supreme  government.  The  diet  refused  to  submit,  created  a 
defence  committee  and  appointed  Louis  Kossuth  President. 

The  revolutionary  party  at  Vienna  showed  great  dissatis- 
faction with  the  Emperor's  conduct  in  regard  to  Hungary, 
and  when  troops  were  ordered  to  join  the  imperial  army,  the 
National  Guard  prevented  their  departure,  and  the  troops, 
after  two  attempts  to  proceed,  fraternized  with  the  National 
Guard  and  returned  to  the  city.  Vienna  was  now  in  open 
revolt ;  a  part  of  the  National  Guard  which  still  declared  for 
the  Emperor  was  posted  in  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral,  but  this 
was  soon  taken  ;  the  War  Office  was  next  carried,  and  Count 
Latour,  the  Minister  of  War,  murdered,  stripped  and  gib 
betted.  The  Arsenal  was  next  besieged ;  it  held  out,  though 
the  fortress  surrendered.  The  diet  now  assembled,  and  elect- 
ing  a  committee  of  safety,  sent  in  a  series  of  proposals  to  the 
Emperor,  requiring  an  amnesty  for  themselves,  a  change  of 
ministry,  a  revocation  of  his  proclamation  against  Hungary, 
and  the  removal  of  Jellachich  from  the  supreme  government. 
This  he  declined  to  grant,  and  as  a  change  of  ministry  alone 
would  not  quiet  disorders,  he  left  Vienna. 

A  part  of  the  Austrian  army,  amt)unting  to  20,000  men, 
lay  without  the  walls,  but  the  commander,  Count  Auesperg, 
stood  neutral.  Meanwhile,  Jellachich  refused  to  obey  the 
Hungarian  diet,  who  now  consideiing  his  presence  as  a  Croat 
invasion  of  Hungary,  sent  the  Hungarian  army  under  the 
Austrian  General  Moge  to  expel  him.  The  first  engagement 
between  them  took  place  at  Pakozd,  on  the  29th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1848,  and  led  to  an  armistice  of  three  days.  During  the 
armistice,  Jellachich,  finding  his  force  too  inconsiderable,  be 
gan  a  retreat  to  the  Austrian  frontier  through  Paab,  leaving 
behind  a  corps  of  his  army  under  General  Roth,  which  was 
surrounded  and  forced  to  sm-render  to  the  Hungarian  Perczel. 


414  GENKRAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHAP. 

Jellaohich  s(»on  reaohe<l,  and  crossing  tliL'  TTungarian  front- 
ier, took  post  beyond  the  I^ajtha ;  the  Hungarians  halted  at 
thr  tVontitT  and  hi'sitatod  as  to  invading  foreign  territory; 
thcv  tit  last,  however,  crossed,  and  advanced  so  ncjir  \  ienna 
that  thc'ir  videttes  were  seen  from  the  city.  Both  armies  now 
lay  for  some  time  in  face  of  each  other  without  coming  to  an 
engagement  or  acting  on  the  city.  At  last  the  Iliniuarians, 
who  had  fallen  back,  were  roused  by  the  eloquence  of  Kossuth, 
and  crossing  the  Lajtha,  once  more  came  up  to  the  Croat 
arniy  at  Schwechat,  but  were  repulsed  on  the  30th  of  October. 
\\  hile  these  two  armies  were  marching  and  countermarching 
and  Auesperg  stood  neutral,  the  Emperor  gave  the  command 
of  his  tbrces  to  Prince  Wiiidischgratz,  and  declaring  Vienna 
in  revolt  left  that  (ieneral  to  reduce  it.  The  city  was  soon 
surrounded  by  the  imperial  armies,  and  as  all  hope  of  Hun- 
garian aid  had  vanished  the  diet  sought  to  make  terms; 
nothing,  however,  was  concluded.  Windischgral/  occupied 
the  island  of  Lobau,  summoned  the  city  and  bigan  the  attnck. 
The  town-council  now  resolved  to  surrender,  but  as  Win- 
dischixratz  entered,  he  was  attacked  by  a  part  of  the  insur- 
gents under  General  Bcm,  and  a  series  of  bloody  fights  ensued, 
but  the  city  was  at  hvst  reduced  on  the  2d  of  November, 
Several  military  executions  now  took  place,  and  peace  was 
restored,  but  Ferdinand,  weary  of  the  long  struggle,  carried 
out  a  long  projected  design  and  resigned  the  thionc  to  his 
nephew,  the  Archiluke  Francis  Joseph.  Pursuing  the  plans 
of  his  predecessor,  he  continued  the  Hungarian  war  with 
vigour.  Both  parties  now  made  active  preparations  forafuial 
struggle.  In  L)eci-mber,  the  Austrians,  under  tSimonich,  at- 
tacked and  dctVated  the  Hungarians  at  Nadas,  and  soon  aller 
at  ,M<K>r  and  Hodrics,  'Jhe  insurgents  now  retired  on  Kaab, 
and  this  ihey  proclaimed  was  to  be  the  giave  of  Hungarian 
freeilom.  This  p<ist  was,  hosvever,  a))andoned,  and  the  new 
commander,  l)enil)inski,  after  a  three  days'  fight  at  Ka[)olna, 
was  again  obliged  to  fill  back.  The  Hungarian  forces,  in 
S'p'.tc  of  their  numbers  and  bravery,  were  now  driven  back, 
and  not  even  the  signal  victory  of  Naszeg,  in  April,  could 
re'j-i'*ve  their  tottering  nalioiuility.  This  advantage  was  well 
followed  up,  however;  Waiser  was  taken,  the  Austrians 
checked  at  Los-;f»nc7,.  aid  the  Hungarians  crossing  the  ( Jran 
jigain  under  (ieneral  Damjanies,  d'feated  the  Austrians  at 
Niigysarlo,  and  relieved  the  f  irtiess  of  Komorn  on  the  Danube. 
Ofen  was  ?iixt  besieged,  and  tjiken  on  the  21st  of  May.  after  a 
biege  of  17  days,  in  which  the  Au^slriaii  commanler,   Hent2i, 


LV.  ]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  465 

was  mortally  wounded.  This  was  almost  the  last  triumph  of 
the  TTungariaiis,  who  had  now  thrown  ofT  the  Austrian  yoke 
entirely  and  piocJuimed  a  republic.  The  Austrian  Ileiss  was 
defeated  and  killed  at  Csorna  by  General  Kmety,  but  the 
Russians  were  now  advancing  to  the  aid  of  the  Austrians,  and 
the  Hungarians  after  a  general  battle  at  Pered  again  began  to 
fall  back.  A  series  of  defeats,  not  only  of  the  main  array, 
but  also  of  the  divisions  under  Dembinski  and  Bern,  con 
vinced  all  parties  that  the  struggle  was  hopeless.  Haynau 
had  now  succeeded  Windischgratz,  and  his  severity  gave  the 
leaders  little  hope  of  personal  safety.  On  the  1 1th  of  August, 
Kossuth  accordingly  dissolved  the  provisional  government, 
and  committed  all  power,  civil  and  military,  to  General  Gorgei. 
He  then,  with  several  others,  fled  across  the  frontier  into  Tur- 
key. Two  days  after,  Gorgei,  who  had  for  some  time  been 
treating  with  the  Russians  for  a  surrender,  capitulated  at  Vil- 
lages, and  the  w-ar  was  thus  brought  to  a  close. 

The  renewal  of  the  Lombard  war,  was  one  reason  why  the 
Austrians  were  so  long  in  reducing  Hungary,  and  eventually 
succeeded  only  by  the  aid  of  Russia.  An  arniistice  had  been 
Concluded  under  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  with  Charles  Albert. 
A  rupture  occurred  soon  after  the  accession  of  Francis,  and 
the  Sardinian  again  took  the  field  in  March,  1849,  no  longer 
buoyed  up  by  ambitious  hopes,  but  driven  by  public  opinion 
to  what  he  now  saw  a  desperate  game.  Radetsky  soon 
crossed  the  Tecino,  with  a  victorious  army  of  40,000  men, 
and  after  a  slight  resistance  advanced  to  Mortara.  Turning 
thence  with  his  main  body  to  Vercelli,  he  separated  the  two 
divisions  of  the  Sardinian  army  and  attacked  that  commanded 
by  the  King.  The  Sardinians,  though  almost  destitute  of 
artillery,  fought  bravely,  but  were  defeated  with  great  loss, 
and  Charles  Albert  retired  almost  in  flight  on  Turin.  On  the 
following  day,  March  2od,  the  Austrians  attacked  them  again 
at  Novara.  Charles  Albert,  now  driven  to  despair,  fought 
with  the  most  determined  courage,  but  after  losing  neaily 
15,000  men,  beheld  his  army  routed  in  every  direction.  His 
kingdom  lay  at  the  feet  of  the  Austrians,  and  he  who  but 
a  abort  time  before  had  been  hailed  King  of  Italy,  abdicated 
the  throne  of  Sardinia  in  favour  of  his  son,  Victor  Emanuel, 
and  fled  to  Switzerland,  to  die  so^n  after  unnoticed  at  Lisbor 

W^e  must  now  resume  the  affairs  of  Fiance,  which  we  lei^ 
under  the  provisional  government  formed  after  the  flight  of 
Louis  Philippe.  While  the  new  government  was  attempting 
to  organize  public  affairs  in  the  inteiior,  the  Socialists,  fearing 


160  GENERAL    IlISTOKV    OF    EUROPE.  [cilAP 

rest  iiflor  all  the  new  government  might  not  be  sufficiently  ultra, 
and  as  unfavourable  as  the  last  to  their  ideas,  resolvt-d  on  a 
urw  revoiutitiii  and  a  reign  ol"  terror.  The  first  manifestation 
in  April,  1848,  was  easily  suppressed,  but  ii.  the  course  of 
May,  processions  of  workmen  moved  through  the  streets  and 
at  la-<t  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Here  a  scene  of 
confusion  ensued:  Louis  Blanc,  and  otlier  deputies  of  the  ultra 
or  Red  liepuhlican  party,  sided  with  the  mob,  and  a  new  pro- 
visional  government  was  jyroclaimed;  but  as  the  mob  retired 
in  triumph,  they  were  surroundt-d  by  troops,  their  leaders 
arrested,  and  order  restored.  General  Cavaignac  was  now 
uj)[)ointed  Minister  of  War. 

The  time  for  the  elections  having  arrived,  they  took  place 
in  great  trancjuillity.  Louis  Napoleon  was  elected  a  member ; 
but  a  still  more  striking  feature  was  the  election  of  several 
members  of  the  clergy.  From  the  outset  they  had  as  a  body 
sided  with  the  new  government,  and  as  citizens  taken  their 
part  in  puldic  atliiirs.  Many  now  presented  themselves  as 
camlidates,  and  several  bishops  and  priests — among  others, 
the  Dominican  Lacordaire,  in  the  habit  of  his  order — took  their 
seats  in  the  House  with  their  fellow  deputies.  This  frank  and 
manly  course  did  more  than  <iny  previous  step  to  ili>pel  pre« 
juilicc — religion  and  its  ministers,  already  respected,  now 
gained  a  new  title  to  public  esteem. 

The  Assembly,  once  in  operation,  began  to  draw  off  the 
workmen  in  the  national  shops,  in  order  to  diminish  the  dan- 
ger. Three  thousand  were  detailed  to  the  provinces;  but  they 
immediately  returned  to  Paris  and  the  revolt  began. 

IJairicades  were  thrown  up  on  the  22d  of  June,  and  a  new 
civil  war  began.  The  lirst  blood  was  shed  at  the  Porte  St. 
Denis,  where  the  National  Guard  was  twice  repulsed.  By 
the  '24lh  one  half  of  Paris  was  fortitlid   In'   the  insurirents, 

1  0  7 

and  the  Assembly,  iiive^ling  Cavaignac  with  dictatorial  powers, 
declared  itself  in  permanent  session.  The  battle  now  ct>m- 
mcnccd ;  the  troops,  aldy  commanded,  gained  ground,  though 
but  slowly.  A  bloody  tight  to<ik  place  at  the  l'aiUh(M>n  and 
Clos  St.  j.,azare,  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  was  at  last 
subdued,  but  not  before  Af  e,  Archbishop  of  P.iris,  who  had 
gone  to  the  barricades  fo  urge  the  |>eople  to  desist,  hafl  fillen 
a  victim  to  his  zeal.  The  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  still  held 
out,  and  was  reduced  only  by  shells  and  red-hot  balls,  for 
Cavaignac,  finding  it  usc-lcss  to  confine  the  .attaek  to  the  barri- 
aitles,  bombanlcd  the  houses.  'J'he  insurrection  was  thus  at 
la.st  quelled,  but  only  at  a  frightful  loss  of  life;  seven  generalt 


LV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  4G7 

and  four  members  of  Assembly  were  killed,  and  at  least  four 
thousand  men  killed  or  severely  wounded. 

The  vigour  displayed  by  the  provisional  government  in  this 
crisis  raised  the  confidence  of  all,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
year  passed  unmarked  by  any  event  of  moment.  All  atten- 
tion was  meanwhile  devoted  to  the  framing  of  the  new  consti- 
tution, which  was  adopted  in  November.  By  its  provisions 
the  fcxecutive  power  was  vested  in  a  President,  to  be  chosen 
every  four  years,  and  an  election  was  almost  immediately 
.leld.  I'hree  prominent  candidates  appeared  :  Louis  Napoleon, 
.rusting  to  his  family  name  ;  Cavaignac,  the  deliverer  of  Paris ; 
«nd  Ledru  Ivollin,  the  candidate  of  the  Red  Republicans.  Of 
these,  the  rii'si  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  nearly  four  mil- 
iions,  and  entered  at  once  on  the  duties  of  his  office. 

About  this  time  troubles  began  in  Ronie.  Pius  IX.,  once 
the  idol  of  the  liberal  party,  had  now  become  an  object  of 
their  hate.  In  vain  had  he  granted  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, investing  the  people  for  the  first  time  with  a  share  in 
the  direction  of  affairs.  In  vain  he  had  sympathized  with  the 
Lombards  and  prevented  the  Austrians  from  entering  his 
territory.  There  was  a  fever  for  republics,  and  nothing  could 
save  him.  Determined  to  leave  him  merely  nominal  power, 
his  enemies  began  by  assassinating  his  prime  minister,  Rossi. 
The  mob  then  entered  the  palace  and  stabbed  Caidinal  Palma 
in  the  presence  of  the  Pope,  and  demanded  a  war  of  inde- 
pendence against  Austria  and  a  constituent  assembly.  He 
gianted  a  new  ministry,  but  was  now  a  prisoner  in  his  palace, 
closely  guarded  l)y  the  insurgents.  This  state  of  affairs  con 
tinned  till  the  24th  of  November,  when  after  a  week's  con- 
finement, Pius  IX.,  by  the  aid  of  the  Bavarian  envoy  and  his  , 
wife,  assisted  by  the  French  ambassador,  escaped  in  disguise 
from  the  palace  and  Rome  to  Gaeta,  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples. 

The  revolutionary  party  now  ruled  at  Rome,  and  a  scene 
of  pillage  and  assassination  followed.  Disregarding  the  com- 
mission left  by  the  fugitive  Pontiff,  they  dissolved  the  Roman 
Chamber  and  convened  a  constituent  assembly.  The  scum 
of  Italy  now  gathered  in  at  Rome,  and  these  men,  who  sought 
only  blood  and  rapine,  sullied  the  name  of  Republic  by  giving 
it  to  their  government.  The  name  need  not  deceive  us; 
there  is  nothing  in  common  between  these  would-be  founders 
of  republics  and  the  calm  and  dignified  flithers  of  our  own 
commonwealths. 

The  French  public  had  maintained  public  trant^uillity  by  ita 


4G8  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cHlP. 

firmness  and  energy.  After  subduing  the  Socialists  of  Paris, 
it  K)ul<cd  witli  no  kindly  eyes  on  Mazzini  and  the  StK'ialists  of 
Ilaly.  Early  in  IJSJO  the  French  Kepublic  resolved  tu  restore 
I'ius  IX.  to  Ivoine ;  by  the  middle  of  April  a  French  force 
landed  at  Civita  Vecchia  and  advanced  on  Home.  The  revo- 
lutionists, con)manded  by  Garibaldi,  resolved  to  defend  the 
city  to  the  lust.  ISo  vigurously  did  they  c^irry  out  their 
res.olve,  that  the  French,  in  the  first  altick  on  the  29th  of 
April,  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  ()00  men.  The  city  was 
now  rcguhirly  besieged,  and  the  revolutionists,  when  Hulogna 
was  taken  by  the  Austrians,  al^J  another  foreign  army  was  thus 
within  the  territory,  saw  the  hopelessness  of  a  cause  which  had 
never  received  the  general  suj){iort  of  the  lloman  people.  The 
city  accordingly  surrendered  to  General  Oudinot  on  the  2d  of 
July,  and  Gaiibaldi  escaped  with  some  three  or  four  thousand 
men.  In  August  the  French  resigned  the  direction  of  affairs 
ti>  commissioners  deputed  by  the  l^ope,  and  Pius  IX.  soon 
after  issued  a  manifoto,  promising  reform,  and  when  peace 
was  finally  restored,  returned  to  Ivoine,  in  April,  1851. 

Every  state  on  the  Continent,  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Russia, 
had  been  racked  by  civil  dissensions,  except  Belgium  and 
Holland,  where  the  sovereigns,  by  the  readiness  which  they 
evinced  to  meet  the  wishes  of  loyal  citizens  for  refonr),  dis- 
armed all  oppo.sitiuu. 

Spain  was  n(jt  disturbed  within,  but  attempts  were  made  in 
the  summers  of  \ii'>0  and  1851  to  excite  a  revolution  in 
Cuba,  the  ri«hest  of  her  colonies.  The  parlies  in  these  at^ 
tempts  were  Spanish  refugees  and  .sympathizers  in  the  I'nited 
Sta<e'<,  luaded  by  Xaniso  Lopez,  formerly  a  (general  in  the 
SpaMi>h  scivire.  The  I  nited  Stales  had  just  concluded  a  suc- 
cessfid  war  with  Me.xico,  and  from  her  disbanded  armies 
many  were  easily  drawn  into  schemes  of  revolution.  In  the 
second  attempt,  Lopez  and  his  parly,  after  repulsing  one 
Spanish  detachment,  were  finally  dispersed,  and  most  of  the 
leaders  taken  and  executed  at  Havana. 

During  all  these  troubles  the  British  Isles  enjoyed  a  com- 
parative calm.  Famine  and  disease  desolated  Ireland  and 
drove  many  into  voluntary  e.xile,  while  a  spirit  of  disatfection, 
fomented  by  a  few,  at  last  «-ndc(l  in  an  attempted  rebellion,  in 
1n4w,  in  e4>nsequence  of  which  William  Smith  O'Brien,  M.  P., 
and  some  others,  were  arrested,  tried,  convicted,  and  sentenced 
U)  death,  l)Ut  traiisportetl  for  life.  The  only  other  topic  of 
public  interest  was  the  establi'-hniciit  of  a  regular  hierarchy  in 
liu:  C-utholic  (.'hureh  iu  England,  instead  of  the  provisional  one 


LV.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  4C9 

which  had  been  continued  since  the  period  of  the  Reform* 
tion.  This  step  on  the  part  of  Pope  Pius  was  merely  a  change 
of  names,  as  far  as  the  people  at  large  were  concerned,  while 
it  secured  the  English  Catholics  a  regular,  instead  of  a  provi' 
sional,  hierarchy.  Dr.  Wiseman,  long  known  for  his  scientific 
works,  republished  for  the  use  of  Protestant  seminaries  in 
this  country,  was  honoured  with  the  rank  of  Cardinal.  On  this, 
an  excitement  ensued,  which,  to  sensible  men  at  a  distance, 
seemed  perfectly  at  variance  with  the  good  sense  of  an  intel- 
ligent people.  Yielding  to  the  public  clamours,  new  penal 
laws  were  passed :  the  Catholic  bishops  were  made  liable  to 
fine  and  imprisonment,  convents  to  searches  at  any  hour  of  the 
day  or  night,  at  the  mere  whim  of  a  magistrate,  and  all  pub- 
lic demonstration  of  the  Catholic  faith  forbidden  under  severe 
penalties.  Thus  England,  while  aiding  all  the  revolutionary 
parties  on  the  Continent  as  the  guardian  of  civil  liberty, 
showed  her  love  of  it  by  depriving  her  own  subjects  of  reli- 
gious freedom. 

In  the  English  colonies  affairs  were  by  no  means  tranquil. 
At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  a  desolating  w^ar  was  carried  on 
by  the  Hottentots,  Boers,  and  Caffres,  which  has  continued  to 
the  presient,  and  been  attended  w'it*h  great  loss  of  life  and  pro- 
perty, and  proved  a  great  detriment  to  the  colony.  In  India, 
the  war  against  the  Sikhs  was  still  carried  on.  They  were 
defeated  by  Lord  Gough  at  Ramnuggur,  in  November,  1848, 
and  after  an  indecisive  battle  at  Chillianwallah  in  January,  again 
defeated  at  Goojerat,  in  February.  In  this  battle,  which  lasted 
from  seven  in  the  morning  till  four  in  the  afternoon,  the 
English  lost  a  thousand  men,  but  Sherefingh  was  so  broken 
in  his  resources,  that  the  residue  of  his  army  surrendered. 

The  German  troubles,  which  continued  latest,  were  those 
in  Holstein.  Denmark  had  manfully  resisted  the  combined 
German  armies,  and  after  a  number  of  severe  battles  at 
Dappeln,  Eckenforde,  Frederica,  Rastadt,  Idstedt,  the  war 
was  at  last  closed  by  the  treaty  of  Olmutz,  in  December, 
1850,  by  which  Denmark  retained  her  provinces. 

Prussia  had,  as  we  have  seen,  aspired  to  the  imperial  dig- 
nity. After  the  resignation  of  the  Archduke  John,  as  para- 
mount head  of  the  Empire,  and  the  virtual  dissolution  of  the 
parliament,  a  league  was  formed  at  Erfurt  in  which  Prussia 
had  the  controlling  influence.  At  this,  Austria  took  umbrage, 
and  a  war  nearly  ensued.  The  opposite  armies  were  actually 
in  sight  of  each  other  in  November,  1850,  and  the  Prussian 
monarch  called  out  the  whole  disposable  force  of  his  king- 

42 


470  GENERAL    niSTORT    OP   EUROrE.  [CH. 

dom ;  hut  lie  at  last  complied  with  the  demands  of 
Austria,  the  league  was  dissolved,  and  peace  restored. 

All  rcniaincMl  quiet  in  France  till  December,  1851, 
when  Napoleon  dissolved  the  National  Assembly  and 
Council  of  State,  and,  restoring  universal  suffrage,  called 
for  the  voice  of  the  peo])le  on  his  project  for  a  new 
government,  the  chief  features  of  which  were  an  execu- 
tive for  ten  years,  with  power  to  choose  his  ministers,  a 
council  of  state,  legislative  corps,  and  second  assembly. 
The  voice  of  the  peoj)le  a])proved  his  step,  and  delegated 
to  him  the  powers  necessary  to  frame  a  constitution. 
Re-elected  President,  Napoleon  spent  the  ensuing  year 
in  visiting  the  various  departments,  to  ])rcpare  for  his 
next  stej),  the  restoration  of  the  empire,  which  he  ellected 
in  December,  1852,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Napoleon 
III. 

Most  of  the  German  states  had  already  annulled  the 
constitutions  of  1848,  and  thus  all  Eurojte  had  fallen  back 
into  nearly  the  same  position  as  before  the  great  politi- 
cal tornado. 


CHAPTER  LVI. 

FROM  THE  RESTORATIOX  OF  THE  EMPIRE  IK  FRANCE,  1852, 
TO  THE  Ol'ENlNG  OF  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  VATICAN, 
DECEMnER,   18G9. 

Napoleon  at  once  proceeded  to  consolidate  the  new 
cmj)ire :  in  deiault  of  direct  heirs,  his  uncle  Jerome  Avith 
his  descendants  by  liis  second  wife  were  to  succeed, 
ignoring  his  ohihlren  by  his  real  wife,  Miss  Patterson 
of  ]Jaltimore.  JJiit  on  the  29th  of  January,  iH^n,  the 
Emperor  married  Eugenia  de  Montijo,  Countess  of  Teba, 
a  Spanish  lady,  who  soon  won  the  hearts  of  the  best 

IKjrtion  of  the  French  ])eople.  The  birth  of  a  Prince 
nvj)erial  gave  hopes  of  the  continuance  of  the  dynasty. 
In  the  government  of  the  empire  Napoleon  sought  to 
make  France  the  arbiter  of  Europe.  Among  his  objcets 
were  the  expulsion  of  Austria  from  Italy  ;  the  union  of 
the  various  Italian  powers  into  a  confederacy;  a  check 
to  the  influence  of  Pussia,  and  the  extension  of  the 
French  frontier  to  the  Rhine.     In  internal  affairs  he  de- 


LVI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY   OF   EUROPE.  471 

voted  himself  wisely  to  develop  the  industrial  forces, 
commerce,  and  material  wealth  of  his  people ;  but  the 
intense  republicans  of  France  did  not  forgive  his  assump- 
tion of  royalty,  and  those  of  Italy,  never  grateful  for 
what  he  did,  hated  him  with  an  intensity  of  hate  for  hia 
constant  protection  of  the  Pope.  This  led  in  1858  to  an 
attempt  made  on  his  life  by  Orsini  and  other  Italian 
refugees  at  Paris. 

Napoleon  from  the  outset  cultivated  harmonious  rela- 
tions with  England,  and  was  ably  supported  in  this  wise 
policy  by  Lord  Palmerston.  In  most  of  the  great  move- 
ments of  this  period  England  and  France  fought  side  by 
side,  a  spectacle  seldom  witnessed  except  in  the  days  of 
the  Crusades.  Meanwhile  Russia,  claiming  a  protectorate 
over  the  Greek  Church  throughout  the  East,  began  a 
series  of  demands  upon  the  Turkish  government  of  a 
most  imperious  character.  The  Sultan,  having  in  May, 
1853,  declined  to  yield,  the  Russian  Emperor  announced 
in  June  his  intention  of  invading  the  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  France  and  England  had  not 
however  been  indiiferent  spectators  of  this  project  of 
Russian  aggrandizement.  Representatives  from  those 
two  countries,  as  well  as  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  meet- 
ing in  conference,  agreed  upon  propositions,  which  were 
submitted  to  the  Czar,  and  accepted  by  him.  The  Porte, 
however,  declined  to  accept  the  A^ienna  note  without 
certain  modifications,  to  which  the  Czar  declined  to  ac- 
cede, and  on  the  1st  of  November  he  formally  declared 
war  against  TurkeJ^ 

The  first  engagement  took  place  at  Oltenitza,  on  the 
4th  of  November,  and  gave  the  Turks  fresh  courage, 
though  they  subsequently  fell  back  across  the  Danube, 
holding  the  Russians  in  check.  The  Russians  then 
besieged  Silistria;  but  after  a  siege  of  39  days,  in  which 
they  lost  12,000  men,  retreated  across  the  Danube,  pur- 
sued by  the  Turks,  who  lost  their  commander,  Moussa 
Pacha,  in  the  moment  of  victory.  The  barbarous  destruc- 
tion of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope,  and  of  the  town  itself 
by  the  Russians,  on  the  SOth,  led  to  a  remonstrance  from 
France  and  England,  who  insisted  that  their  combined 
fleet  should  have  the  command  of  the  Black  Sea.  On 
this  the  Russian  fleet  retired  within  the  defences  of  Sebas- 
topol,  a  strongly  fortified  port  in  the  Crimea.  An  in- 
eflectual  af  tempt  to  avert  a  general  war  failed,  and  all 


472  GKXKBAL   HISTORY    OF    KTJnorH.  [cH. 

proparcrl  to  act  with  vicror.  An  Entjlisli  floot  under  Sir 
Cliarlos  Napier  proccerled  to  the  Haltic  in  IMareh,  bom- 
hardc'tl  SwfahorLT,  and  eapluved  Homarsiind,  but  obtained 
no  deeinive  advanta^re.  Tlie  real  operations  were  con- 
ducted on  the  ]ilack  Sea.  A  French  army  under  Mar- 
plial  St.  Avnand,  and  an  Entrlisli  army  umh-r  Lord 
liacchin,  proceeded  to  tliat  quarter.  After  bombarding 
Odessa,  tlie  two  armies,  losing  severely  by  cholera  at 
Sarna,  were  joined  by  the  Turkish  army,  and  landed  on 
the  14th  of  Se])tember,  1854,  in  the  Crimea,  a  few  miles 
north  of  Sebastopol,  the  real  object  of  the  war,  and  the 
key  to  Russian  power  on  the  Black  Sea.  In  the  bloody 
battle  of  the  Alma,  on  the  20th,  the  Russians,  forced  from 
a  strong  ]»osition  by  the  English,  lied,  leaving  4,000 
killed  and  TOO  wounded  on  the  field,  and  700  prisoners. 
At  this  unexpected  reverse  they  sunk  their  fleet  at  tho 
entrance  of  the  harl)or  of  Sebastopol,  ensuring  it  from 
ea))ture,  and  preventing  the  entrance  of  the  allied  fleet. 
Sebastopol  was,  liowever,  comi)letely  invested. 

On  the  25th  of  October  the  Russians  made  an  effort 
to  raise  the  siege.  They  moved  out  in  force  to  attack 
the  allies  at  Balaclava,  but  though  they  renewed  the 
attem)»t  on  tlie  following  day,  were  defeated  on  both 
occasions,  and  comj)elled  to  retire  with  severe  loss.  This 
battle  is  famous  in  English  poetry  and  history  for  the 
famous  charge  of  the  Light  lirigade,  undi-r  Lord  Cardi- 
gan, who  in  obedience  to  a  mistaken  order,  charged  the 
liussian  batteries  under  the  cross-fire  of  the  enemy,  and 
captured  the  guns,  losing,  however,  409  out  of  607  men. 

Not  disheartene<l  by  their  failures,  the  Russians,  on  the 
5th  of  November,  moved  out  in  full  force  to  the  niimber 
of  50,000,  covered  by  their  guns,  and  attacked  the  allies 
at  Likerman,  but  after  a  terrible  struggle,  in  which  the 
allies  lost  over  4,000  men,  and  the  llussians  nearly  three 
times  as  many,  the  Russians  sullenly  retreated  across 
the  bridge  of  Inkorman. 

Nor  were  the  Russians  more  fortunate  in  their  attack 
on  Eupaloria  (February  17th,  1855).  After  a  combat  of 
four  hours  they  withdrew,  the  Turkish  general,  Omar 
Pasha,  gaining  a  decidc<l  victory. 

L'mlcr  this  k»ad  of  disasters  the  Czar  Nicholas  sank, 
dying  on  the  2d  of  March,  of  pulmonary  apoplexy.  His 
reign  had  been  signalized  by  his  fanatical  sjiirit,  evinced 
in  liis  j)ersecuti(;n  of  his  Catholic  subjects  of  the  Latiu 


LVI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  473 

and  United  Greek  Chnrchea,  and  in  his  pretensions  to 
direct  all  the  Oriental  Christians.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander  II. 

The  change  of  sovereign  made  no  alteration  in  tlie 
war.  The  allies,  joined  now  by  Sardinia,  continued  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  French  being  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Canrobert,  after  the  death  of  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  by 
cholera.  On  the  Yth  of  June,  General  Pelissier,  who 
succeeded  Canrobert,  attacked  and  carried  the  Maraelon, 
capturing  all  the  Russian  guns  and  many  prisoners ;  but 
a  combined  French  and  English  attack  on  the  Malakoff, 
on  the  18th,  was  repulsed  by  the  Russians  with  severe 
losses  on  both  sides.  This  Avas  followed  by  the  death  of 
Lord  Raglan,  who  was  succeeded  in  command  by  General 
Simpson,  Sir  George  Brown  as  a  Catholic  being  unable 
by  law  to  assume  command  of  an  army. 

On  the  5th  of  September  the  French  attacked  and 
carried  the  Malakoff,  at  a  loss  of  7,500  men  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  on  which  the  English  attacked 
but  failed  to  carry  the  Redan,  losing  about  2,500  men. 
During  the  night,  however,  the  Russians  gave  up  the 
contest,  and  blowing  up  their  arsenals,  with  Fort  Alex- 
ander, and  the  Grand  Magazine,  retreated.  The  siege 
had  lasted  349  days. 

Soon  after  the  Russians  suffered  a  severe  repulse  be- 
fore Kars  in  Asia  Minor,  Colonel  Williams,  commanding 
the  Turks,  defeating  General  Mouravieff  with  the  loss 
of  5,000  men ;  but  Mouravieff  continued  the  siege,  and 
though  Omar  Pasha,  marching  to  the  relief  of  Kars,  de- 
feated the  Russians  at  the  passage  of  the  Ingour,  he 
could  not  save  the  place,  which  surrendered  on  the  28th 
of  November. 

This  was  the  last  active  operation,  and  peace  was 
concluded  at  Paris,  March  30th,  1856.  By  its  provisions 
Turkey  was  to  be  admitted  to  participate  in  the  public 
law  and  system  of  Europe ;  the  Black  Sea  to  be  thrown 
open  to  commerce,  and  no  war  flag  permitted  on  it.  All 
the  boundaries  were  to  be  restored  as  before  the  war. 

England  has  seldom  been  at  peace  abroad.  The 
Caffres  attacked  the  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  were  not  reduced  till  1853.  In  the  same  year  the 
outrages  of  the  govej-nor  of  Rangoon  on  British  subjects 
led  to  a  war  with  Burmah,  in  which  England  wrested 
Pegu  from  that  kingdom.     In  India  the  extensive  king- 

43* 


4*74  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cU. 

(loin  of  Oncle  Avas  aiiiioxtMl  in  lsr)G,  and  llie  next  year 
war  was  made  on  Persia,  for  allcired  infractions  of  a 
trf'atv.  An  Kntilisli  army  under  Oiitrani  d'-ft'ated  the 
Shall  at  liarazjoon,  and  compelled  him  to  submit  to  Eng- 
lish dictation. 

]>ut  while  thus  extending  her  power  on  all  sides  in 
India,  its  veiy  existence  was  impcMiUrd  by  a  terribly  un- 
expected l)lo\v.  A  large  jiart  ol'the  army  in  India  con- 
Bisted  of  natives,  Hindoos,  and  Mahomedans,  wlio  were 
styled  Se))oys.  v\niong  these  suddridy  great  discontent 
])revailed,  chiefly  in  regard  to  thcEniield  cartridges  which 
were  greased  with  the  fat  of  liogs  and  cows,  and  being 
thus  according  to  their  religion  unclean  eoidd  not  be 
handled  or  bit  off.  As  the  English  authorities  instead 
of  atteinjiting  to  satisfy  tlieir  prejiulice,  resorted  to  liarsh- 
ness,  a  widespread  revolt  was  ])lanned.  On  the  10th 
of  ^lav,  1857,  the  Se))oys  at  ]\Teeiiit  mutinied  and  butch- 
ered all  the  English  they  could  lind,  men,  women,  and 
children.  Having  been  driven  out  by  the  carabineers 
they  fled  to  Delhi,  where  others  joined  them,  and  similar 
massa(!res  ensued.  I>y  the  end  of  June  the  Sepoys 
had  revolted  at  twenty-two  stations  in  the  laengal  jjresi- 
dency. 

The  Ent^lish  commander-in-chief.  General  Anson,  at 
once  marched  on  Delhi,  but  dying  on  the  way,  his  suc- 
cessor. Sir  II.  ]?arnard,  laid  siege  to  the  ])lace.  The 
commander  at  Cawnpore,  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler,  seeing  a 
mutiny  imminent  foimed  an  intrenched  camp,  into  which 
he  retired  with  all  the  Englisli  residents.  When  tlie 
Sepoys  niutinicfl  they  jiroceeded  to  the  camp  of  Nana 
Saliib,  Chief  of  JJithoor,  tlie  head  of  tlie  insurgents. 
Tlial  able  but  cruel  prince  at  once  invested  (ieneral 
Wheeler,  and  failing  to  reduce  him  by  force,  on  the  24th 
of  .lune  olfered  to  allow  him  to  witlxlraw  to  Allahabad, 
The  troops  lured  out  by  this  device  were  massacred  while 
embarking,  and  some  days  after  the  women  and  chihiren 
were  butcliere(l  with  the  utmost  cruelty.  In  Lucknow, 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence*',  and  on  his  fall  Colonel  Inglis,  held 
out  bravely  against  terrible  odds;  (general  Havelock, 
who  marched  to  his  relief  with  1,100  men,  and  eight 
guns,  defeated  the  rebels  at  I'nao,  on  the  "JOlh  of  .July, 
but  was  ■nable  to  reach  Lucknow,  his  force  having, 
in  nine  engagements  with  the  overwhelming  mimbera 
of  the  enemy,  been  reduoid  to  700  men.     Having  been 


LYI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  475 

re-eiiforccd  by  General  Outram  he  again  advanced,  de- 
feating the  enemy  at  Mungulwar  and  Alumbagh,  and 
on  the  25th  of  September  relieved  Lucknow,  which  had 
been  besieged  for  eighty-seven  days.  In  the  final  attack 
on  tlie  enemy,  General  Neill,  an  able  officer,  was  killed. 

Just  previous  to  this  General  Wilson  laid  siege  to 
Delhi,  and  after  a  severe  fight  took  it,  capturing  the 
king,  who  fled  with  the  rebels  after  the  action.  On  the 
17th  of  November,  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  after  a  series  of 
severe  engagements,  relieved  Havelock,  who  had  been 
shut  up  at  Lucknow,  and  who,  joining  his  forces  with 
Sir  Colin's,  completely  defeated  the  enemy.  This  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  safely  the  numerous  non-combatants, 
ladies,  families,  civilians,  etc.,  in  the  place,  but  Have- 
lock died  of  dysentery  the  day  before  Sir  Colin  quitted 
Lucknow. 

A  number  of  minor  engagements  followed  in  which 
the  Sepoys  were  steadily  defeated,  and  many  chiefs  in 
the  massacres  punished,  some  being  blown  from  the 
mouth  of  cannons.     Sir  II.  Rose,  on  the  1st  of  April, 

1858,  while  besieging  Jhansi,  was  attacked  by  Tantia 
Topee,  but  without  abandoning  the  investment  he  de- 
feated the  relieving  array,  capturing  all  the  elephants, 
artillery,  and  camp-equipage,  and  closed  his  brilliant 
victory  by  taking  the  town.  His  capture  of  Gwalior 
in  June  was  attended  by  nearly  similar  circumstances. 

The  mutiny  was  announced  as  finally  suppressed  iu 
December,  the  insurgents  having  been  hopelessly  driven 
beyond  tlie  mountains  into  Nepaul. 

Terrible  as  the  Sepoy  outbreak  was,  it  strengthened 
English  power,  and  convinced  the  native  chiefs  of  the 
hopelessness  of  resistance.  The  English  government 
now,  however,  put  an  end  to  the  sovereign  authority  of 
the  East  India  Company,  and  the  anomalous  rule  it  had 
exercised  for  so  many  years. 

Sardinia  had  long  been  ambitious  of  controlling  Italy, 
and  again  panted  to  begin  the  struggle  by  endeavoring 
to  drive  out  Austria  from  Lombardy  and  Venice.  Victor 
Emmanuel,  who  could  now  rely  on  French  aid,  collected 
so  large  an  army  on  the  Lombard  frontier,  in  April, 

1859,  that  Austria  demanded  a  disarmament,  and  on 
the  refusal  of  Sardinia  pushed  her  army  across  the  Ticino 
into  Piedmont,  on  the  2Vth  April.  Almost  at  the  same' 
moment  a  revolution  broke  out  iu  Tuscany,  the  Grand 


470  GENERAL    UISTOKY    OF    EUROPE.  [CH. 

Duke  fled,  and  a  provisional   ijovomment  was  formed 
wliicli  80t)n  gave  place  to  Sardiiiinn  officers. 

On  his  side,  the  Kin])eror  Napoleon  sent  forward  an 
army  to  Genoa,  and  joined  it  in  person  on  the  13th  of 
Ma}'.  A  short  but  decisive  campaiiin  followed.  On  tho 
20th  of  May,  the  Austriaiis,  15,000  strouor,  attacked 
tho  French  van  under  ^Marshal  Barat^uay  d'llilliers 
at  Montebello,  but  were  repulsed  after  an  obstinate 
fight  of  four  hours.  Another  Austrian  attack  at  I'ales- 
tro,  on  the  31st,  failed,  and  the  French  and  Sardini- 
ans crossed  the  Ticino  at  Turbigo  in  spite  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  enemy,  and  the  French  under  McMahon 
occupied  Magenta,  repulsing  the  Austrians  at  all  jioints. 
The  loss  of  tlie  allies  was  2,000,  as  they  reported,  that  of 
the  Austrians  much  greater. 

The  French  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Sardinia  pushed 
on  to  Milan,  and  entered  the  cajjital  of  Lombardy  on 
the  8th  of  June.  The  Austrian  army  was  again  defeated 
on  the  11th,  and  retired  within  the  Quadrilateral,  a 
strong  strategic  position.  On  the  25th  of  June  they, 
however,  crossed  the  Mincio,  and  again  gave  the  allies 
battle  at  Solferino.  This  was  »  most  important  action, 
the  allies  having  145,000,  the  Austrians  170,000,  in  the 
field.  The  former  lost  16,800  in  killed  and  wounded, 
the  Austrians  21,000.  Here  too  the  latter  were  again  de- 
feated, although  they  rejiulsed  the  Piedmontese." 

Finding  it  useless  to  jnolong  a  struggle  against  Buch 
odds,  the  Austrian  emperor,  by  the  treaty  of  Villafranca, 
on  the  nth  of  July  ceded  Lombardy,  excej)t  Mantua 
and  Feschiera,  to  France,  who  at  once  conveyed  it  to 
Sardinia.  Venice  was  to  remain  subject  to  Austria  as 
)art  of  the  proposed  Italian  Confederation,  the  (irand 
)uke  of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  Modena  were  to 
return  to  their  states.  A  treaty  at  Zurich,  in  November, 
formally  embodied  these  conditions. 

The  peace  was,  howev,'r,  a  hollow  one,  and  Sardinia 
at  once  commenced  her  intrigues  to  annex  the  duchies 
and  the  Papal  States.  Sardinian  rule  was  virtually 
maintained  over  the  <luchies,  and  the  Legations  weie  in- 
duced to  revolt  from  tl»e  J\»pe ;  on  which  Napoleon  IIL 
wrote,  urging  the  Pope  to  renounce  them,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  guaranty  i'or  the  peaceful  possession  of  the  rest  of  liis 
Plates.  Tlie  motive  was  soon  apparent:  a  vote  taken  in 
the  Duchies  and  the  Legations  decided  in  favor  of  anne.\a 


S 


LVI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  477 

tion  to  Sardinia,  and  Victor  Emmanuel  then  ceded  to 
France  the  duchy  of  Savoy,  the  orio-inal  possession  of 
his  fomily,  and  from  which  the  arms  of  Sardinia  were 
derived.  The  Pope  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria  both 
protested,  but  in  vain,  a^rainst  the  apjcression  of  Sardinia. 

But  the  ambition  of  Victor  Emmanuel  was  not  sated. 
On  the  5th  of  May,  1860,  Garibaldi,  a  native  of  Nice,  a 
sailor,  an  adventurer  in  South  America,  whose  native 
"Nice  had  just  become  a  French  province,  sailed  from 
Genoa  with  2,000  men  to  raise  a  rebellion  in  Sicily 
against  Francis  II.  He  landed  at  Marsala  on  the  10th, 
and  at  once  assumed  the  title  of  Dictator  of  Sicily,  in  the 
name  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy.  He  immediately 
attacked  Palermo.  He  was  joined  by  volunteers,  and 
finally  defeating  the  royal  troops  at  Melazzo,  soon  re- 
duced the  various  places  garrisoned  by  the  royal  troops. 
On  the  19th  of  August  he  left  the  island,  and  landed  at 
Spartevento.  After  defeating  the  troops  of  Francis  II. 
at  Reggio  and  San  Giovanni,  he  entered  Naples  on  the 
8th  of  September,  the  king  having  already  retired  to 
Gaeta. 

Meanwhile  the  Pope,  menaced  in  his  remaining  states, 
raised  forces  to  defend  them,  under  the  command  of 
Lamoriciere,  a  French  general  of  ability,  Napoleon 
averring  his  intention  of  resisting  any  Sardinian  aggres- 
sion ;  but  a  Sardinian  army  under  Cialdini  suddenly  in- 
vaded the  territory  with  such  overwhelming  forces, 
that  in  spite  of  the  most  heroic  defence,  Pesaro,  Fano, 
Urbino,  Perugia,  and  Spoleto,  the  last  garrisoned  in 
part  by  Insh  volunteers,  were  taken  by  assault.  Victor 
Emmanuel  then  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  araiy,  and 
crossing  the  frontier  into  the  Abruzzi,  eifected  a  junction, 
between  Teano  and  Speranzano,  with  Garibaldi,  who 
hailed  him  as  King  of  Italy. 

Except  the  small  district  around  Rome,  and  the  camp 
of  Francis  II.  at  Gaeta,  all  Italy  was  thus  reduced  to 
the  sway  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  Austria,  Prussia,  Rus- 
sia, Spain,  and  even  France,  censured  the  action  of  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel ;  but  unheeding  them  all,  that  monarch 
entered  Naples,  and  eifected  an  election,  giving  him 
sovereign  power  over  Naples  and  Sicily,  which,  with  the 
Marches  and  Unibria,  he  formally  annexed  to  his  domin- 
ions, December  26th,  1S60. 

Francis  II.  continued  the  struggle  for  a  time  at  Gaeta, 


478  GKNERAL    IIISTORT    OF    EUROPE.  [ca 

a  FrcMK'li  floot  ^ivinijf  liini  some  moral  snp])ort,  and  liis 
Gt'iifral  T.ovora  tk-ii-atini;  the  Sartliiiians  at  TaLxHaco/zo ; 
but  on  tlie  ]3tli  of  FcUniary,  ISOl,  (iacta  surroiKlereJ 
to  Cialdini,  wlio  in  ]\Iarch  rt'duccil  Messina,  and  the 
last  shadow  of  o]ii)Osition  to  Victor  Enunaniud  dis- 
apjicared. 

Tliis  wondcrfnl  siiocoss,  mainly  the  fruit  of  the  ])lans 
and  sfhemc'S  of  Count  Cavour,  was  but  just  attained 
when  that  statesman  died  at  Turin,  on  the  Gth  of  June, 
ISOl. 

For  a  time  the  ailditions  thus  made  to  his  kin<j;dom 
satisfied  the  ambition  of  the  kin<x,  but  the  turl)ulent  still 
clamored  for  Venice  and  Home,  and  in  18G1  Garibaldi 
bt"_ran  o]>erations  against  the  Po|>c,  which  Victor  Kninian- 
nel  checked  at  Aspromonte.  liut  Napoleon  could  not 
be  indifferent  to  the  Holy  See.  Victor  P^mmanuel,  by 
a  convention  concluded  on  the  1  5th  of  Se])t('mber,  1864, 
etiixatri'd  not  to  attack  the  territory  of  the  Holy  Father, 
and  even  to  ])revent  any  attack  beiiiii;  made,  as  well  as 
to  offer  no  opposition  to  the  orujanization  of  a  Papal 
army  of  forei<_jn  Catholics  to  maintain  order  and  defend 
his  state.  In  view  of  this  the  French  were  to  witiidraw 
at  the  end  of  two  years.  Florence  now  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  new  kintrdoin  of  Italy. 

The  affairs  of  the  utiiversal  church  had  eni,'an^ed  the 
attention  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  amid  all  the  troubles  that 
disturbed  Italy,  and  threatened  his  own  security.  De- 
voted especially  to  the  hotior  of  the  IJlessed  Virgin,  ho 
■wished  to  si<,'nalize  his  j)ontilicate  by  a  solemn  delinition 
of  her  Immaculate  Conception.  The  doctrine  was  treated 
with  the  utmost  fulness  by  PassaL,'Iia  and  other  theologi- 
ans; the  bishops  tliiouifhout  the  world  were  invited  to 
transmit  the  belief  that  had  obtained  from  time  imme- 
morial in  their  dioceses,  and  with  tliis  concurrent  expres- 
sion the  Pope,  on  the  nth  of  December,  lsr)4,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  fifty-four  cardinals,  and  one  hundred  and  ibrty- 
eight  arc]d)ishoj)S  and  bishops,  by  a  formal  bull  declared, 
pronounced,  and  defined,  that  the  doctrine  which  holds 
that  the  Blessed  Nirgin  .Mary,  at  the  Hrst  instant  ol'  her 
concej)tion,  by  a  singular  privilege  and  grace  of  Almighty 
(iod,  r»y  virtue  of  the  merits  ot.ft-sus  Christ  the  .Saviour 
of  mankind,  was  jtreserved  immaculate  I'rotn  all  stain  of 
original  sin,  has  been  revealed  by  (iod,  and  thereforo 
should  be   firmly  and   constantly  believed  by  all    tli« 


LVI.J  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF   EUROrE.  4V9 

faitliful.     This  solemn  act  was  received  by  the  whole 
church  with  feelings  of  joy  and  devotion. 

On  the  ISth  of  August,  1855,  a  concordat  was  con- 
cluded with  Austria,  by  which  the  Church  in  that  em- 
pire was  virtually  delivered  from  the  enslaving  institu- 
tions of  Joseph  II.  It  restored  free  communication  be- 
tween the  bishops  and  clergy  in  Austria  and  the  Pope ; 
enabled  the  bishops  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  their  dio- 
ceses, superintend  the  education  of  the  young,  and  of 
ecclesiastical  students. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  Pope  remained  tranquilly 
at  Rome,  and  in  1867  celebrated  with  great  pomp  and 
solemnity  the  eighteenth  centennial  anniversary  of  St. 
Peter.  The  next  year  Garibaldi  made  another  attempt 
on  Rome,  covertly  favored  by  the  unprincipled  king  of 
Italy.  The  Papal  troops  were  checked  at  Monte  Rotondo 
on  the  26th  of  October,  but  the  French  intervened,  and 
entered  Rome  on  the  30th  :  the  Papal  troops,  supported 
by  them,  totally  defeated  the  invaders  at  Mentaua,  on 
the  4th  of  November. 

Soon  after,  the  Pope  convoked  a  General  Council  of 
the  Church,  to  meet  at  the  Vatican  at  Rome  on  the  8th 
of  December,  1869,  to  consider  the  wants  of  the  Church 
and  its  position  under  the  various  political  revolutions 
which  since  the  Council  of  Trent  had  so  altered  the 
relations  of  the  Church  to  the  State. 

Greece,  dissatisfied  with  King  Otho,  expelled  him  in 
1862,  and,  after  establishing  a  provisional  government, 
chose  Prince  George  of  Denmark  as  their  sovereign. 
In  1866  the  Cretans,  encouraged  by  Greece  and  Russia, 
revolted,  and  for  more  than  a  year  maintained  a  des- 
perate struggle  for  freedom.  Rut  as  no  foreign  state 
aided  them,  they  were  at  last  reduced. 

P'rance  and  England  acted  in  concert  also  in  regard 
to  Chinese  matters.  The  unjust  attempt  of  England  to 
force  the  opium  trade  upon  China,  against  the  dictates 
of  morality  and  sound  policy,  led  to  constant  troubles, 
and  the  arrogance  of  the  Chinese  officials  often  gave 
plausible  pi'etexts  for  attack  or  extoi'tion.  The  seizure 
by  the  Chinese  authorities,  on  the  8th  of  October,  1856, 
at  Cantrn,  was  made  out  to  be  a  grievance  demand- 
ing reparation.  The  vessel  was  Chinese  built,  Chinese 
owned,  and  though  registered  for  a  time  at  the  British 
consulate,  her  registry   had  expired,  and   she  had  no 


480  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [cil. 

right,  as  was  admittecl,  to  carry  tlic  British  flatr,  winch 
she  used  merely  as  a  cover  for  j)iracy  and  sinuLijgliiiijf. 
Yet  ou  the  plea  that  the  imperial  commissioner  Yeh 
paid  too  little  attention  to  the  remonstrance  of  the  lirit- 
ish  consul,  Admiral  Seymour  on  the  '2;?d  attacked  the 
forts  on  the  river.  As  this  did  not  intimidate  Yeli,  pre- 
parations were  made  to  capture  Canton.  A  large  force  in 
boats  defeated  the  Chinese  M'ar-junks  at  Fatshan  Creek. 
English  attention  was  then  for  a  time  engrossed  by  In- 
dia, but  Canton  was  attacked  on  the  29th  of  December, 
1857,  by  the  British  and  French  forces,  and  caj)tured 
■R-ith  little  loss.  Soon  after  Yeh  fell  into  their  bauds, 
and  was  sent  to  Calcutta,  where  he  died. 

The  allied  fleet  then  proceeded  to  Tientsin,  on  the 
Pciho,  where  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  (June  'JGth, 
1858).  The  Chinese  renewed  the  treaty  of  Nankin, 
made  in  1842,  agreed  to  receive  ambassadors,  to  permit 
travellers  to  enter  the  country,  and  to  allow  merchant 
shios  to  ascend  the  Yangtsekianc:  to  trade,  to  open  tivu 
additional  ports,  and  to  pay  ibur  millions  of  taels  for 
the  expenses  of  the  war. 

The  next  year,  however,  as  difficulties  were  thrown  in 
the  way  of  Mr.  Bruce,  who  wislu'tl  to  proceed  to  IVkin  as 
English  ambassador,  Admiral  Hope,  in  order  to  aid  him, 
attacked  the  forts  erected  by  tiie  Chinese  at  tlie  moutli  of 
the  I'eiho,  l>ut  after  losing  u70  men  killed  and  wounded, 
and  three  of  his  gunboats,  was  compelled  to  draw  off. 
Mr.  ]>ruce  then  addressed  the  Chinese  government  from 
Shanghai,  deiiumding  an  aj)ology  for  their  tiring  on  the 
gunboats,  and  a  ratification  of  tlie  treaty  of  Tiuntsiu. 

In  August  a  French  and  English  force  advanced  into 
the  country,  defeated  the  Chinese  army  at  Tangku  with 
little  loss,  capturing  forty-live  guns.  The  Taku  forts 
were  then  taken,  and  the  allies  advanced  on  I\kin. 
Mcanwh.le  tin-  Chinese  seized  a  number  of  English  and 
French  sul^jects,  and  i)Ut  several  to  dt-ath  with  great 
barbarity.  When  the  allien  entered  IV-kin  (Oct.  l^lh) 
the  Eni])eror  lied,  and,  as  the  massacre  of  the  jirisoneru 
■was  noT  known,  liberal  terms  were  ollered ;  but  as  soon 
as  that  was  discovered,  the  Summer  Palace  of  Yuen 
Wing  Yuen,  where  some  of  the  cruelties  were  perpetrated, 
■was  pluiidired  of  its  ri<h  and  valualilc  ji.rticles,  and  then 
totally  destroyed.  Wry  stringenl  conditions  were  then 
imposed,  to  which  the  Chinese  submitted. 


LVI,]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF   EUROPE.  481 

The  Emperor  Ilienfuno;  died  in  Ausjust,  1861,  and 
was  succeeded  by  liis  son  Tsaisun,  to  whom  Canton  was 
restored  in  August. 

In  her  home  affairs  England  during  this  period  made 
some  steps  in  progress.  A  disposition  was  evinced  to 
allow  inmates  of  prisons  and  public  institutions  to  re- 
ceive the  ministrations  of  ministers  of  their  own  religion, 
it  being  at  last  seen  that  to  alienate  men  from  a  religion, 
which  had  a  moral  power  over  them,  could  not  tend  to 
make  them  better  citizens.  The  affair  of  the  Sheffield 
Trades  Unions,  in  1867,  showed  too  that  the  English 
working-classes  were  completely  demoralized  and  famil- 
iarized with  crime,  and-that  a  gi'eater  religious  influence 
was  needed  to  save  the  country  from  scenes  like  those  of 
the  French  revolution. 

The  people,  too,  were  clamoring  for  Reform,  and  for 
a  parliamentary  system  in  which  the  population  should 
be  really  represented,  and  really  choose  the  members. 
Several  bills  were  introduced  into  parliament,  but  none 
met  with  general  appi'oval,  till  that  prepared  by  Mr. 
Disraeli,  which  received  the  royal  sanction  August  15th, 
1867. 

During  this  period  the  Church  of  England  became 
more  and  more  the  slave,  as  it  was  the  creature  of  the 
State.  In  the  Gorham  case,  the  Privy  Council  compelled 
the  Bishop  of  Exeter  to  induct  a  clergyman  held  by  the 
bishops  to  be  heretical ;  and  as  the  members  of  the 
Privy  Council  would  naturally  be  of  the  most  lax  reli- 
gious ideas,  and  future  appointments  to  episcopal  sees  be 
of  clergymen  likely  to  share  the  most  latitudinariau 
views,  all  hope  was  taken  from  that  party  in  the  Church 
which  hoped  to  make  it  once  more  Catholic.  A  similar 
case  arose  in  regard  to  Bishop  Coleuso  of  Natal,  who 
had  been  depiived  of  his  see  for  heretical  doctrines  in 
regard  to  the  Scriptures.  He  was  restored  to  his  see  in 
1808,  in  spite  of  the  episcopal  body.  On  the  death  of 
the  Bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1869,  a  clergyman  was  appointed 
to  the  see  whose  writings  had  been  of  a  most  rationalistic 
order. 

The  episcopacy,  by  a  Pan  Anglican  synod,  in  1867, 
comprising  bishops  from  England  and  her  colonies,  and 
from  the  U^nited  States,  endeavored  to  form  an  organi- 
zation and  e^oke  a  new  life,  but  with  the  real  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  State  to  make  articles  of  faith,  forms 


482  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CH. 

of  )>r.iyer  nml  worship,  rccftilate  rites  and  ceremonies, 
they  coiihl  really  I'tlect  iiothini;.  The  aet  ])assod  in  18G9, 
discstablishiiii;  the  C'hureh  in  Ireland,  seemed  to  fore- 
shadow a  like  treatment  of  the  Clmreh  in  Eii<j^land. 

When  the  Southern  States  atlemjtted  to  secede  from 
the  United  States,  in  18G1,  Entjland  very  hastily  recog- 
nized them  as  bellii^erents,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
closing  and  blockade  of  the  Southern  j)orts  by  the 
American  government,  eonlinned  steadily  to  throw  in 
arms  and  supplies  to  the  insurgents.  Vessels  of  war 
were  also  fitted  out  in  English  ports,  which  sailed  forth 
and  destroyed  great  numbers  of  Anu'riean  ships;  and 
when  the  Alabama  was  sunk  olf  Cherbourg  by  the 
American  steamer  Kearsarge,  an  English  yacht  carried 
oft'Semmes,  the  commander  of  the  Alal)ama.  The  dep- 
redations of  these  vessels  formed  the  basis  of  what  are 
known  as  the  Alabama  claims,  for  the  settlement  of 
which  a  convention  was  signed  Nov,  10th,  18G8,  but  re- 
jected by  the  United  States  Senate. 

During  this  j)eriod  England  exj)erienced  trouble  in 
Jamaica.  An  outbreak  occurred  there  in  October,  isof), 
which  was  put  down  so  summarily  and  cruelly  by  Gover- 
nor Eyre,  that  he  was  j)Ut  on  trial  in  Englaiul,  but 
ac(juitted.  In  New  Zealand  also  constant  hostilities 
were  kept  up  by  the  Maories,  involving  enormous  ex- 
pense to  the  government  without  inflicting  any  severe 
punishment  on  those  savage  but  brave  and  crafty  tribes. 

England,  while  ever  fostering  insurrection  in  other 
laiuls,  soon  had  to  exi)erience  a  similar  state  of  affairs. 
Ireland  continued  in  an  agitated  condition.  A  new  and 
widespread  revolutionary  organi/ation,  known  as  the 
Fenians,  was  forme(l  in  Ireland,  with  afliliations  in  Eng- 
laiul and  in  the  United  Stales,  where  many  soldiers  and 
orticers,  who  had  gained  experience  in  the  civil  war, 
eagerly  joined  it.  The  English  government  proceeded 
in  the  old  way  to  ])Ut  it  down  by  arrests  and  by  sham- 
trials,  where  j)aid  inlbrmers  ga\c  liieir  testimony  to  hired 
judges  and  packed  juries.  Such  a  course  could  only  in- 
tensify the  feeling  of  hatred,  and  give  strength  to  the 
secret  society  from  which  the  clergy,  encouraged  by  the 
Pope,  sought  to  divert  the  faithi'ul.  James  Stephens, 
the  head  of  the  Fenians,  was  captured  Nov.  Hth,  IbOo, 
but  escaped  at  once  from  IJielimond  Prison,  Dublin 
Tlie  English  government  suspended  the  Habeas  Coijmu 


LVI.]  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  483 

Act,  and  sent  to  Ireland  Sir  HujtIi  Rose,  an  officer 
frained  in  tlie  Sepoy  war.  Tlie  whole  movement  of  the 
Fenians  was,  however,  ill  concerted :  no  outbreak  of 
any  moment  took  place  in  Ireland;  a  few  attacks  being 
made  on  the  police  stations  in  February  and  March, 
1867,  an  attempt  was  made  to  seize  the  castle  at  Chester, 
in  England,  and  some  Fenian  prisoners  were  rescued  at 
Manchester.  This  led  to  some  executions  in  November, 
1867,  and  a  reckless  effort  to  liberate  the  prisoners  in 
Clerkenwell  jail,  by  exploding  a  barrel  of  powder  at  the 
gate,  caused  the  death  of  many  in  the  neighborhood 
without  effecting  the  object  intended.  One  Barrett,  con- 
victed of  this  crime,  was  subsequently  hung.  In  America 
the  Fenians  raised  a  force  which  invaded  Canada,  and 
at  first  gained  some  advantage,  but  was  finally  defeated 
and  driven  back  into  the  United  States.  Several  were 
taken,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death  ;  among  the  rest, 
the  Rev.  Mr.  McMahon,  a  priest,  who  attended  the  dy- 
ing of  both  parties  on  the  battle-field.  To  hold  a  person 
acting  as  chaplain  to  be  a  party  to  the  guilt  of  his  peni- 
tents is  unexampled  in  all  the  annals  of  history,  but  the 
Judge  charged  that  giving  absolution  to  men  in  rebellion 
was  encouraging  them  to  violate  the  laws  of  the  land. 
After  a  long  imprisonment  he  was  at  last  released.  The 
movement,  marked  in  1868  by  an  attempt  to  assassinate 
the  Duke  of  Edinburg,  a  son  of  Victoria,  in  Australia, 
may  be  said  to  have  closed  with  the  assassination  in 
Ottawa,  Canada,  of  the  Hon.  Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee, 
a  member  of  the  ministry,  long  known  as  an  Irish 
patriot,  orator,  historian,  and  poet,  but  a  strong  op- 
ponent of  Fenianism. 

The  barbarous  conduct  of  Theodore,  segos  or  king  of 
Abyssinia,  to  a  number  of  English  and  other  European 
missionaries,  travellers,  and  agents  in  his  country,  whom 
he  arrested  and  put  in  prison,  led  to  a  brief  but  brilliant 
war.  An  army  under  Sir  Robert  Napier  landed  at  Lulla, 
October  21st,  1867,  and  advanced  into  the  interior,  hav- 
ing formed  an  alliance  with  Kassai,  prince  of  Tigre. 
Meanwhile  Theodore  had  collected  his  forces,  and  taken 
up  a  strong  position  at  Magdala ;  but  when  his  army 
covering  that  place  was  defeated  on  the  heights  of 
Islamgie,  he  gave  up  the  prisoners,  and  sought  to  propi- 
tiate his  enemy.  Sir  Robert  insisted  on  an  absolute  sub- 
mission, and  when  this  was  evaded,  attacked  and  cap- 


484  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  [cH. 

turc  I  Alasrilala,  April  intli,  1808:  Theodore  liimsdf 
bcin^  killed  at  the  second  harricade  endeavoring  to  atone 
by  a  jxalhint  di-ath  for  a  life  of  enielty  and  oppres- 
sion. The  P'nixlish  forces  soon  withdrew  iVoin  tl)e  coun- 
try, carryinir  with  them  Theodore's  son  and  heir,  who 
was  sent  to  Entrland  to  he  educated. 

KiiLcland  in  1  S(j5  lost  two  of  her  illustrious  men,  Lord 
Palmerston,  so  lont;  Prime  Minister,  a  man  of  undoubted 
ability  and  wonderful  tact,  a  fomenter  of  discord  in  other 
lands,  but  a  tirm  represser  of  all  movements  for  freedom 
at  home;  and  Cardinal  Wiseman,  whose  learninix  and 
ability  made  Enijlish  statesmen  reo^ret  their  short-siijhted 
folly  in  treatinir  as  an  insult  to  the  country  the  l\>|)e's 
wish  that  England  should  exercise  an  inlhienee  in  the 
Colleije  of  Cardinals,  the  rulinij  body  of  the  whole 
church.  In  the  same  year  died  Leopold,  kiiijic  of  lU-lixium, 
uncle  of  (pieen  Victoria,  and  son-in-law  of  George  IV. 

()n  the  21st  of  May,  1 807,  the  British  IVovinces  in 
North  America  were  erected  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  by  royal  proclamation,  as  a  step  to  a  separate 
government  under  Jjritish   })rt)tection. 

The  attemj)t  to  lay  a  telegraphic  cable  across  the  At- 
lantic, connecting  England  and  these  colonies,  failed  in 
18iJ5,  but  was  successfully  carried  out  July  27th,  1807, 
making  the  transmission  of  intelligence  almost  iustau- 
tanc(jus. 

1-Jy  the  abolition  of  the  old  German  empire,  Austria 
had  lost  the  imperial  power,  and  exerted  only  an  indirect 
influence  by  the  weight  which  her  size  and  population 
gave  her  in  the  ('oidedcrate  Diet,  where  she  was  slill 
recognized  as  the  leading  power  in  Germany.  Prussia 
had  constantly  aspired  to  attain  this  pre-eminence,  and 
with  this  view  constantly  fostered  the  feeling  of  (iermau 
nationality.  The  c<tndilion  of  Cieiniauy  was  strange. 
Austria  hud  Italian,  Hungarian,  and  Slavonic  provinces, 
besides  those  in  which  (iernian  wa«  spoken,  while  Slet- 
wick  and  llolsteiu,  Cierman  stales,  belonged  to  Den- 
mark, and  Luxemburg  to  Jbjlland.  Sleswick  and  llol- 
steiu revolted,  but  tailed  to  elfect  a  separati(jn  from  Den- 
niaik,  although  the  German  diet  constantly  fomented 
truuhlo  there.  On  the  ileath  of  Frederick  VII.  of  Den- 
mark the  throne  dev«»lved  on  Christian  IX.,  but  his 
claim  to  Sleswick  and  Ilolslein  was  opposed  by  I^'n-dcrick, 
Duke  of  ^Vugusleuburg,  although  his  lather,  liom  whom 


LVI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF   EUROPE.  iSt 

he  pretended  to  claim,  had  actually  for  a  large  sum  re 
nounced  all  rights  to  them.  Christian,  following  out  the 
plans  of  his  predecessor,  resolved  to  make  the  provinces 
as  Danish  as  possible,  and  to  resist  any  attempt  to  wrest 
them  from  him.  This  was  the  opportunity  sought  by 
Prussia,  and  having  induced  Austria  to  join  her,  these 
two  powers,  on  the  IGth  of  January,  1864,  required 
Christian  within  forty-eight  hours  to  suppress  a  constitu- 
tion promulgated  by  him.  On  his  peiemptory  refusal 
an  allied  army  under  Marshal  Wrangel  entered  Plolstein 
on  the  2l8t,  and  on  the  3d  of  February  bombarded  and 
burned  Missunde.  The  main  reliance  of  the  Danes  was 
the  Dannewerke,  a  sti'ong  line  of  fortifications  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Eider.  This  was  now  abandoned,  and 
the  main  force  attempted  to  hold  Duppel.  After  a 
month's  siege  this  foi'tress  fell,  and  by  the  final  defeat 
at  Alsen,  Denmark  was  completely  humbled,  her  only 
victory  being  the  defeat  of  an  Austrian  fleet  by  the 
Danish  ships.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  signed  on  the 
30th  of  October,  Denmark  ceded  to  Austria  and  Prussia 
the  duchies  of  Sleswick,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg.  Dis- 
regarding the  claims  of  the  duke  of  Augustenburg,  in 
whose  interest  they  had  ostensibly  acted,  the  two  powers 
divided  the  duchies  between  them. 

The  diet  jarotested  against  the  action  of  Prussia,  which 
virtually  -jontrolled  them  all,  and  Austria  soon  found 
that  she  had  been  merely  made  the  dupe  of  Prussia,  and 
that  that  power,  under  the  guidance  of  the  great  states- 
man Bismarck,  was  not  only  aiming  to  detach  the  minor 
German  powers  from  her,  but  also  negotiating  with  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  to  attack  her.  Prussia  had  in  fact 
long  premeditated  the  movement  she  was  now  to  make. 
Her  army  was  in  a  fine  condition  in  point  of  organi- 
zation and  discipline,  and  was  armed  with  the  needle- 
gun,  the  most  effective  musket  yet  introduced.  Austria, 
distracted  by  the  Hungarian  revolts,  and  demoralized 
by  the  Italian  defeats,  was  not  in  a  position  to  cope 
with  her  rival. 

Prussia  acted  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning.  Treat- 
ing the  censure  of  the  diet  at  Frankfort  as  a  declaration 
of  war  by  the  minor  powers,  Pi'ussian  armies,  on  the  15th 
of  June,  1866,  simultaneously  invaded  Saxony,  Hanover, 
and  the  smaller  states  north  of  the  Maine.  Another 
army  entered  Bchemia,  and,  on  the  26th,  met  the  Austri- 


480  GENERAL    HISTORY    OF   EUROPE.  [cH. 

ans  at  T?oiolienhor£j,  driviiif;  them  hack  on  Munchen- 
<jfriit/.  Still  anotlicr  army,  oomman<lcd  hy  the  Crown 
Princo,  at  lacked  tho  Aiistrians  at  Nacliod,  ami  thoiifjh 
for  a  time  lield  in  clieck,  finally,  hy  frcsli  troops,  suc- 
ceeded in  defeating  them  witli  the  loss  of  4,000  men. 

On  the  20tli  the  Austrian  Archduke  Leopold  engaged 
the  l*russians  hefore  Skalitz,  but  was  comjielled  to  retire, 
and  the  Count  Clam  Gallas  was  di'iven  hack  hy  tho 
IVnssian  Prince  Frederick  Cliarlcs.  As  this  exposed  his 
flanks,  General  P)enedek,  the  Aiistiian  commander,  at- 
temjited  to  fall  hack  on  Kuniggriitz,  but  the  Prussians 
had  not  only  gained  his  rear,  but  were  actually  hurling 
another  army  doAvn  upon  liiin.  Tie  instantly  wheeled 
liis  left  and  centre,  and  retiring  his  right,  took  up  a  new 
position. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  Prince  Frederick  Charles  opened 
the  terrible  battle  of  Sadowa  by  a  fierce  attack  on  P>ene- 
dek's  line.  The  Austrians  fought  desperately,  and  were 
pressing  the  Prussians  back,  when  tlie  Crown  Prince  of 
Prussia  came  on  the  field  with  the  first  army,  and  took 
the  Austrian  right  and  reserves  in  flank  ;  and  though  the 
Austrians  stul)bornly  held  their  ground,  and  used  their 
artillery  as  elfectually  as  the  position  admitted,  they 
could  not  free  their  centre,  and  their  right  was  driven 
back  on  Koniggriitz,  covering  their  retreat  with  their 
cavalry  and  artillery. 

^J'liis  defeat  decided  th(>  war.  Austria,  f)bli<_red  to  keep 
a  large  army  in  Italy,  had  hieii  unable  to  meet  Prussia 
with  e<iual  forces;  but  in  reality  she  overrated  the 
Italians.  Victor  Emmanuel  had  indeed  crossed  tho 
]\lincio,  on  the  2-U\  of  June,  with  nearly  00,000  men,  but 
■was  utterly  routed  at  Custozza  by  the  Archduke  Al- 
bert, not  having  Iteen  able  to  contest  the  field  more  than 
two  h()ui"s.  Nor  were  the  Italians  more  successful  on 
the  water,  A;I;niral  Persano  with  a  well-ajtpointed 
fleet  was  utterly  defeated  by  the  Austrian  Admiral 
TegetliolT.  Persano  was  subse<jnentlv  tried  and  con- 
victed of  cowardice.  Even  (iaribaldi  was  defeated  by 
tho  Austrians  at  Monte  Snello. 

In  less  than  a  fortnight  aitiT  the  commencement  of 
lioslilities  the  emperor  of  Austria  was  comjtelled  to  sue 
for  peace.  l>y  the  treaty  of  I'rague,  on  the  '2'.Ul  of 
August,  Austria  acceded  to  the  union  of  Venice  with 
the  kingdom  of  Ital^,  recognized  the  dis.«olution  of  tho 


LVI.]  GENERAL   HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  487 

Germanic  Confederation,  and  consented  to  a  new  orp^ani- 
zation  of  Germany  without  the  participation  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  Austria  would  not,  however,  directly 
cede  Venetia  to  an  enemy  whom  she  had  defeated  by 
land  and  sea ;  she  conveyed  it  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
by  whom  it  was  transferred  to  Italy,  and  Victor  Em- 
manuel thus  acquired  through  the  jealousy  entertained 
of  Austria  by  Prussia,  what  his  own  power  could  not 
have  accomplished. 

Prussia  did  not  strip  Austria  of  any  of  her  territory, 
but  annexed  Hanover,  Electoral  Hesse,  Nassau,  and 
Frankfort ;  which,  with  the  Duchies  taken  from  Den- 
mark, gave  her  all  Northern  Germany.  She  was  now 
the  great  Protestant  power,  and  evidently  aimed  at  this, 
avoiding  any  territorial  addition  that  would  bring  in  a 
large  Catholic  population. 

Russia  during  this  period  was  not  the  scene  of  many 
interesting  events  or  changes.  A  Polish  insurrection 
broke  out  in  1863,  against  a  general  Russian  conscrip- 
tion, designed  to  sweep  off  the  best  of  the  Polish  youth 
into  Russian  armies ;  but  against  the  overwhelming 
power  of  Russia,  there  was  no  hope.  The  insurrec- 
tion was  crushed,  and  the  bitter  chains  more  firmly 
riveted  than  ever.  Europe  looked  on,  but  gave  the 
Poles  no  aid  beyond  idle  sympathy.  As  the  West  was 
closed  to  her  by  the  Crimean  war,  Russia  pushed  for- 
ward in  Asia,  capturing  Samarcand  in  March,  1869,  and 
soon  after  overrunning  much  of  Independent  Tartary, 
Bokhara  being  virtually  a  tributary  to  the  Czar.  The 
Russian  territory  in  America,  as  being  too  remote,  was 
sold  to  the  United  States,  and  became  the  territory  of 
Alaska. 

Spain  had  never  secured  a  state  of  permanent  internal 
peace,  being  torn  by  constant  revolutionary  changes. 
Still  a  certain  progress  was  attained,  and  religion  was 
once  more  beginning  to  regain  its  influence  throughout 
the  peninsula.  This  arrayed  against  the  Queen  all  the 
infidel  and  irreligious  party.  lu  1859  difficulties  with 
Morocco  resulted  in  war,  and  an  army  under  O'Donnell 
invaded  that  empire.  Tetuan  was  taken,  on  the  4th  of 
February,  1860,  and  the  emperor  completely  humbled. 
By  a  ti-eaty,  signed  on  the  27th  of  April,  he  agreed  to 
pay  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  Tetuan  to  remain  in  the 
hands  of  Spain  till  all  the  conditions  were  fulfilled. 


488  GENERAL   HISTORY   OF   EUROPE.  [cn. 

In  December,  1861,  Spain  united  with  England  and 
France  in  operations  aijainat  Mexico ;  but  sliortly  after 
occujiyinf;  ^  era  Cruz,  Oenoral  Prim,  the  S])anish  com- 
mander, witlidrew.  P^nghmd  soon  fullowiMl  tlie  exam)»le, 
and  tlie  Freneli  alone  continued  the  oj>crations,  now 
avowedly  to  overthrow  the  government  of  Juarez,  and 
establish  an  empire,  as  a  barrier  to  the  jironrress  of  the 
United  States.  The  Frciuch  army  under  Lorencey  was, 
however,  repulsed  at  I'uebla  with  severe  loss  by  General 
Zaragoza,  but  re-enforeements  being  sent  out,  General 
Forey  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men  occujtied 
I'uebia  and  Mexico,  Juarez  retreated  to  Potosi,  while 
an  assembly  of  notables  declared  for  an  emj)ire,  and  of- 
fered the  throne  to  the  Austrian  Archduke  JMaximilian, 
For  a  time  the  French  maintained  this  frail  enij)ire,  and 
Maximilian  endeavored  honestly  to  establish  a  well- 
conducted  government.  In  March,  18(37,  however,  the 
French  army  left  Mexico, — the  United  States,  now  re- 
covered from  the  civil  war,  protesting  against  its  pres- 
ence. This  left  the  high-minded  Maximilian  to  his  fate. 
While  conducting  a  campaign  against  Juarez,  he  was 
betrayed  by  one  of  his  own  generals,  taken  prisoner,  and 
on  the  19th  of  June,  1867,  barbarously  shot  by  order 
of  Juarez,  against  the  remonstrances  of  England  and  the 
United  States.  For  a  time  even  his  body  was  detained, 
but  was  finally  given  up  to  his  countrymen,  and  con- 
veyed to  Austria.  His  empress,  Charlotte,  daughter  of 
Leopold,  king  of  Ijclgium,  who  had  gt)ne  to  Euroj)e  to 
seek  aid  for  her  liusband,  lost  her  reason,  from  over- 
excitement,  or  from  the  eflects  of  poison,  administered 
to  her  while  in  iNIexico. 

Spain  had  other  troubles  in  America.  Difticultiea 
having  arisen  with  Peru,  she  seized  the  Chincha  islamls 
in  iVpril,  1804,  and  by  holding  those  islands,  valuablo 
for  their  deposits  of  guano,  obtained  a  treaty  ol'  pi'ace, 
signed  at  Callao  in  February,  1805.  Tliis  was  not,  how- 
ever, jtermarient,  and  as  Chili  had  manifested  a  sympathy 
with  Peru,  the  Spanish  lleet  boml;arded  V^alparaiso. 

Meanwhile  Marshal  IS'arvaez,  whose  stern  ri^or  had 
repr<;ssed  all  turbulence  in  Spain,  died,  and  Queen  Isa- 
bel saw  the  precarious  position  in  which  hIk;  stood.  In 
1808  slie  crossed  the  front iiir  into  Prance,  to  confer  with 
the  Emperor  Xapoleon  at  Piarrilz.  JJurinj;  her  absence 
from    the   capital    a    revolulicju    broke   out,   headed    by 


LVI.]  GENERAL   UISTORY   OF   EUROPE.  489 

Marshal  Serrano,  General  Prim,  and  Aclrairal  Topete. 
Almost  all  the  military  and  naval  forces,  controlled  by 
secret  societies,  joined  the  revolt,  and  the  people  were 
overawed.  General  Novaliches  with  a  part  of  the  army 
attempted  to  save  Spain,  but  was  defeated  by  Serrano, 
September  29th,  1868,  and  all  was  lost.  The  next  month 
the  Provisional  government  was  recognized  by  several 
European  courts.  Serrano  was  made  regent,  and  a  king- 
dom having  been  resolved  upon,  the  Cortes  became  em- 
barrassed as  to  the  choice  of  a  king. 

The  first  and  only  real  work  of  this  new  regime  was 
to  oppress  the  Church,  and  harrass  it  in  all  possible  ways. 
They  even  sent  to  the  Bishops  forms  for  their  pastoral 
addresses  to  their  flocks,  and  forbade  them  to  attend  the 
General  Council  without  the  sanction  of  this  self-created 
government. 

But  while  thus  valiant  toward  venei-able  prelates,  they 
showed  no  disposition  to  allow  others  to  adopt  new 
ideas  of  government.  Cuba,  long  oppressed  and  plun- 
dered, claimed  freedom,  but  the  republicans  of  Spain 
resisted  fiercely.  The  war  lasted  for  a  long  time,  and 
desolat  sd  most  of  Cuba. 


490 


TABLE    OF    CONTEMPORARY    SOVEREIGNS 


Acces- 

sion. 

ENOLAND. 

FRANCE. 

OEIt.MANY. 

NAPLES. 

ROMB. 

A.  D.  1 

14<)3 

•• 

•• 

Maximilian 

•• 

•• 

UW 

Ferdinand  11. 

1496 

. 

. 

Frederic  II. 

IVJS 

Lewis  Xll. 

1501 

'  • 

Ferdinand 
the  Catholic 

DIED 

1503 

■  • 

Pius  HI. 

150S 

150U 

Henry  VIII. 

1513 

Julius  H. 

1513 

1515 

Francis  I. 

Charles  V.  of 
Austria. 

1516 

•  ■ 

1519 

Cliarles  V. 

1521 

'  *          1 

Leo  X. 

1.521 

1523 

1 

.. 

Adri:in  VI. 

1523 

1533 

. 

. 

. 

(^Icuienl  Vll. 

1534 

1517 

Edward  VI. 

Henry  11. 

. 

Paul  HI. 

1549 

1553 

Mary 

1556 

Ferdinand 

Philip  II. 

Julius  HI. 

1555 

1557 

Marcullus  11. 

1555 

1558 

Elizabeth 

1559 

Fr.incis  11. 

Paul  IV. 

1559 

1560 

Chiirles  IX. 

1561 

Maxitnil.  11. 

Pius  IV. 

1.565 

1574 

Henry  III. 

• 

St.  Piu3  V. 

1572 

1576 

Rodolph  11. 

•57S 

156  J 

. 

firecory  XHI. 

1.585 

1589 

_ 

Henry  IV. 

. 

Sixtus  V. 

l.Mt0 

15<)0 

Urbii.i  VII 

1590 

1591 

. , 

• 

Gr.pory  XIV. 

1.591 

I.VJ8. 

w 

Philip  III. 

Inniicftit  IX. 

1.591 

1603 

Jamea  I. 

ClBuxnt  VHI. 

1005 

1005 

. , 

Leo  XI. 

l(i05 

If.lO 

Lewis  Xlll. 

Ifill 

• 

612 

. 

Malhias 

1013 

, 

• 

1019. 
1021 

Ftidi.  11. 

Philip  IV. 

Paul  V. 

1621 

1025 

CharloB  I. 

Uregory  XV. 

1623 

1630 

[beheaded 

1632 

1637 

Ferdl.  111. 

1C40 

•• 

1643 

, , 

Lewis-XIV. 

, , 

. 

1045 

. 

Urban  VHI. 

1014 

1648 

'"i-rreg- 

' 

1654 

. 

1656 

. 

. 

Innocent  X. 

1C5S 

1657 

Lcopnld  1. 

1660 

Charles  11. 

. 

I6fi5 

. 

. 

Charles  11. 

1668 

. 

. 

Alexnndrr  VII. 

1067 

1670 

. 

Clement  IX. 

1600 

1675 

. 

1676 

. 

Clement  X. 

1676 

1692 

. 

. 

1685 

Jnines  II. 
dep'iBr'd 

16«9 

Wm. 4c  Mary 

. 

Innocent  XI. 

KM 

I6tl0 

. 

Alexander  VHI 

1091 

1097 

• 

1           •• 

• 

• 

OF    THE    PRINCIPAL   STATES   OF    EUROPE. 


491 


Acces- 

1 



sion. 

PORTUGAL. 

SPAIN. 

DENMARK. 

SWEDEN, 

TURKEY. 

A.  D. 

1495 

Emarael 

Ferdi.  the  C. 
1472.    and 
Isab.  1479. 

John,  1481. 

•• 

•• 

DIED 

1496 

, 

1497 

,  , 

1498 

• 

1501 

.• 

1504 

1509 

. 

Bajazet  H. 

1512 

. . 

Selim  I. 

1513 

Christ.  II. 

•  • 

1516 

Emperor 
Charles  V. 

•  • 

•  ' 

1519 

Soliman  II. 

1520 

1521 

John  III. 

1525 

Frederic  I. 

Gust.  Vasa 

.  . 

1533 

Christ.  III. 

. 

1548 

1553 

. 

1556 

Philip  II. 

1557 

Sebastian 

^ 

1558 

• 

1559 

• 

15(50 

• 

1564 

1573 

Amurath  III. 

1574 

1576 

John  HI. 

1578 

Henry  Card. 

1580 

Philip  II.  of 
Spain. 

' ' 

•  • 

1588 

Christian  IV. 

Sigismund 

1591 

1592 

1596 

Mahomet  III. 

1595 

1598 

Philip  HI. 

Philip  III. 

Selim  II. 

ia9fr 

1604 

Charles  IX. 

Achiiiel  I. 

1610 

1611 

. 

Gust.Adolph. 

1012 

1013 

Mustapha  dep. 

161/ 

1019 

Osman  I. 

1021 

Philip  IV. 

Philip  IV. 

Mustapha  restored 

1625 

. 

Amurath  IV. 

1623 

1630 

. 

1632 

• 

Christina 

1637 

• 

1640 

John  IV. 
Braganza 

' ' 

'  • 

Ibrahim 

1643 
1645 
1648 

•• 

• 

•• 

• 

• 

, 

Frederic  III. 

, 

Mahomet  IV. 

164* 

deposed 

1687 

1654 

• 

Charles  X. 

1656 

Alphonso  VI 

•• 

1657 

• 

1660 

. 

Charles  XI. 

1665 

Charles  II. 

1668 

Peter  11. 

167C 

Christian  V. 

•• 

1675 

1676 

• 

*  • 

"  • 

1682 
1685 

, , 

. , 

. 

Soliman  III. 

1687 

1689 

•• 

1696 

, . 

Achmet  II. 

1691 

1697 

■• 

•• 

Cliarles  XII. 

41 


402 


TABLE    OF    CONTEMPORARY    SOVEREIGNS 


Acc«s- 

~"^^ 

•ion. 

BNOLAND. 

FRANCE. 

OERMANT. 

NAPLEM. 

ROMI. 

k.  D. 

1699 

,  , 

, 

,    , 

BIRD 

1700 

■  ' 

■ 

Philip  V.  of 
Bourbon 

Innocent  XII. 

1700 

1702 

Aone 

, , 

1705 

. 

Joaeph  I. 

1706 

I7II 

Charlea  VI. 

1713 

. 

1714 

George  I. 

1715 

. 

LewiaXV. 

1718 

K-JO 

. , 

Clement  XI. 

1781 

1725 

. 

Innocent  Xlll. 

1724 

n/1 

George  II. 

1730 

Benedict  XIll. 

1730 

1740 

Charles  VII. 

Clement  XU. 

1740 

1741 

1745 

• 

Francis  I. 

1746 

Charles  III. 

1750 

751 

•• 

•  • 

• 

■• 

1759 

, , 

, 

, 

Benedict  XIV. 

1768 

1760 

George  III. 

1762 

1765 

•  • 

Joseph  II. 

•  • 

1766 

1771 

.. 

Clement  XIII. 

176g 

1773 

1774 

Lewis  XVI. 

Clement  XIV. 

1774 

1777 

* ' 

[gi/illutiiied. 

■ 

Ferdinand  I. 
of  the  two 
Sicilies. 

■ 

17R8 

• 

17 'to 

Leopold  II 

• 

179-2 

• 

FraiiCia  II. 

17U3 

France,  Re- 
public. 

17'.»6 

. 

Plus  VI. 

WH 

1H(I| 

. 

IHO'2 

. 

1804 

N'lpoleon 
Cinperur 

•  • 

1807 

1808 

1W)9 

1810 

.  . 

INU 

I^ewisXVllI 

1816 

• 

1818 

•• 

• 

182C 

George  IV. 

18'23 

Pius  VII. 

im 

1&24 

Cliarici  X. 
dclhroned. 

■ 

1825 

1826 

Francis  1. 

1830 

.  , 

Lewis  Philip 

. , 

Ferdl.  II. 

UoXH. 

Iran 

IH31 

William  IV. 

Pius  VIII. 

IRW 

1833 

Gregory  XVI. 

iH-ia 

1835 

Ferdinand  1. 
of  Aimlria. 

1*>37 

Victoria 

• 

• 

1839 
IHM 

'* 

iPlualX.  ■ 

iMH 

L  Napoleon. 

Fr.  Joseph. 

1 

1800 

1      •• 

■• 

• 

Annexed  to 
bardinia. 

«• 

OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    STATES    OF    EUROPE. 


493 


Acces-                       1 

sion. 

POnTUOAL. 

BPAIJf. 

DENMARK. 

SWEDEN. 

TUBKEr. 

A.  D. 

1699 

,  , 

Frederic  IV. 

, , 

Mustapha  II. 

1700 

•  * 

Philip  V. 

• 

* 

DIED 

1702 

• 

.. 

• 

Achmet  III. 

1703 

1705 

. 

•  • 

•  • 

■ . 

.706 

John  V. 

• . 

•  • 

■ . 

1711 

•  • 

•• 

.. 

1713 

•  • 

•• 

1714 

•  • 

•  • 

— 

J715 

■ 

•  • 

^ 

1718 

•  • 

Ulrica 

>  • 

1720 

■  • 

Frederic 

1725 

1727 

.• 

1730 

• 

Christian  VI. 

Mahomet  V. 

1740 

•  • 

•  • 

1741 

1745 

•  • 

•  • 

.  • 

1746 

Ferdi.  VI. 

Frederic  V. 

. . 

1750 

Joseph 

-  ■ 

1751 

•  • 

•  • 

Adolphus 
Frederic 

Osman  II. 

1757 

1759 

•  . 

Charles  III. 

. 

Mustapha  III. 

1760 

• 

1762 

•  • 

"  • 

• 

1765 

• 

• 

'  • 

1760 

Christi.  VII. 

.. 

1771 

. 

•  • 

GustavuslII. 

•  • 

1773 

.  • 

.  • 

[assassin. 

• 

1774 

•  • 

Achmet  IV. 

1777 

Mary  Fran- 
ces. 

•  « 

•  • 

u  • 

1788 

, , 

Charles  TV. 

•  • 

, , 

Selim  III. 

i78« 

1790 

•  . 

[abd. 

•  • 

• 

1792 

•  • 

GustavusIV. 

•• 

1793 

• 

•  • 

• 

[dep. 

•  • 

1796 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

.. 

1801 

■  • 

•  • 

•  • 

.  • 

1802 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

1804 

•• 

« . 

1807 

•  • 

. 

Frederic  VI. 

,  , 

1808 

.  . 

Ferdi.  VII. 

Charles  Xlll 

Mahmoud  II. 

1809 

•  , 

•  • 

a  • 

•  • 

1810 

•  • 

.  • 

1814 

. 

• 

•• 

■  • 

•  • 

1816 

John  VI. 

•  • 

• 

1818 

•  • 

•  ' 

Charles  John 
XIV. 

•  « 

1826 

Maria  da 
Gloria 

•  • 

•    > 

•  • 

«• 
4 

1830 

• 

■  • 

•  • 

•• 

1831 

•  • 

•  • 

1833 

Isabella  II. 

• 

•  • 

1835 

• 

■ 

' 

• 

1837 

, , 

, 

. 

18;f9 

.  • 

Christ.  VIII. 

Abdal-Sedjlm 

1844 

•  • 

•  • 

Oscar  L 

•^ 

1848 

•  • 

Frederic  VII. 

, , 

*«- 

1863 

, , 

,  _ 

Charles  IX. 

1 

1868 

•• 

Revc 

(Intion. 

•• 

t  • 

494 


TABLE    OF    CONTEMPORARY    SOVGREION0 


Acc«i 

- 

■Ion. 

RUSSIA. 

POLAND. 

PRUSSIA. 

SARDINIA. 

■OLLAaS. 

A.  D. 

1G13 

Michael  FcB- 
(lurowitscli 

• 

•• 

•  • 

1632 

Ladidlaua  V. 

• 

1015 

Alexis  Micb 

•  • 

IfrW 

John  Cnsi- 
mlr. 

•  • 

•   . 

1609 

MichaelCorl- 
but. 

■  • 

•  • 

1673 

• 

John  8obi- 
eski. 

•• 

•  • 

1676 

FffiJor 

1682 

I  wan 

•  « 

1665 

Peter    the 
Great. 

*  * 

•  • 

•  • 

1696 

Frederic  Au- 
gustus U. 
Elector  of 
Saxony 

•  • 

•  • 

I'.OO 

Frederic  I. 

•  • 

1705 

*  * 

Stanislaus 
Lec/inski 

■  • 

•  • 

1709 

AuguetUH 
restored 

* 

'  ' 

•  • 

1713 

•  * 

■ 

Frederic 
William  I. 

Victor  Ama- 
de\i8ll. 
I'jrut  King 

1725 

Catherine  1. 

• 

ITSI 

Peter  II. 

•  • 

1730 

Anne 

• 

1732 

Chas.  Eman- 
uel III. 

• 

i 

1740 

Iwan  III. 

Frederic  II. 

• 

murdered 

the  Great 

V 

1741 

Elizabeth 

■• 

1762 

Pelei  III. 
murdered 

■  • 

'  • 

1764 

Catherine  II. 

Staiiislaus 

Poniiitowski 

dcp.  1798. 

a/ 

1772 

, 

Ist  Partition 

. 

•-■ 

1773 

Victor  Amad. 
III. 

" 

1786 

• 

Frederic 
William  11. 

•  ■ 

1703 

2d  Partition 

1795 

3d  Partition 

' 

1796 

Paul  niurd. 

■■ 

Charles 

Emanuel  IV. 

abdicated 

•  • 

1797 

•• 

Frederic 
Wllliapi  III. 

1801 

Alexander 

•• 

Victor  Eman. 
V.ulxlicated 

•  • 

1803 
1806 

•• 

,  , 

Lewis  NapoleoB 

1»15 

•• 

Alexander 

William  1. 

1821 

Charles 
Felix. 

1825 

Nicholas 

Nicholas 

• 

.■•ETIIKB- 

i.ANns. 

DELOlUa 

1831 

, , 

Charles 

Will.  1. 

LeopoM 

Albert 

1840 

Frederic 

IR40 

1 

1 

William  IV. 

Victor  Eman. 

Wnilsm  IIL 

185« 

AlcxauUerll 

Alcxundcr  I 

.. 

Kini'Dl  llalj 
In  I860. 

' 

1SG6 

.. 

Lcop.  II. 

OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    STATES    OF    EUROPE. 


Acces 
sion. 

SAXONT. 

BAVARIA. 

WIRTEM- 

BERQ. 

HANOVER. 

TIJSOAMT. 

A.  D. 

IG79 

■• 

•• 

■• 

Ernest,  First 
Elector. 

•• 

1696 

Frederic  Au- 
gustus, 
Elector  of 
Saxony 

•  • 

1698 

•• 

•  • 

George 

• 

1727 

•  • 

• 

George 

•  • 

173.-J 

Augustus  II. 

•  • 

J 

1760 

"Frederic 
Christian 
Frederic 

•• 

•  • 

George  I. 

•  • 

1763 

Augus- 
tus III. 
King  in 
.     1806. 

1767 

' 

Charles 

•    • 

^ , 

, 

1700 

., 

Charles. 

•  • 

FerduuaiL,  Bake. 

1795 

•  • 

Max. Joseph 
King  (1805). 

•• 

•  - 

1797 

F'rederic 
William  L 
King  in 
1806. 

•  • 

1815 

'  • 

•  • 

Erected  into 
a  Kingdom. 

•  • 

1816 

•  • 

•  • 

Frederic 
William  II. 

•  • 

1820 

• 

George  II. 

1824 

.• 

Leopold  IL 

1825 

Lewis 
Charles 

• 

•  • 

1827 

Anthony 

•  • 

•  • 

1830 

. 

•  • 

William  1, 

•  • 

1836 

Frederic  Au- 
gustus II. 

'  • 

•  • 

•  • 

1837 

Ernett 

•• 

1848 

•  • 

Maximil.  IL 

, , 

#« 

1851 

.. 

George  III. 

1859 

•• 

•• 

•  • 

•• 

Annexed  to  Sar> 
dinia. 

18C8 

,. 

•  ■ 

•• 

Annexed  to 

Prussia. 

INDEX. 


IHAPTfRS.    A.D.  '*"■ 

1.— 150S.     League  of  Cambray         .------        -i 

Hatlle  of  jJi^nndci         --------         3 

1511.  Ferdinand  conquers  Navarre  ....  -    S 

1512.  War  between  France  and  England     -----» 

1513.  Battle  of  OuinegaU  --------4 

of  Flodtletifield   --------  4 

1515.     o(  Mariynan  ..------5 

Milan  surrenders  to  Francis  I.    ------5 

II.— 1519.     Charles  V.  elected  emperor     -------7 

1520.  Diet  of  Worms— Lutlier  condemned   -----         9 

1521.  League  acainsl  France    --------JO 

1522.  Isle  of  Rhodes  taken  by  Hie  Turks      -        -        -        -        "       Jj 

1523.  Conspiracy  of  the  Conslabin  Bourbon     -         -        -        -        ■  •» 
Battle  of  Bia/rrd.i.ta— Death  of  Bayard         "        "        *        "        In 

1525.  Rippe  of  Pavia— Francis  taken  prisoner-        -        -        -        ■  '* 

1527.  Holy  l.eacue.     Siege  of  Home     -         -        -        -        -        " '^' }  j 

IIL— 1532.  Henry  VIII.  divorces  Queen  Catharine  -        -        -        "  J5 

1534.  Assumes  the  title  of  Head  of  the  Church    '        '        '        '       \1 
1536.  Religious  houses  suppressed  """""""!? 

Anna  Bullen  beheaded  """""""       on 

IV.— 1,')29.  Diets  held  at  Spire  and  at  Augsburg        -         -        -        -        -20 

1535.  Expedition  against  Tunis    -""""""       ?i 
1530.  Invasion  of  France            -         -         -         -        -        -        "      oi  o2 

1538.  Treaty  of  JVicc.     Battle  of  £ss«A          -         -        -        .        "^'•g„ 

1541.  Expedition  against  Algiers      -        -        -        -        -        '      „'•  „ 

1512.  Battle  of  Cerwo/cs.     Treaty  of  Crespy         -        -         -        "^'''rl 

v.— 1517.     Change  of  religion  in  England         -        -        -        -        "        "27 
Battle  of  Pi7ikey  ---------28 

1552.  Duke  of  Somerset  beheaded    '"""**",, 

1553.  England  reunited  with  the  see  of  Rome      -"""*'' 
1550.     F'xcculinn  of  Archbishop  Cranmer  -        -        -        -         "33 

VI.— 1540.  Death  of  Luther.     War  in  Saxony       -        *        "        "        "       ^' 

1552.  I'eare  of  Pannau        -""""'"'*,? 

I.'i53.  Battle  at  Siverhausen  --"-■""""5 

1555.  Abdication  of  Charles  V.  -""'"'"'I 

1556.  Battle  of  .S/.  Quin/in.     Loss  of  Calais  "        "        *        *       ^ 

1558.  Death  of  Charles  V. ""li 

1559.  Treaty  of  CAa'ca«Cam6««i*        ------       411 

VIL—  Introduction  to  the  history  of  Norway    -         -         -        -        -45 

^of  Sweden  and  Denmark  -       45 

of  Russia,  Poland,  and  Prussia,  47,  48 

VlII— 1563.     Council  of  Trent  closed       -         - 4* 

1505.      M.ilta  besieged  .--------50 

1570.  Cyprus  taken  by  the  Turks  """"""       Xo 

1571.  Battle  of /.rpnnfo      ---"""*'",, 
IX.— l.'"''!).     <.'ivil  war  in  France     --""■"'"■'? 

1503.  Duke  of  fJuise  aHSiissinated     -""**""  ^5 

1.560.  insuireitioii  iti  Scotland       ""*"***?2 

1507.     Murder  of  Darnley 56 

1568.  Mary  Stuart  arrested  in  England        '        "        '        *        '       ^o 

Battle  of  Sr  Z^fFiw '''X« 

JSOO.     n(  Jarniu—n(  MonUonlour         '         "         '         *         *        iS 

1572.  Eve  of  St.  Bartholomew  -------59 


N.  B.  The  date  of  the  accession  and  death  of  each  Sovereign  miy  be  found  io 
the  preceding  Table,  and  is  not  repeated  here. 


INDEX.  497 

CHAPTERS     A.D.  PAOE 

X.— 1576.  Catholic  League  formed  by  the  Duke  of  Guise      -       -        -  CO 

1579.  Union  of  the  Seven  Provinces   ------  60 

1581.  Portugal  conquered  by  Philip  II.   -        -        -        -        -        -  61 

1584.  Antwerp  reduced  liy  the  Dulie  of  Parma  -        -        -        -  62 

1586.  Mary  Stuart  beheaded   ---.-..-67 

1588.  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  -        -        -        .        .        .  69 
Persecution  of  llie  English  Catholics     -----  70 

1589.  Assaosination  of  Henry  III.       ----..        70 
XI. — 15S9.     Accession  of  the  House  of  Bourbon       -----    71 

1590.  Battle  of /uri -...         71 

1593.     Dreux  talien.     Abjuration  of  Henry  IV.        -        .        .        -    72 

1597.  Battle  of  Tournhout  ----..--         72 

1598.  Treaty  of  Vervins  .-. 73 

XIL— 1000.     Battle  of  JVewport      --------         74 

1604.  Siege  of  Ostend      ---.--.--74 
1609.    Truce  concluded  at  the  Hague  -        -----         75 

E.xpulsion  of  the  Morescoes  from  Spain  -  -  -  -  75 
XIII.— 1594.     War  in  Ireland 76 

1599.  Essex  lord  lieutenant     --.----.76 
1601. returns — is  executed        ------         77 

Lord  Mountjoy  defeats  Tyrone      ------  77 

XIV. —  Associatidn  called  TUe  Evangelical  Union        -        -        -  79 

1609.  Opposed  by  the  Catholic  League    ------  79 

1610.  Assassination  of  Henry  IV.       .-----  80 
XV. — 1603.  Accession  of  the  house  of  Stuart  to  the  English  throne         -  80 

1605.  Gunpowder  Plot         -- 82 

1618.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  executed 85 

Persecution  of  the  English  Catholics  -  -  -  -  86 
XVI.— 1618.    War  in  Bohemia    ---------88 

The  Elector  Palatine  defeated  near  Prague  -  -  -  88 
1627.    La  Rochelle  besieged  by  Lewis  XIII.  and  Cardinal  Richelieu  90 

Situation  of  the  northern  kingdoms  -        -        -        -        -         91 

League  in  Saxony  under  Gustavus  Adolphus        -        -        -    93 

1632.     Battle  of  iaJzere 93 

1635.     Treaty  of  Prague  ---------94 

XVII. — 1628.  Petition  of  Right  \)re?.en\.eA.  Duke  of  Buckingham  murdered  95 
1638.     Covenant  formed  in  Scotland  ------     97 

1640.  ion^  Parliament.     Irish  Rebellion 97,98 

1641.  Earl  of  Stafford  beheaded      -------98 

1642.  Civil  War.     Battle  of  £d^e-/fi7Z        -----         9^ 

1644.  Ba.n\e  of  Marston  Moor  - --99 

1645.  Archbishop  Laud  executed.     Battle  of  JVaaeJj;  -        -        -99,100 

1647.  Charles  I,  imprisoned     --------  loi 

1649. tried  and  executed 102,  103 

XVIIL— 1636  Battle  of  Uidock    - 104 

1638.  Siege  of  Rhinfeld— of  Brisac 104,105 

1640.  Revolution  in  Portugal  --------  105 

1643.  Death  of  Richelieu  and  of  Lewis  XIII.      -        -        -        -106" 
1645.  Battle  of  Thahor     - 106 

1648.  Peace  of  IVestphalia  -        -        - 106 

XIX. — 1649.     Commonwealth  in  England.     War  in  Ireland       .        -        -  lO?" 

1650.  Death  of  Montrose.     Battle  at  Dunftar     -        -        -        108,109 

1651.  Battle  of  Worcester         --------  109 

War  with  the  Dutch — Blake  victorious    -        -        -        .       110 

1653.     Barehones'  Parliament  --------  111 

Cromwell  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  -  -  -  m 
XX.— 1651.     Civil  War  in  France 112 

1659.  Treaty  of  the  Pj/re7ifes 113 

1650.     Abdication  of  Christina  of  Sweden        -        -        -        -        -114 

1660.  Peace  of  O/ii-a    -        - 114 

XXL— 16tj0.     Restoration  of  Charles  II.      -        - 116 

1665.  Naval  victories  gained  over  the  Dutch.     Plague  in  Lon.  117, 118 

1666.  Fire  of  London       -        -        -        - 119 

1667.  Peace  of  firedffl.     Triple  Alliance 120 

Campaign  in  Flanders — Victories  of  Lewis  XIV.  -        -  121 

1368.     Feaceof  Mx-la-Chapelle    -------       121 

XXII.—  Test  Met  .---..--..  124 

Titus  Gates        ---------124 

Meal-tnb  Plot 125 

Rye-house  Plot 127.  IW 

XXI II.— 1669.    Candia  taken  by  the  Turks   -------  i2f 


498 

CBAPTEI<«.    A.D. 
1072. 

1674. 

1676. 
167'j. 
XXIV.— lf.81. 
16S.-?. 
1()S4. 
1685. 
lt)87. 
1686. 
XXV.-16S5. 
16!»7. 
1688. 

1690. 

XXVI.— 1690. 


1692. 


-txvii. 

1697. 

1699. 

-1700. 

1701. 

J.XVllI. 

-l-M. 

1706. 

XXIX. 

-1707. 
1708. 
1709. 

XXX. 

-1713. 
1714. 

1715. 


XXXI.-17I0. 
1711. 
171.1. 
1715. 
1718. 
1721. 
1725. 
XXX1I.-17I7. 
1718. 

1710. 
1725. 
1726. 


1735. 

17.19 

-1710. 

1711 


X.XXIII. 


1742. 
1743. 


INDEX. 

PAOK 

Diikc  of  York's  nnv«l  victory  over  Dp  Riiyter  -        -        I.IO 

Lewis  XIV.  inv.-idea  the  L'nited  Provinces       -     -         -         -  l:<0 
Friinchc  Conit/- conquered  by  him    -        -        .        .        .       l:<i 

Datlle  of  Senrffe     -         - \21 

Naviil  battle  of  .4ii^u«(a   ---....       i;j3 

Peace  of  Jf)meguen        -        -        .        -        .         -        .        -133 
Slrasbiire  taken  by  Lewis  XIV.         .....        134 

Siege  of  Vienna— relieved  by  Sobieski  -         .        -        -  135 

Liixeinbiirc  surrenders  to  Le\vi.s  XIV.     Genoa  bombarded     130 
Edict  of  Nantes  revoked  ---....        i3f 

Battle  of  Miihati    ----.....  yjn 

League  of  .lugsburg  .......        137 

Rebellion  and  execution  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth     .        .  138 
Koyal  edict  for  liberty  of  conscience  ....        139 

Invasion  of  England  by  the  Prince  of  Orange      .        .        -HO 
King  James  retires  to  France    ......        \\'l 

Battle  of  the    Ruyne        --.-....143 

Surrender  of  Limerick      .......       1 13 

Battles  of  S«a^ara(/a  ;ind  of  F/eunw      .         -         .         .         .114 
Belgrade  taken  by  llie  Turks     -.---.       1 15 
English  and  Dutch  lleet  defeated  by  the  French  .        -        -  145 
Mastiacre  in  the  vale  nf  Glencoe        .....       146 

Naval  combat  off  La  Ilogut  .......  146 

Battle  of  ■N'etrwinden  -        -         .....        j  47 

Treaty  of  Hysicick  -        -        -        .        .        .         .        .148 

Battio  of  Zeiila.     Peace  of  Carlawili        ....        148 

Tonningen  besieped  by  the  King  of  Denmark       -         -         -  150 
Copenhagen  bombarded  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden        -       150 
Philip  V.  crowned  at  Madrid         ......  151 

Grand  Alliance  signed        .......        151 

Battle  of  Blenheim  ------..  155 

Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English  under  Admiral  Rooke      .       155 
Battle  of  Katnilie.i  -.--.....   l.-iO 

Battles  of  Glisgaic,  PuUaush,  and  JVarva  -        -         156,  157 

Union  of  Enj;land  and  Scotland    ------   i^ 

Battle  of  Jihnania      ........        159 

of  OuUenarile        ........   15H 

of  Malplaquet  .......        ]co 

of  Pullowa  -....-...  160 

Peace  of  Ulrecht         ........        \^s<^ 

Treaty  of  Radstadt  .......     102,  1^3 

Accfssion  of  the  house  of  Hanover  to  the  English  throne  '  156 
Character  of  Lewis  XIV.     Science  and  literature        -   Itil— 166 

Jansenism lOj^  105 

In.xurrectlon  in  Scotland  under  the  Earl  of  Marr  -         -  167 

Prince  Jamcsi  landed  in  Scotland— his  troops  defeated      .        167 
Triumph  of  Peter  the  Great  -.-....  169 

Peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey  .....        170 

Victories  of  the  c/.ar  in  KinlanrI    .         -         .         .         .         .171 

Wirtiiiar  and  Stralsiind  surrender      -         .         -        .        .        173 
Sieg.' of  >V«Jcric</ia/i  and  death  of  Charles  XII.  -         .        -   173 
Peace  between  RuHsia  and  .Sweden  ....        174 

Accession  of  Catherine  I.       .......   174 

Victory  over  ilnr  Turks  at  Pelertearadin  and  siege  cf  Belgrade  175 
Peace  of  Pofsarotcitz      -----,..  175 

Quadruple  Alliance    ........        175 

Rise  of  ilie  .South  Sea  scheme       ......  nfl 

Treaty  of  f'unnn       ........        177 

of  Hanover  .-.--...   177 

Siege  of  Ph>ll>pfh,tTg—1i<-!i\\\  of  the  Duke  of  Berwick     -       178 
Peace  between  France  and  Germany    -        -         .         .         .   179 
f)czakiiw  laki'n  by  Russia  ......        179 

Treaty  between  (;erinany  and  Turkey,  at  fie^/^Tiufs      -         -180 
Death  of  Emperor  Clias.  VI.     War  fur  Austrian  succesiion    180 
Baltli!  of  J/.z/wir:— Reduction  of  Silesia       ...    18J,  182 
Rcvoluli>>n  in  Russia  .......        \^% 

Siege  of  Pragiie      ---......    (83 

Batilc  <if  V-.aflaw       ........        \m 

Treaty  of  Hrrflau  -----....   1S5 

Battle  of  Dmingen     ........        |H7 

Treaty  of  Wgrmt j^ 


SIlAPTERa.   A.D. 

1745. 

1746. 
XXXIV  —1746. 

1747. 
1748. 
XXXV  -1751. 
1735. 
1752. 

1756. 

1757. 

XXXVI.— 1758. 
1759. 


1760. 


XXXVII.— 


1763. 
XXXVIII.-1764. 

1768. 

1772. 
XXXIX.— 1773. 

1772. 

1T75. 
1776. 

1780. 

1782. 

1784. 
XL.- -1779. 

1783. 

1787. 


1791. 
XLI.— 1789. 


1790. 
1791. 


1792. 


1793 

XLI!.- 1792 

1793 


1794. 
179& 


INDEX.  499 

PAtiC 

Treaty  of  Frankfort  ..--...-190 
Datlle  of  Fonlenuy     -        .         ......        191 

of  Preston  Pans  --....--193 

of  Cidloden 191 

Campaign  in  the  Netherlands  -...-.  195 
Battle  of  St.  Laiaro    -----...196 

of  Vol.     Siege  of  Bergen-op-Zoom   ....  1!<6 

Treaty  of  j3ii-/a-CAap«He  .--...        197 

New  Style  introduced  into  England      -        .        -        -        -  198 
Earthquake  at  Lisbon        -------        198 

War  in  India — Arcot  taken  by  Mr.  Clive      -        -        .        -200 
Fort-William  surrendered  to  Surajab  Dowlah         -        -       201 
Jansenism  condemned  ----.--.  202 

The  Jesuits  expelled  from  France,  (1764)  -        .        -       203 

King  of  Prussia  enters  Dresden    ------  204 

Convention  of  Closter-seven      ......       205 

Calcutta  and  Chandernagore  reduced  -----  205 

Minden  and  Embden  conquered        -----       206 

Louisburg,  Fort  Lewis,  in  America,  and  Goree,  in  Africa, 

reduced  ----..----206 
Battle  of  Minden    --.-.----206 

of  Cunnersdorf        .......       207 

Conquest  of  Quebec,  by  General  Wolfe        -        -        .    207,  203 
Berlin,  Leipzig,  Torgaw,  &c.,  taken  by  the  Imperialists  -       208 
Pondicherry  taken  by  England      ------  209 

Family  Compact-         ........        210 

Silesia  conquered  by  Prussia        .-.---  212 
Battle  of  Freyburg     --..----212 

Havana  and  the  Philippines  taken  by  England    .        -        -  212 
Treaties  of  Paris  and  Huberlsbiirg    -----       213 

Warsaw  invested  by  the  army  of  Catherine  II.   -        -        -  214 
War  between  Russia  and  Turkey    -----       214 

First  partition  of  Polar.d       -------  215 

Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  -  -  .  215 — 217 
Revolution  in  Sweden  -        .----.-  217 

in  Denmark     -------       218 

War  with  the  American  Colonies  -----  218 

Boston  bombarded — thirteen  United  States  fficoiince  their 

allegiance  to  the  British  crown  -----  219 

Riots  in  London  ..-..---       220 

Naval  victory  gained  by  Edmund  Rodney  -  .  -  .  222 
The  Spaniards  defeated  at  Gibraltar  -        -        -        .       222 

Peace  proclaimed  between  England  and  America        -        -  223 

Treaty  of  Teschen 224 

The  Crimea  and  part  of  the  Kuban  conquered  by  Russia    -  224 
Peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey  -----       225 

Pius  VI.  visits  Vienna  --------  226 

War  against  Russia,  by  Sweden  and  Turkey  -        -        -       228 
Battle  of  Rimnik—Ocza.kov  and  Tutukay  captured  by  Russia  229 
Ismail  taken  by  assault    -------       229 

Belgrade  taken  by  Marshal  Laudohn    -----  229 

Peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey  -----       230 

Meeting  of  the  States-General  at  Versailles         -        .        -230 
The  National  Assembly  constituted,  June  17   -        -        -       232 
The  Bastile  carried  by  storm,  July  14  -        -        -        -        -  233 

Meeting  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  -----       236 

Treaty  of  Piliiitz 237 

Constitution  accepted— Legislative  Assembly  -        -        -       238 
10th  of  August— 2d  of  September  -        -        -        -    238,  239 

Invasion  of  France— Retreat  of  the  Prussians  -        -       241 

Battle  of  Jcmappe  ---------  242 

National  Convention  succeeds  the  Legislative  Assembly      242 
Execution  of  Lewis  XVI.      .---..-  2-13 
Gustavus  HI.  of  Sweden  assassinated      -        .        .        -       244 
France  declared  war  against  England  -        -        -        .  245 

Insurrection  in  La  Vendee.     Battle  of  J^Teerwinden  -        •       245 
French  fleet  defeated  by  Earl  Howe      -----  246 

Execution  of  Marie  Antoinette,  of  France  ...  246 
Toulon  bombarded         -.--....  247 

Battle  of  Fleurits 250 

Prince  of  Orange  quits  Holland    -         -        -        ...  251 


600  INDEX. 

CHAPTERS.    AD.  FAOB 

1795.  Treaty  of  BatU.  Directory  eslaWished  .  -  -  251,  2.Vi 
Kvpcclitlon  of  Uuiliurnn     -.-.-..        253 

XLIII.— roe.     Second  piirtilion  of  Pulanil  2:')3 

Conciucsts  in  I'lthju  by  lliiasia  -----        25t 

1797.     Naval  victory  off  Cape  S(.  finrenf,  hy  Sir  J    Jervis      -         -256 

at  Caiiiperiloicn,  by  Ailniiriil  Diinc.in  -        250 

XLIV. — 1796.     Canipnicn  in  Italy,  under  Bonaparte  ;  battle  of  Montenotte  -  257 

llattle  of  Lodt 258 

of  liiivrrido  and  Creole        ------  259 

1797.  Treaty  of  r,>lentino 259 

of  Campo  Formio        -------  200 

Switzerland  revoliitioiii/.ed  and  called  Helvetic  Republic       2(!1 

1798.  Insurrection  in  Ireland,  battle  of  ymrgar  Jlill       .        -        -   261 

Congress  of  Hadstadl -        -        202 

French  enter  Home,  and  take  the  Pope  prisoner  -  -  -  263 
Bonaparte  lakes  Malta  and  Alexandria  -  -  -  •  264 
defeated  by  Admiral  Nelson  in  the  battle  of  the 

JVile 264 

1799.  .Seringapatam  taken  by  8lorni,  Tippoo  slain  -  -  -265 
Naples  and  Sardinia  subdued  by  the  French  -  -  -  206 
Russians  and  .\uslrians  victorious  in  Italy  -         -         -  -  267 

1800.  Union  of  EnRland  and  Ireland 2tW 

1799.  Directory  overturni'd—Uatlle  of  JVuci  -         .        -        .         -209 

1800.  Uiiitles  of  Montebello  and  Marengo    -----        270 

1801.  Treaty  of  LuncvtUe 271 

Battle  of  Cnpevhanen  --..--.  271 
of  jJAuiifcir  or  Alexandria    ------  272 

1602.     Treaty  of  ./JmicTti 273 

XLV. —  Concordat  between  France  and  the  Pope      -        -        -        -  271 

Counler-revolntion  in  Swif/.erlanl  -----  277 
Declaration  of  war  against  France  by  England  -  -  -279 
Hanover  taken  by  the  French   ------       2«0 

Hattle  of  jJ*».i/» 281 

Duke  d'Enghien  CJteciited  ------       283 

Bonaparte  crowned  empi'ror  ------  2*^5 

Meinuiingen  and  Ulin  surrender  to  the  French  -        -       291 

Battle  of  JJnsterlUz  --------  iifi 

of  Trafatrrar -         -        2iH 

Treaty  of  Pn-.-burg- 295 

Death  of  Rit'lit  lion.  William  Pitt 296 

Battle  of. Vui</..,  in  Calabria 298 

(Confederation  of  the  Rhine       ------        290 

Death  of  Right  Hon.  C.  J.  Fojl      - .'tOI 

Battle  of  Jena ...-301 

1805.     Cape  of  Good  Hope  Burreiwlered  to  the  English    -        -        -  :((il 

1807.  Baltics  of  Kv/fiu  and  of  JPrieJ/and  -  -  -  -  306,3(17 
Treaty  of  Tihit 307 

XLVUl.—  Copenbagcri  bombarded  and  the  Danish  fleet  surrendered       310 

War  between  France  and  Portugal— The  royal  family  emi- 
grate to  Brazil         -.--.--.        311 

1808.  The  French  enter  Rome 315 

Ab.  of  Chag.  IV  and  Ferd.  VII.— Massacre  in  Madrid  318—320 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  King  of  .''pain — Dupont  surrenders  with 

his  army  to  (.'astanos,  ami  llie  French  fleet  to  Morla       320,  .321 

Murat,  Klnc  of  Napli-8 321 

Battles  of /fo/eia  and  fimeii-n     ------  323 

1809. of  Curunnu  and  death  of  Sir  J.  Moora      -        -        -  .T.i8 

Insurrection  in  Turkey      -------  .329 

Rev(dution  In  .Sweden  --------  '.i'M) 

Battle  of  Tiilavera      --------  331 

of  yiipern  an<\  Ettlin/r           ------  331 

of  lya/frdm  and  Znaijm    ------  335 

Pence  of  Vienna      ---------  3.35 

British  expedition  to  the  island  of  Walchcrcn           -        -  336 
The  UU'n  of  .Martlnico,  Bourbon,  Zante,  &c.,  and  ttie  colony 

of  Ciyenne,  taken  by  Britain          -----  337 

Rome  annexed  to  the  Fren<h  empire     -----  3.17 

Pope  Pius  VII.  conducted  to  Savona         -         -         -         -  310 

XI. IX. —              Successes  of  the  l"reiicli  in  Spain           -----  3)2 

of  .Masxena,  In  I'uringal,  till  bis  retreat  -        -  313 

1810.     Conquesta  by  the  Btitiah,  in  the  east    -        -        .        .         -  314 


XLVI 

-1803, 

1804. 

1805 

1806 

SLVIl. 

— 

INDEX.  501 

CHArrERa.   A.D.  ,  PAOB 

1813.  Marriage  of  Napnieon  with  M.  Louisa  of  Austria  -  -  345 
Election  of  Gen.  Bcrnadolte  as  Crown-prince  of  Sweden  -  346 
Prince  of  Wales  declared  regent       .        -        -        .        -       347 

B-dUleofjSlbuera ...349 

of  Barossa        -..--.--       350 

Right  lion.  Mr.  Percival  shot        .....        -  3S6 

Ciudad  Rodrigo  taken  by  Lord  Wellington       ...       358 

Lord  Wellington  takes  Badajoz  by  storm      ....  358 

L. —  Battle  of  Salamanca  --------       358 

, oi  Smolensk  a.nA  Borodino    ......  363 

The  French  enter  Moscow         ---...       364 
Battle  of  £or!so7i    .........  366 

of  the  Beresina        ...--..       367 

Ul.—  War  between  England  and  the  United  States      -       -        -  369 

1813.     Concordat  of  Fontainebleau      ......       373 

Battle  of  ia(ze?i     -.-.-.--.  376 

of  Dresden       --------       377 

oi  Leipzig     ---------  378 

Leipzig  carried  by  assault  ......       379 

Battle  of  ri^oria,  June  21st  -        -        -        -        -        -        -381 

Pampeluna  surrendered  to  Don  Carlos  d'Espana     -        -       362 
Counter-revolution  in  Holland      -.-.--  383 

LIL— 1814.     Tiesity  of  Kiel 385 

Battles  of  Champ-Hubert  and  Montmirail      -        -        -        .385 
Congress  of  Chatillon        ...-..-       386 
Napoleon  defeated  before  Laon     ......  387 

Battle  of  Orlhes  ........388 

ofArcis 389 

The  allies  enter  Paris,  March  31st 391 

Napoleon  abdicates  the  throne  of  France      -        -        -        -  395 

Battle  of  Toulouse       --------       Z°n 

Genoa  capitulates  to  Lord  W.  Bentinck        -        -        -        -  397 

Pius  VIl.  returns  to  Rome         ......       398 

Lewis  XVni.  enters  Paris,  May  3d     -        -        -        -        -    401 

'  Ferdinand  VIl.  is  re.<!tored  to  his  dominions      -        -        -       401 

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Paris    ....  402 

Union  of  Norway  and  Sweden  .        -        .        -        .       402 

Congress  of  Vienna  installed         ......  405 

Attack  upon  the  city  of  Washington         ....       406 

Treaty  of  Ghent  between  England  and  the  United  States    -  406 

UII.— 1S15.     Napoleon  returns  to  France       ..-.--       407 

Lewis  XVIII.  retires  to  Lisle         -        -        -        -        -        -  410 

C/ia»«p  de  JUai,  June  1st      -..----       411 

Murat  defeated  near  Tolentino,  and  deposed  -  -  -413 
Battle  of  Q_ualre  Bras         -        -        -        -        -         -        -414 

ofZ-J^ni,  June  IGth      -.---..  414 

of  IVaterloo,  June  18th 415 

Paris  invested  by  the  allies,  capitulates,  Ju!y  3d  -        -        -  419 

surrendered  to  the  British  army,  July  6th        -        .       420 

Lewis  XVIII.  re-entered  Paris  on  the  8th  July  ...  420 
Napoleon  embarked  for  St.  Helena,  August  5th  -  -  420 
Joachim  Murat  shot  in  the  Neapolitan  territory  -  -  -  421 
Colonel  Labedoyere  and  Marshal  Ney  tried  and  executed  423 
King  of  Candy,  in  Ceylon,  subjected  to  the  British  crown  -  424 
Treaty  of  Vienna,  signed  November  20th,  1815  -        .       424 

LIV.— 1816.     Debt  of  England ^25 

Kiots  in  England *^° 

War  -n-ith  Barbary  States 42b 

England  enters  Holy  Alliance 42« 

1818.     Treaty  for  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 42a 

Congress  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle— Allies  leave  France      -        -        429 

1820.     Revolt  of  Naples  and  Piedmont— suppressed  by  Austria      -    4ai 

Revolt  in  Spain— suppressed  by  France     -        -        -        -        i-ii 

Assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Berry 4*J 

182^  John  Vr.  returns  to  Portugal  -  -  -  "  /  , "  Tii 
Brazil  declared  independent  under  the  Emperor  Pedro  1.  -  4.« 
Accession  of  George  IV.— Trial  of  the  Queen  ■  "  "  fx? 
Cato  street  plot       ---------   4-30 

Death  of  Napoleon ^    -        "        4^ 

Succession  of  Popes  from  Pius  VII.  to  Gregoi-y  XVI.  -  •  4^S 
Revolt  of  Orsece— massacre  of  Scio  -----       *3» 


60- 


INDEX, 


CBAprrKs. 


A.    D. 

1527. 
1829. 

1S30. 


1&33. 

ISSC. 
1839. 


1843. 

1830-40. 

LV.-1S45. 
1S4S. 


1849. 
1843. 


ISM. 
1&4S. 


JA'I.— 1S.W. 
1854. 

1855. 
1856. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 


EncHsh  wnrs  In  India 44J 

Iiiurvontioii  of  the  allies  In  Greece— Battle  of  JV.ifrtriix 

>>ct  Oth 4«9 

JesiiitNexpclloil  from  Franco ■141 

Don  Mij,'iiel,  liopcnt  ami  king  cupelled  by  Don  Pedro       -       443 

Cnlholic  einanciimtion  act  past 4IH 

J-'rencti  uxko  Algiers 444 

C'liarliiB  X.  pnblislios  lils  ordinances.    July   -         -        .        .  4.^,'i 

Tlie  tbrco  days'  llij,'lit  of  tiie  kind 4-16 

Dukt'of  Uiliansbocoines  Louis  I'tiilippe,  King  of  the  French  447 
lievoll  of  Bolgiuin— August  25,  Siege  of  Antwerp— Leopold 

,  K1"S.' 448 

Ineffectual  revolution  In  Poland,  Nov.  29      -        -        -        -  449 
Persecution  of  tlie  United  Greek  Cutliolics  In  Poland       -       4.')0 

Itoinau  Catholics  in  Prussia    -        -        -  4,',i 

Civil  war  In  Spain 4,')! 

KeinriM  bill  and  other  acts  in  England   •        ■        ■        .        .  453 
Kobellion  in  (Canada    -----...       4,%j 

War  with  .Mf^ilianlstan 4.',4 

Cliina 4^ 

Scotch  free  kirk 455 

Kepeal  movement  In  Ireland i^S 

AH'airs  of  France    .........  4;,q 

Tlio  Uepents  in  Spain  .......       4;,7 

lievoluiion  in  Switzerland      .......  455 

National  inmeiiicnt  In  Germany  and  Italy        ...       459 

Kevolt  (if  Sicily 400 

Overthrow  of  Louis  Philippe — Republic  In  Franco  -        .       4i;o 
Holstein  war — Denmark  and  Germany  ....  400 

lieviilta  in  Germany    ........       4f,Q 

German  Empire  restored         .......  4(;j 

Kevolt  of  Loinbardy,  supported  by  Sardinia     -        -        .       403 
Defeat  of  Cliarles  Albert         .......  45JJ 

Kevolt  of  Hun},':iry— of  Vienna  -        ...  .       4ftj 

Ku.sfiian  intervention  In  Iliincary.     End  of  the  war      -        -  4C,.l 
Second  Lombard  war — (lel'e:it  and  abdication  of  Ch.  Albert      465 
Kevolt  of  the  lied-repub!ic«ns  ot  Paris  ...        .4(5,') 

Death  of  the  Arclibisliop — 15lo<>dy  engagements.    June   -      4C6 
Louis  Napoleon  electeil  I*ru.s|i|ent  .....  4^7 

Flleht  of  Plus  IX.  from  liome 4fi7 

Franc*;  resolves  to  rentore  the  Pope — successful  expedition  -  46S 
Attempt  at  revolution  in  Cuba  .......        4(53 

Ireland  ......  403 

(Catholic  hierarchy  established  in  England         -        .        -       46s 
New  penal  laws       .........  4c,() 

EiiKll.sh  operation.s  at  Cape  of  Gootl  1Io|k;  and  in  India  -  4(19 
Close  of  the  troubles  In  Germany  ....         -  4r,'i 

Thr  I'^ipipir.'  nslori-d  in  l''raiice  470 

Katturution  ol  aUtolutu  power  In  Europe  ....  47Q 
Kii^^iia  (Iccl.'ircs  war  at,'iiiii'l  'I'lirkry  ....  471 
EiiL'land  and  Fraiiri;  Huitimrt  Turkey  ...        .471 

Battle  of  the  .-!///((/,  S<-|it. '-"O 47a 

of  Ilulnclain,  Oet.  25-C 472 

of  liikiriiHitin.'Sa\.T) 473 

Definition  of  the  Immacniate  Conception  by  Pope  Pius 

IX..  Dec.  8 478 

Battleof  Malakoir.  Sent.  5 47.3 

Concordat  with  Austria,  Anp.  IS 473 

Treaty  rjf  parlw  b'^twuen  Entrland,  France,  and  RuPBla, 

IMaroli  .30 473 

War  between  Knt'land  and  China       ....       .473 

between  Er.<.'laiid  anrl  Persia 474 

Indian  mutiny  begins  at  Mecrut,  Way  10 474 

Liif  know  rnlleved,  Sept.  25 47.5 

Sir  H.  UoHe  defeats  Tantia  Topee,  April  1         -        .        .475 

Mutiny  dippressi'd.  Dee. 475 

Treaty  ortienlMn  between  Knpland  and  Clilna,  Jnne  26  475 
^\  ar  in  Italy  l)e;,'un  by  Auhtria,  Sardinia  being  eupported 

bv  Krancf' 475 

Battle  of  ilonUbello,  May  20 476 


INDEX. 

•HAPTKiai.      A     D.  PAGE 

1«559.    Battle  of  Mnocnta 476 

of  .S'oy'e?'i/io,  June  25 476 

Austria  gives  up  Lombardy  by  treaty  of  Villafranca, 
July  11 476 

English  repulsed  at  Pciho,  China  -  ...  480 
Spanieh  war  with  Morocco 487 

1860.  Garibaldi  invades  Sicily,  May  10         -       -       -       -      477 

lands  in  Italy,  Aug.  19 477 

enter?  Naples,  Sept.  8 477 

Legations  overrun  and  conquered  by  Cialdini  -  -  477 
Victor  Emmanuel  annexes  the  Duchiesi,  Legations, 

Naples,  and  Sicily,  Dec.  26 477 

Pekiu  taken  by  French  and  English,  Oct.  12    -       -      480 

1861.  Gaeta  surrenders  to  Cialdini,  Feb.  13  -  -  -  -  478 
Vera  Cruz  occupied  by  French,  English,  and  Spaniards  487 

1862.  Greeks  expel  Otho,  and  choose  George  of  Denmark    -  479 

1864.  Au^tro-Prussian  army  invades  Holstein  -  -  .  485 
Danes  defeated  at  Missunde,  Alsen  -  -  .  .  485 
Denmark  3iirrenders  Holstein,  Sleswig,  and  Lauenbnrg  485 

Treaty  of  Vienna.  Oct.  .SO 485 

Chincha  Islands,  Peru,  seized  by  Spain     ...      488 

1865.  Outbreak  in  Jamaica,  Oct. 482 

1866.  Cretans  revolt  against  Turkey  -  -  -  .  .  479 
Austria  attacked  by  Prussia  and  Italy    ....  486 

defeats  Italians  at  Custozza    ....      486 

at  Lissa      .....  486 

Prussia  overruns  Northern  Germany  ....  485 
defeats  Austuia  at  Sadowa  ......  486 

1867.  French  troops  leave  Mexico,  March  ...  -  488 
Maximilian,  emperor  of  Mexico,  shot  at  Queretaro, 

.June  19 488 

Atlantic  cable  laid,  July  27 484 

Reform  bill  passed  in  England,  Aug.  15  -  -  -  481 
Garibaldi  invades  States  of  the  Pope  ....  479 
BsLMXeot  Monte  Hotondo,  Oct. 'io         -       -       -       -      479 

ot  Mentana,  and  defeat  of  invaders,  Nov.  4        -  479 

Fenian  troubles  in  Ireland,  England,  and  Canada  -  482 
England  makes  war  on  Abyssinia 48-3 

1868.  Magdala  taken,  and  Theodore  killed,  April  13  -  -  484 
Revolution  in  Spain — Isabella  II.  deposed    -       .       -  488 

Novaliches  defeated,  Sept.  29 489 

Convention  for  Alabama  clainrr ,  Nov.  10        -       -       -  482 

1869.  Irish  church  disestablished 482 

Cuban  war  ----  .  ...  489 

Council  of  the  Vatican,  Dec.  9  -      -       -       -      479 


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Keeiter  of  the  Lazaretto.    A  Tale 40 

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King's  Daughters.    An  Allegory 7,5 

Life  and  Lfgends  of  St.  Patrick 1  00 

Life  of  St.  Mani  of  Egypt 60 

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